Notes to GEOF346

Tidal Dynamics and Sea Level Variations

Fall 2020

Helge Drange
Geophysical Institute, University of Bergen
[email protected]

Mainly off-hour typing – so give a word regarding errors, inconsistencies, etc...

Also give a word in case of specific requests (derivations, unclear issues),
and I will try to update the notes accordingly.

The note will be regularly updated – so keep printing at a minimum...

The notation (closely) follows that used in the text book:

Sea-Level Science by D. Pugh and P. Woodworth, Cambridge, 2014
(https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139235778)

Note:
• Symbols/expressions in red are, to the best of the author’s knowledge, cor-
rections to typos in the text book.
• For simplicity, the notation
(613)
sin 2 a = 2 sin a cos a

implies that, in this case, equation (613) has been adopted in the displayed
expression.
• Norwegian word/phrases are given in quotation marks in footnotes.
• A (far from) complete Norwegian dictionary is provided in appendix I.
• ...and the index section is only slowly being updated.
• Last, but not least: Comments to the compendium are always appreciated!

December 4, 2020

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Contents

I Tides, basic astronomical periods and frequencies 7

1 Definition of the tides 7

2 Solar periods and frequencies 7

3 Lunar periods and frequencies 8

II Equilibrium theory and derivations thereof 10

4 Equilibrium theory, direct method 10
4.1 Geometry of the Earth-Moon system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.2 Centre of mass of the Earth-Moon system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.3 Newton’s law of universal gravitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.4 Gravitational forces and accelerations in the Earth-Moon system . . . . . . . . . 12
4.5 Earth’s movement around the Earth-Moon centre of mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.6 A (somewhat complicating) side note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.7 Net gravity on the Earth caused by the Moon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.8 Introducing the zenith angle and simplifying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.9 Radial and tangential components of the tidal acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.9.1 Geometric approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.9.2 Using the definition of the dot and cross products . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.9.3 The radial component can be ignored; the tangential component is important 18
4.10 Surface elevation caused by the Moon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.10.1 Determining the integration constant for the Equilibrium Tide surface el-
evation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

5 The combined surface elevation caused by the Moon and the Sun 21
5.1 Amplitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.2 Relative contribution from the Sun and the Solar planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.3 Magnitude of the equilibrium tide vs the zenith angle ϕ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

6 Introducing latitude, hour and declination angles 24

6.1 The three leading lunar tidal components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.2 The Equilibrium Tide caused by the Moon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.3 Properties of the three leading lunar components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.3.1 Declination or nodal component, ζ0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.3.2 Diurnal component, ζ1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.3.3 Semi-diurnal component, ζ2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

7 Sidereal and synodic periods 29

7.1 The Moon’s sidereal and synodic monthly periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.2 The synodic lunar day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7.3 The Earth’s daily sidereal period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
7.4 Relationship between the Earth’s sidereal day and the Moon’s synodic day . . . 34
7.5 Key periods and frequencies for the Moon-Earth-Sun system . . . . . . . . . . . 34

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 7.6 The lunar and solar hour angles expressed by the sidereal time . . . . . . . . . . 35

8 Decomposing the solar and lunar tides into a series of simple harmonic con-
stituents 38
8.1 Geometry of the Earth-Sun system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
8.1.1 Angular speed of the Earth and the Sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
8.1.2 Expressing the declination factor in ζ1,2 as sin ds . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
8.1.3 Expressing ζ1 in terms of simple harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
8.1.4 Expressing ζ2 in terms of simple harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
8.1.5 The lunar fortnightly and solar annual and semi-annual tidal constituents 43
8.2 Sun’s leading semi-diurnal and diurnal tidal constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
8.3 Moon’s leading semi-diurnal and diurnal tidal constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
8.4 Doodson’s system for labelling tidal constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
8.5 Tidal types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

9 The spring/neap tide 47

9.1 Derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
9.1.1 Amplitude and range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
9.1.2 Timing of maximum amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
9.1.3 Age of the tide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
9.1.4 A note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
9.2 Resonance between the major diurnal constituents K1 , O1 , P1 . . . . . . . . . . 52

10 Tidal forcing in the momentum equation 53

11 Laplace’s Tidal Equations 54

12 The tidal force expressed in terms of the tidal potential 55

12.1 The potential of a conservative force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
12.2 Defining the tidal potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
12.2.1 Gradient of the factor q/q 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
12.2.2 Gradient of the factor R/R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
12.2.3 Resulting tidal potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
12.3 Tidal potential expressed in terms of the zenith angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
12.3.1 Radial and tangential tidal forces per unit mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

13 Introducing the tidal potential in the primitive momentum equations 59

14 Including the effect of elliptic orbits 60

14.1 The Sun-Earth system1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
14.2 Kepler’s second law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
14.3 Kepler’s first law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
14.4 Kepler’s third law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
14.5 Mean anomaly E0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
14.6 Real vs mean length of the radius vector, and Kepler’s equation . . . . . . . . . . 65
14.6.1 Rs vs Rs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
1 Mainly based on R. Fitzpatrick (2012): An Introduction to Celestial Mechanics https://doi.org/10.1017/

CBO9781139152310, M. Hendershott (2005): Lecture 1: Introduction to ocean tides https://www.whoi.edu/cms/

files/lecture01_21351.pdf, and Murray & Dermott (1999), Solar System Dynamics, Chap. 2. https://doi.
org/10.1017/CBO9781139174817

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 14.6.2 Kepler’s equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
14.6.3 Solving Kepler’s equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
14.6.4 Rs /Rs expressed by means of E0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
14.6.5 Introducing the ecliptic longitude and the longitude of perihelion . . . . . 69
14.7 Right Ascension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
14.8 Equation of time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
14.8.1 Equation of center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
14.8.2 Longitudinal differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
14.8.3 Equation of time, final expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
14.8.4 Equation of time, graphical representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

III Tidal harmonic analysis 76

15 Background 76

16 Numerical solution, sea surface height variations 78

16.1 Extraction of the M2 tide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
16.2 Note 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
16.3 Note 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
16.4 Extraction of the S2 tide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
16.5 Extraction of the N2 tide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
16.6 Extraction of the K2 tide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
16.7 Extraction of the O1 tide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
16.8 Extraction of the K1 tide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
16.9 Note 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
16.10Note 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

17 Tidal current analysis 82

17.1 Direction of flow θ and current speed q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
17.2 Semi-major and semi-minor axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
17.3 Time of maximum current speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
17.4 Direction of maximum current speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
17.5 Direction of rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

IV Tidal related wave dynamics 88

18 The shallow water equations 88
18.1 Starting point and configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
18.2 The continuity equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
18.3 The momentum equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
18.4 The final set of equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

19 Gravity waves 92
19.1 One-dimensional (surface) gravity waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
19.1.1 Typical wavelengths for tidal waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
19.2 One-dimensional gravity waves in a closed channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
19.3 One-dimensional gravity waves in a semi-closed channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
19.3.1 Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

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20 Sverdrup waves and other related waves 97
20.1 Derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
20.2 Case ω = 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
20.3 Case ω 2 = f 2 + c20 kh2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
20.3.1 The resulting wave motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
20.3.2 Approximate length of the tidal axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
20.4 Case f = 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
20.5 Case k 2  f 2 /(gD) (short waves) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
20.6 Case k 2  f 2 /(gD) (long waves) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
20.7 Interaction between tidal ellipses and internal oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

V Appendix 106
A Some key parameters of the Earth, Moon, Sun system 106
A.1 Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
A.2 Length and distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

B Spherical coordinates 107

B.1 Two commonly used spherical coordinate systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
B.2 Volume and surface elements in spherical coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
B.2.1 Spherical volume elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
B.2.2 Spherical surface elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
B.2.3 Relationship with the Earth-Moon system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
B.2.4 Gradient operator in spherical coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

C The three lunar tidal components 110

D Elliptic geometry2 111

D.1 Cartesian coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
D.2 Semilatus rectum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
D.3 The y -value of an ellipse relative to the reference circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
D.4 Polar coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

E Miscellaneous notes 115

E.1 Including variations in the lunar distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
E.2 High and low water times and heights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
E.2.1 High water times and heights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
E.2.2 Low water times and heights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
E.2.3 Temporal average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
E.3 Polar tide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

F Some wave characteristics 120

F.1 Properties of waves in one spatial dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
F.1.1 Spatial variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
F.1.2 Spatial-temporal variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
F.1.3 Wave number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
F.1.4 Other definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
2 Mainly based on the excellent treatise by M. Capderou (2014): Handbook of Satellite Orbits. From Kepler to

GPS, ISBN 978-3-319-03415-7, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-03416-4, Springer International Publishing Switzerland.

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 F.2 Two-dimensional waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
F.3 Complex notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
F.4 Dispersion relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
F.4.1 Non-dispersive waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
F.4.2 Dispersive waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
F.5 Group speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
F.5.1 Derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

G Resources 125

H Formulas and identities 126

H.1 Binominal theorem for rational exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
H.2 Some trigonometric identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

I Norwegian dictionary 129

J Acknowledgement 133

K Index 134

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Part I

Tides, basic astronomical periods and

frequencies
1 Definition of the tides
Tides can be defined as (Gregory et al. (2019), Surv. Geophys., 40, 1251–1289):
Periodic motions within the ocean, atmosphere and solid Earth due to the rotation
of the Earth and its motion relative to the moon and sun. Ocean tides cause the sea
surface to rise and fall.
From the above, the astronomical configuration – combined with the rotation of the Earth around
it’s rotation axis – is of key importance in understanding the tides. The following sections give
a schematic overview of the Earth-Moon-Sun system. For further explanations and detailed
derivations, see e.g. Chap. 3 in the textbook or Sec. 7 below.

2 Solar periods and frequencies

Figure 1: Schematic overview of the Earth-Sun system from a northernly4 , tilted view. Peri-
ods ( Ti ) are expressed in hours, days or years; the associated frequencies are in deg per time
unit ( ωi = 360◦ /Ti ) or radians per time unit ( ωi = 2π/Ti ), where i denotes the different
periods/frequencies.

7
3 Lunar periods and frequencies

Figure 2: As Fig. 3, but including the Moon. In addition to the lunar synodic monthly period,
the lunar sidereal month with a period of 27.3217 mean solar days are denoted ω2 , σ2 . The
period of the spring/neap tide – of 14.76 days – are derived in Sec. 9.

8
 The Sun’s path on
the Earth's sky

Decending
node

Earth tic
lip
Ec
23.4 o

o
~5

1 yr
18.6
T=
Ascending
node
t
rbi
ro 18.61 yr is the
na
Lu Regression of the Moon’s
nodes period ω5, σ5

Figure 3: Schematic overview of the regression of the Moon’s nodes with a period of 18.61 yr.
The ecliptic is the mean plane of the apparent path in the Earth’s sky that the Sun follows over
the course of one year, presently with an angle about 23.4◦ relative to the Earth’s equatorial
plane. The Moon’s path is tilted an additional 5◦ relative to the Ecliptic.

9
Part II

Equilibrium theory and derivations

thereof
4 Equilibrium theory, direct method
A key objective in ocean tidal dynamics and analysis is to derive an analytical form of the
gravitational attraction on the global ocean caused by the presence of the Moon and the Sun.
Once this force is found, it can be added as a forcing term to the momentum equations which,
together with the continuity equation and appropriate temporal and spatial boundary conditions,
model the full 2- and 3-dimensional flow of the global ocean tide.
The derivation of the resulting Equilibrium Tide and subsequent analysis are addressed in Part II.
A description of the basic tidal wave characteristics is also provided (Part IV). Modelling of the
full 2- and 3-dimensional dynamics of the ocean tide is beyond the scope of the presented lecture
notes (but might be added at a later stage).
In the following sections, the gravitational force is derived based on what one may phrase the
direct method. An alternative approach – commonly used in tidal dynamics – derives the gravi-
tational force from the tidal potential. The derivation of the latter is given in Sec. 12. The two
approaches end up with identical formulas, as expected.

4.1 Geometry of the Earth-Moon system

The configuration of the Earth-Moon system used for deriving the properties of the tidal equi-
librium is displayed in Fig. 4. It follows from the figure that
r+q=R (1)
or, to explicitly label the Earth-Moon system, with the subscript l for lunar,
r + q l = Rl (2)

4.2 Centre of mass of the Earth-Moon system

The centre of mass of the Earth-Moon system is located along the centre line OM at a distance
x R (0 < x < 1) from point O in Fig. 4. We then get that
me x Rl = ml (1 − x) Rl (3)
or
ml
x= ≈ 0.012 (4)
me + ml
Here me and ml are the mass of the Earth and Moon, respectively, see appendix A for numerical
values. With mean values of r and R (see appendix A), we get that
x ≈ 0.73 r (5)

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Figure 4: Illustration of the Earth-Moon system with the Earth to the left and the Moon to the
right (figure greatly out of scale). O , P and M are at the centre of the Earth, at an arbitrary
point on Earth’s surface, and at the centre of the Moon, respectively.
Upper panel: r is the Earth’s radius vector (from point O to P ), R is the position vector from
the centre of the Earth to Moon’s centre (from O to M ), and q is the position vector from P
(on Earth’s surface) to M . The line between O and M is sometimes called the centre line and
the angle φ the zenith angle or the centre angle. A similar configuration holds for the Earth-Sun
system or, more generally, for any two-body system.
Lower panel: As above, but illustrating the circle on the Earth’s surface spanned out by P while
keeping φ = const. (note that P is a point on the Earth’s surface).

11
implying that the centre of mass of the Earth-Moon system is located about three quarters of
Earth’s radius from the centre of the Earth.
The centre of mass of any two- or multiple-body system is also called the system’s barycentre.

4.3 Newton’s law of universal gravitation

Newton’s law of universal gravitation 5 from 1687 states that an attractive force F is set up
between any two point masses, varying proportionally with the product of the masses (m1 and
m2 ) and inversely proportional with the distance R between the masses /3.2/,
note R !
m1 m2
F =G (6)
R2

Here G = 6.674 × 10−11 N m2 kg−2 is the gravitational constant, first determined by direct
measurement by Henry Canevdish6 in 1798.

4.4 Gravitational forces and accelerations in the Earth-Moon system

The gravitational force at the Earth’s centre because of the presence of the Moon, Fl , is
me ml Rl
Fl = G (7)
Rl2 Rl

where Rl /Rl is the unit vector along the Earth-Moon centre line.
According to Newton’s second law, F = m a , this force leads to an acceleration of the centre of
the Earth aO according to
Fl m l Rl
aO = =G 2 (8)
me Rl Rl
Similarly, the gravitational acceleration at the surface point P caused by the Moon is
ml ql
aP = G (9)
ql2 ql

At point P, there is also a gravitational acceleration g towards the centre of the Earth caused
by Earth’s mass on the form (9):
me r
g = −G 2 (10)
r r
By inserting the numerical values of G , me and r (see appendix A) in (10), one obtains

g = 9.8 m s−2 (11)

as expected. Furthermore, the absolute value of (10) leads to the relationship /3.4/

r2
G=g (12)
me
5 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation
6 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_constant#Early_history

12
4.5 Earth’s movement around the Earth-Moon centre of mass

To maintain the Earth-Moon centre of mass at 0.73 r , the Earth can either rotate around the
joint centre of mass as a solid body, or the Earth can adjust it’s position around the common
centre of mass without rotation, named revolution without rotation.
The former would imply that the centrifugal acceleration imposed on the Earth varies constantly
and everywhere on the Earth (surface as well as the interior), involving constantly converging
and diverging strain forces. This is not the case. In stead, revolution without rotation takes place
as outlined in Fig. 5; yielding identical centrifugal forces at any point on the surface and in the
interior of the Earth.
An alternative way to illustrate the revolution motion around the common centre of mass of a
two-body system is given by an animation at
http://folk.uib.no/ngfhd/Teaching/Div/revolution_circle.gif.
In this case, the two-body system consists of a major (grey coloured) and a minor (blue) body
encircling the former (and ignoring, for the time being, that the masses may rotate around their
own rotation axis). The red point is fixed to the surface of the main body and it points towards
left at all times, illustrating the revolving movement around the common centre of mass.
The above implies that every point on solid Earth describes a circular motion with radius

s = 0.73 r (13)

but with different centres, and with the rotation rate ω governed by the rotation rate of the
Moon around the Earth. Consequently, each point on Earth, whether on Earth’s surface or in
the Earth’s interior, will experience identical centrifugal acceleration (i.e., an outward-directed
acceleration relative to the rotation of the Earth-Moon system) with magnitude (M & P (2008),
eqn. 6.28)
aω = ω 2 s (14)

4.6 A (somewhat complicating) side note

The actual movement of the Earth-Moon system is a little more complicated than that described
above. A more correct picture, albeit heavily out-of-scale for the sake of illustration, is shown in
the following animation:
http://folk.uib.no/ngfhd/Teaching/Div/revolution_ellipse.gif.
According to Kepler’s laws for a two-body system (see Section 14), the Moon (blue disc) moves
around the Earth in an ellipse (blue curve), with the Earth located at one of the ellipse’s focus
points (right-most, large cross); the Moon moves fast when it is closest to the Earth (perihelion)
and slow when it is far away from the Earth (aphelion); and the Earth adjust it’s position
relative to the Moon by revolution without rotation, as described in the introduction to the
previous section.
The Earth-Moon configuration also holds for the Earth-Sun system, now with the Earth moving
around the Sun along an ellipse, with the Sun located in one of the ellipse’s focus points. Since the
Earth’s speed around the Sun varies with the distance to the Sun, there is a mismatch between
the time shown on a sundial on the Earth (which is determined by the Earth’s exact position

13
Figure 5: Illustration of the movement of the Earth
(Earth’s circumference in blue) around the Earth-Moon
centre of mass (red dot), looking from the north, i.e.,
looking down onto the Earth-Moon system. The Earth’s
rotation around it’s own rotation axis is ignored in the
following (but will, obviously, be included later in the
theory).

(1) Upper panel: The Moon is located to the right

of the Earth, in the direction of the grey arrow. The
black dots show the Earth’s centre and a point on the
central line, opposite to the direction of the Moon. The
red circle shows the path the Earth’s centre would follow
if it rotates around the joint centre of mass.

(2) Second panel: Some time later, the Moon has

moved counter-clockwise relative to the Earth. The
Earth’s centre (orange dot) is located on the circle
around the joint centre of mass. Similarly, the point
initially marked with the black dot on the opposite side
of the Moon describes the same circular revolution as
Earth’s centre (the left-most yellow dot, with the path
traced out by the movement shown by the red dotted arc).

(3) Third panel: Later, the Earth’s centre (green

dot) continue to follow the red, solid circle. The other
point follows a similar circular trajectory (the second
green dot and the red dotted arc).

(4) Lowermost panel: When the Moon is on the op-

posite side of the Earth, both of the two initial points are
tracing out circles with a common radius s = 0.73 r.

The resulting circular movement will continue as

the Moon rotates around the Earth. In this way, all
points on and within the solid Earth will describe circular
trajectories with radius s = 0.73 r. Note that the Earth
does not rotate as a solid body around the Earth-Moon
centre of mass. Rather, any point on Earth, like the
left-most dot on the Earth’s surface in all of the panels,
have the same orientation with respect to a fixed star
throughout the movement. This movement is commonly
described as revolution without rotation.

14
relative to the Sun) and the time on any mechanical or electronic clock (which is based on the
assumption that the Earth encircles the Sun with constant speed). This mismatch amounts
to ±15 min during the course of a year, and is described by the so-called Equation of time
(Section 14.8).
Accurate tidal analysis or computation needs to take into account the above factors; that the path
of the orbiting body follows an ellipse with a constantly varying distance between the two bodies,
and that both the speed and time vary during the orbiting period. At lowest order, the Earth-
Moon and the Earth-Sun distance, as well as the time on the Earth relative to the Sun, can be
considered constant. The basic influence of the Moon and the Sun on the Earth’s tidal variations
can be fully understood with these assumptions, albeit accurate modelling of the Earth-Moon-
Sun system requires taking into account these (relatively) slowly changing factors.

4.7 Net gravity on the Earth caused by the Moon

The distance between the centres of the Earth and the Moon vary slowly during the lunar month,
but it can be treated as constant for the purposes considered here. If so, the magnitude of the
outward-directed centrifugal acceleration at the centre of the Earth has to exactly balance the
magnitude of the Moon’s gravitational pull at the Earth’s centre. This means that

aω = aO (15)

or
ml
ω2 s = G (16)
Rl2

At the point P at the surface of the Earth, the gravity caused by the Moon will vary according
to the distance to the Moon, with the largest gravitational pull for the points closest to the
Moon. This pull is directed along the q-vector. At the same time, the centrifugal acceleration
in point P is directed opposite to the R-vector. The net acceleration felt at P can then be
expressed as
ml ql Rl
a=G 2 − ω2 s (17)
q ql Rl
or, by means of (16),  
ql Rl
a = G ml 3 − 3 (18)
ql Rl

4.8 Introducing the zenith angle and simplifying

The acceleration (18) can be expressed in terms of r , R and φ. From Fig. 4, the law of cosines
gives (dropping the subscript l for the time being)

q 2 = R2 + r2 − 2 R r cos φ (19)

15
or

1/2
q = R2 + r2 − 2 R r cos φ (20)
1/2
r2

r
= R 1 − 2 cos φ + 2
R R
 r 1/2
≈ R 1 − 2 cos φ
R
 r 
≈ R 1 − cos φ
R
Here the smallness of r/R (appendix A) has been used in the second last expression, and
the binominal theorem for rational exponents (599) has been used in the last equality. Conse-
quently,
1 1  r −3 1  r 
= 1 − cos φ ≈ 1 + 3 cos φ (21)
q3 R3 R R3 R
and
G m h r  i
a= 1 + 3 cos φ q − R (22)
R3 R
The vector sum (2) and the smallness of r/R , and reintroducing the subscript l , give
 
G ml r Rl r
a= 3 cos φ − (23)
Rl3 Rl r

Substituting G with Earth’s gravitational acceleration g from (12) yields

 3  
ml r Rl r
a=g 3 cos φ − (24)
me Rl Rl r

With the mass and distance ratios given in appendix A, it follows that /p. 32/

|a| ≈ 10−7 g (25)

The tidal acceleration on Earth caused by the presence of the Moon is therefore very small. By
decomposing the tidal acceleration into one component in the direction of r and one component
tangential to the surface of the Earth, it follows that the former indeed can be ignored. The
latter has no counterpart and it is this component that gives rise to the tides.

4.9 Radial and tangential components of the tidal acceleration

4.9.1 Geometric approach

The component of the tidal acceleration in the direction of Rl follows directly from (24)
 3
ml r
aR = 3g cos φ (26)
me Rl

aR can be decomposed in the radial and horizontal directions based on Fig. 6.

16
Figure 6: As Fig. 4, but for decomposing aR (see expression 26) in the outward radial direction
(ar k r) and in the horizontal direction on Earth, pointing towards the centre line (ah ).

It follows from the figure that the horizontal component of aR , in the direction towards the
centre line, is
 3
ml r
ah = 3 g sin φ cos φ (27)
me Rl
Since
1
sin φ cos φ = sin 2φ (28)
2
(see 613), expression (27) can alternatively be expressed as
 3
3 ml r
ah = g sin 2φ (29)
2 me Rl

Likewise, the radial component of aR is

 3
ml r
3g cos2 φ (30)
me Rl

The latter, together with the radial component of (24), adds up to

 3
ml r
ar = g (3 cos2 φ − 1) (31)
me Rl

ar is parallel to r in Fig. 4.

4.9.2 Using the definition of the dot and cross products

Alternatively, ar can be obtained by taking the dot product of a and the unit vector r/r (see
the geometic configuration in the left panel in Fig. 9):
 3  
r ml r Rl · r r · r
ar = a · = g 3 cos φ − 2 (32)
r me Rl Rl r r

17
The definition of the dot product gives

Rl · r = Rl r cos φ and r · r = r2 (33)

so (32) becomes
 3
ml r
3 cos2 φ − 1


ar = g (34)
me Rl
which is identical to (31).
In a similar manner, the cross product of a with the unit vector r/r gives the horizontal
component of a:
 3  
r ml r |Rl × r| |r × r|
ah = a × =g 3 cos φ − (35)
r me Rl Rl r r2

The definition of the cross product gives

|Rl × r| = Rl r sin φ and r×r=0 (36)

so  3
ml r
ah = 3g sin φ cos φ (37)
me Rl

4.9.3 The radial component can be ignored; the tangential component is impor-
tant

Since the gravity on Earth’s surface caused by the Earth’s mass g is orders of magnitude larger
than the gravitational acceleration in the radial direction (see 25), ar can safely be neglected
compared to g. Since g has no counterpart to ah , this acceleration component – aligned
tangential to the surface of the Earth – cannot be ignored. It is ah that gives rise to the tides
on Earth.
Note that ah only varies with φ , the zenith or central angle in Fig. 4. φ depends on the latitude
and longitude of the position P , as well as the declination angle of the Moon (and the Sun).
Introduction of these geometric factors are presented in Sec. 6.
The horizontal component of the tidal acceleration or tidal force – which is the actual tidal
acceleration or force – is often named the tractive acceleration or force.

4.10 Surface elevation caused by the Moon

The tidal acceleration ah will give rise to changes in the sea level. This again leads to a pressure
gradient and, correspondingly, a pressure (gradient) force. The pressure force per unit mass (i.e.,
acceleration) is, per definition (M & P (2008), eqn. 6.6),
1
− ∇p (38)
ρ
Here p is pressure and ρ is density.

18
For a fluid with approximately uniform (constant) density, the hydrostatic approximation gives

p = ρgζ (39)

Here ζ (m) is the free ocean surface, i.e., the elevation relative to a flat ocean, caused by Earth’s
gravity and the tidal force. This means that the pressure force per unit mass can be expressed
as
−g∇ζ (40)
It follows then from Newton’s second law, F = m a , expressed in the form F/m = a , that

−g∇h ζ = ah (41)

where ∇h denotes the gradient operator tangential to the Earth’s surface.

It is convenient to express the differential equation (41) in terms of the spherical coordinate
system to the right in Fig. 33. In this case the z axis of the spherical coordinate system is
oriented in the direction of the centre line R in Fig. 4. In this system, only the eφ component
(see 487) has a contribution (since r = konst. and there is symmetry in the Ψ-direction), so
(41) becomes
g ∂ζ
− = ah (42)
r ∂φ
or, by means of (29),
∂ζ 3 ml r4
+ sin 2φ = 0 (43)
∂φ 2 me R3
Integration over φ , using Z
1
sin 2φ dφ = − cos 2φ (44)
2
(see 619) gives the Equilibrium Tide’s surface elevation

3 ml r4
ζ= cos 2φ + C (45)
4 me R3
where C is an integration constant.

4.10.1 Determining the integration constant for the Equilibrium Tide surface ele-
vation

Conservation of water volume requires that the surface elevation ζ must vanish when integrated
over the sphere. This constraint can be used to determine the integration constant C by in-
tegrating (45) over a sphere with constant radius r by means of the zenith-angle coordinate
system in the right panel of Fig. 33.
The first term on the right-hand-side of (45) is a constant multiplied with the factor cos 2φ.
Integration over the sphere of the given term therefore corresponds to solving the double-
integral Z 2π
Z π
r2 dΨ cos 2φ sin φ dφ (46)
Ψ=0 φ=0

The factor r2 sin ϕ is the area of a surface element on a sphere, similarly to (483) and (485).

19
The integral involving φ can be solved by using a trignometric identity:
Z
(620) cos x cos 3x
cos 2x sin x dx = − + C∗ (47)
2 6

where C ∗ is an integration constant. Expression (46) then becomes

 π
2 cos φ cos 3φ 4π
r 2π − = −r2 (48)
2 6 0 3

Thus, integration of (45) over a sphere with constant radius r leads to

3 ml r4
 
2 4π
−r + 4r2 πC = 0 (49)
4 me R3 3

Consequently,
1 ml r4
C= (50)
4 me R3

The Equilibrium Tide is therefore governed by the expression

1 ml r 4
ζ= (3 cos 2φ + 1) (51)
4 me R 3

Or, alternatively, since

cos 2φ = 2 cos2 φ − 1 (52)
the Equilibrium Tide may be put in the commonly used form

3 ml r 4
 
2 1
ζ= cos φ − (53)
2 me R 3 3

20
5 The combined surface elevation caused by the Moon and
the Sun
Expression (53) is also valid for the Sun. Thus, the total surface tidal elevation ζ , with contri-
butions from the Moon (subscript l) and the Sun (subscript l), becomes

3 ml r4 3 ms r 4
   
2 1 2 1
ζ = cos φl − + cos φs −
2 me Rl3 3 2 me Rs3 3
"  3    3  #
3 ml r 2 1 ms r 2 1
= r cos φl − + cos φs − (54)
2 me Rl 3 me Rs 3

5.1 Amplitudes

It follows from the above expression that the lunar and solar tides have maximum amplitudes
for φl = φs = 0 :
ml r 4 ms r4
and (55)
me Rl3 me Rs3

With the values from appendix A, the magnitude of the above factors are 0.27 m (or 0.268 m
with three decimals) for the lunar tide and 0.12 m (0.123 m) for the solar tide. The ratio between
the two contributions are thus (for φl = φs = 0 ) /p. 40/

ζl ζs
= 2.18 and = 0.46 (56)
ζs ζl

The lunar tide is therefore about twice as large as the solar tide.
Furthermore, the sum of the lunar and solar tides of 0.39 m is, generally speaking, well below the
observed tidal amplitude, globally averaged around 1 m, but with amplitudes exceeding 10 m
in some locations. The main reason for this mismatch is the influence of the bathymetry, the
detailed geometry of the coasts and the ocean basin eigen-modes of tidal dynamics.

5.2 Relative contribution from the Sun and the Solar planets
The maximum gravitational attraction on the Earth from any planet (subscript i) relative to that of the
Moon is, from (55), given by the relationship

ml Ri3
(57)
mi Rl3

With approximate values of any planet’s mass mi and the distance from the Earth’s centre Ri , the
relative magnitudes are as shown in Fig. 7. It follows that the Venus is the third most important
contributor, after the Moon and the Sun, with a contribution approximately 1/18, 000 of that of the
Moon. Thus, the Moon and the Sun are, by far, the most important contributors to the Earth’s ocean
tide.

21
Figure 7: Approximate magnitude of the gravitational attraction on the Earth from the Sun
and the Solar planets relative to that of the Moon, and the corresponding rank. Background
illustration from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System.

5.3 Magnitude of the equilibrium tide vs the centre line angle ϕ

The magnitude of the lunar and solar contributions to the equilibrium tide as a function of the
centre line angle ϕ is shown in Fig. 8. It follows that the equilibrium tide is largest at the sub-
lunar and sub-solar points, with degreasing magnitude from the centre line. Smallest equilibrium
tide is found normal to the centre line.
In reality – and in general terms – the tidal amplitude is highest at mid to high (geographical)
latitudes, implying a very different picture to that shown in Fig. 8. There are many reasons for
the difference; the most important being the interaction between tidal waves and the detailed
form of coastlines.

22
Figure 8: The equilibrium tilde ζ (m; equation 54) as function of the centre angle angle φ
(degrees). Blue (red) line is for the lunar (solar) tide.

23
6 Introducing latitude, hour and declination angles
Up to now, no specific geographic reference has been given beyond the zenith angle shown in
the left panel of Fig. 9. To determine the tide at any point P on the Earth’s surface relative
the the Moon or the Sun (or other celestial bodies), it is convenient to introduce three angles:
The northern latitude φP of P , the hour angle CP between the meridians going through the
sub-lunar point7 V and P (and thus playing the role of longitude), and the declination angle
d of the celestial body (dl for the Moon and ds for the Sun), see the right panel in Fig. 9 for a
depiction of the three angles.

6.1 The three leading lunar tidal components

We start by considering the two-body Earth-Moon system as illustrated in Fig. 9.

Figure 9: The tidal equilibrium configuration defined by R , r and φ (left), and the new angles
φP , CP of and dl (right). x, y, z denotes the Cartesian coordinates with x, y spanning the
Earth’s equatorial plane and z pointing northward. The x-axis is aligned along the projection
of the centre line (or vector R) onto the equatorial plane. O is the centre of the Earth, M is
the Moon, and P is an arbitrary point on the surface of the Earth with latitude φP measured
from the equatorial plane. The sub-lunar point V is where the centre line crosses the surface
of the Earth (or the point on the surface of the Earth under the Moon) with the declination
angle dl . The hour angle CP is the angle on the equatorial plane between the x-axis and the
longitude of point P or, which is the same, the angle between the meridians running through
V and P .

The two position vectors r and R can be expressed in terms of the angles φP , CP and dl .
The projection of R onto the x- and z-axes give R cos dl and R sin dl , respectively, see left
panel of Fig. 10. Thus,
R = R (cos dl , 0, sin dl ) (58)
7 fotpunkt under månen

24
Likewise, the projection of r onto the equatorial plane gives a vector of length r cos ϕ (right
panel of Fig. 10). Decomposing this vector onto the x and y axes gives

r = r (cos φP cos CP , cos φP sin CP , sin φP ) (59)

Expression (53) states that the surface elevation of the Equilibrium Tide ζ is proportional to
the factor cos2 φ − 1/3. The task is therefore to express cos φ in terms of φP , CP and dl . This
can be readily done by means of the dot product

r·R = rR cos φ
= rR (cos φP cos dl cos CP + sin φP sin dl ) (60)

where the first expression is simply the definition of the dot product, whereas 58 and 59 have been
used to explicitly evaluate the dot product in the second expression. From the above relationship
it follows that
cos φ = sin φP sin dl + cos φP cos dl cos CP (61)
which is the last expression on p. 41 in Pugh & Woodworth (2014). /p. 41/

Figure 10: As Fig. 9, illustrating of the decomposition of R (left panel) and r (right panel)
onto the Cartesian x, y, z-system.

Thus,
1 1
cos2 φ− = cos2 φP cos2 dl cos2 CP +2 cos φP cos dl cos CP sin φP sin dl +sin2 φP sin2 dl − (62)
3 3

The identity
sin(2 a) = 2 sin a cos a (63)
can be applied to the φP - and dl -factors in the second term on the right hand side of (62),
resulting in
1 1 1
cos2 φ − = cos2 φP cos2 dl cos2 CP + sin(2 φP ) sin(2 dl ) cos CP + sin2 φP sin2 dl − (64)
3 2 3

The right hand side of (64) contains terms with variations on mainly three, different time scales.
Keeping the latitude of the position P fixed so φP = const., the first term on the right hand

25
side of (64) varies mainly because of cos2 CP = (1 + cos 2 CP )/2 (see identity 609). Thus, this
term gives rise of the semi-diurnal lunar tide. The second term on the right hand side of (64)
varies mainly because of cos CP , describing the diurnal lunar tide. And finally, the third term
vary with sin2 dl , describing the tidal response to the near biweekly (or fortnightly) variations
in the lunar declination.
The three time scales can be facilitated by expressing

1
cos2 φ − = ζ0 + ζ1 + ζ2 (65)
3
where
  
3 1 1
ζ0 = sin2 φP − sin2 dl − (66)
2 3 3
1
ζ1 = sin(2 φP ) sin(2 dl ) cos CP (67)
2
1
ζ2 = cos2 φP cos2 dl cos(2 CP ) (68)
2
Here, ζ0 describes the biweekly (fortnightly) variations (governed by sin2 dl ), ζ1 describes the
diurnal variations (governed by cos CP ), and ζ2 describes the semi-diurnal variations (governed
by cos 2 CP ). The transformation of (64) into (65)–(68) is given in appendix C.
Expression (65) corresponds to the terms in square brackets in expression (3.10) in Pugh & /3.10/
Woodworth (2014).

6.2 The Equilibrium Tide caused by the Moon

By combining (54) with expressions (65)–(68), the Equlibrium Tide caused by the Moon, ζ l ,
can be put in the form (see expression 3.12 in Pugh & Woodworth, 2014): /3.12/
   
ml 3 2 1 2
ζl = r C0 (t) sin φP − + C1 (t) sin 2φP + C2 (t) cos φP (69)
me 2 2

where
 3  
r 3 1
C0 (t) = sin2 dl − (70)
Rl 2 2
 3
r 3
C1 (t) = sin 2dl cos CP (71)
Rl 4
 3
r 3
C2 (t) = cos2 dl cos 2 CP (72)
Rl 4

A similar expression is valid for the solar Equilibrium Tide.

6.3 Properties of the three leading lunar components

From (66)–(68), we observe the following properties:

26
 – All components depend on the latitude φP .
– The identities
1
cos2 dl = (1 + cos 2 dl ) (73)
2
and
1
sin2 dl = (1 − cos 2 dl ) (74)
2
show that the three contributions depend on cos 2 dl or sin 2 dl , implying that all have
a periodicity of T /2 = 13.66 d for the Moon (see Sec. 7.1) and, correspondingly, T /2 =
182.62 d for the Sun (or half the length of the tropical year, see Table 2).
– Only ζ1 and ζ2 depend on the hour angle CP .
Other characteristics are listed below.

6.3.1 Declination or nodal component, ζ0

• ζ0 vanishes for sin2 φP = 1/3 , or for the latitudes φP = ±35◦

• The first parenthesis (sin2 φP − 1/3) is thus positive for |φP | > 35◦ and negative for
|φP | < 35◦
• The contribution from φP is largest at the poles ( φP = ±90◦ )
• Since the Moon’s declination angle dl varies between −(18.5◦ to 28.5◦ ) and +(18.5◦ to 28.5◦ ),
see footnote 8 , the second parenthesis (sin2 dl − 1/3) is always negative, with largest values
when the Moon is high on sky
• In total, ζ0 is positive for |φP | < 35◦ and negative at higher latitudes

6.3.2 Diurnal component, ζ1

• The leading, temporal variability is governed by cos CP , with a period of 24 h 50 min (see
Sec. 7.2)
• ζ1 is positive when the point P and the Moon are on the same hemisphere, negative
otherwise
• sin(2dl ) = 0 twice a month, so ζ1 vanishes when the Moon crosses the Earth’s equatorial
plane twice a month
• The dl -modulation is largest when the Moon is highest on sky
• Largest signal at φP = ±45◦ , vanishes at equator and the poles
8 Maximum declination angle d varies with the nodal period – or the regression period of the Moon’s nodes
l
– of 18.61 years, see table 2.

27
6.3.3 Semi-diurnal component, ζ2

• The leading, temporal variability is governed by cos 2 CP , with a period of 12 h 25 min

(see Sec. 7.2)
• ζ2 ≥ 0 for all values of φP and dl
• dl -modulation is maximum when the Moon crosses the equatorial plane twice a month
( dl = 0 ), and it decreases with increasing |dl |; min(cos2 dl ) ≈ 0.77 for dl = ±28.5◦
• Largest signal at φP = 0 (equator), vanishes at the poles

28
7 Sidereal and synodic periods
The solar system is characterised by cyclic variations, like Earth’s day-night cycle due to Earth’s
rotation around it’s own rotation axis, the close to monthly lunar phase as seen from the Earth,
and the annual (seasonal) cycle governed by Earth’s rotation around the Sun. These periodicities
need to be uniquely and accurately determined in order to quantify the detailed lunar and solar
contributions to the tides.
The various periods can be determined from an observer on the (rotating) Earth, or as seen
from a (stationary) fixed star. Seen from the Earth, the periodicity is named the synodic period 9
(from “synodus”, Greek from “coming together”). Seen from a distant star, the period is known
as the sidereal period 10 (from “sidus”, or “star”, in Latin).
Based on three observed (i.e., given) periods, the remaining periods can be derived as discussed
in the following sections. The three observed periods are

Mean synodic solar day T0 = 1 d

Tropical year T3 = 365.2422 d
Lunar sidereal month Tl = 27.3216 d

The unit for the above periods is d for a day (= 24 hr), whereas the subscripts are introduced
for later use.
Rather than hour and day, the unit of time is often described in terms of msh and msd , denoting
mean solar hour and mean solar day. In the latter units, mean signifies that a sundial on Earth
does approximately, but not exactly, match the time on the clock (max deviation throughout
one year is about 30 min). The mismatch is caused by the elliptic path, and thus varying speed,
of the Earth around the Sun, see Sec. 14.8 and Fig. 24.

7.1 The Moon’s sidereal and synodic monthly periods

A full rotation of the Moon around the Earth as seen from a distant star has a sidereal period
Tl = 27.3216 d (this is an observed, given value). The synodic period can be found by considering
the Sun-Earth-Moon system seen from a fixed star from above (north), as illustrated in Fig. 11.

If the Earth were not rotating around the Sun, the Moon’s rotation rate as seen from the Earth
would equal
ωl Tl = 2π (75)
In this case the Moon, initially located on the line between the Sun and the Earth (point A in
Fig. 11), would be back on the same line after the period Tl .
However, since the Earth does rotate around the Sun with the rotation rate ωes and a rotation
period of Tes = 365.2422 d, the Moon will not be back at the initial position – seen from the
Earth – after the sidereal period Tl . Actually, the Moon needs to move from point B to point
C in Fig. 11 in order to be back at the initial position, i.e., back to the position where the Earth,
the Moon and the Sun are all aligned. We therefore search for a period T ∗ > Tl in order for the
Moon to reach the position C in Fig. 11.
9 synodisk
10 siderisk periode

29
Figure 11: Illustration of the Sun (black circle in the centre), the Earth (solid blue dot, encircling
the Sun along the blue circle), and the Moon (solid red dot, encircling the Earth along the red
circle), viewed from the north. ωl and Tl are the lunar rotation rate and period seen from
a distant star, respectively. Similarly, ωes and Tes are the Earth’s rotation rate and rotation
period around the Sun. Point A denotes the initial position of the Moon, in this case exactly on
the centre line between the Earth and the Sun. Point B refers to the position of the Moon after
the sidereal period Tl . Point C denotes the full lunar rotation as observed from the Earth, in
this case when the Moon is back on the centre line between the Earth and the Sun. The rotation
period for the latter is the synodic period.

30
Based on (75), T ∗ can be derived from the expression

ωl T ∗ = 2π + ωes T ∗ (76)

where the last term corresponds to the angle between A , the centre of the Sun and C or, which
is equivalent, the angle between B , the centre of the Earth and C in Fig. 11 (both identified
by the red, double-lined arcs). Division by the factor 2π T ∗ gives
1 1 1
= ∗+ (77)
Tl T Tes
For Tl = 27.3216 d and Tes = 365.2422 d , we get that the lunar synodic period

T ∗ = 29.5307 d (78)

Thus, the monthly lunar period seen from a distant star is 27.3216 d (the monthly sidereal lunar
period), whereas it is 29.5307 d seen from the Earth (the monthly synodic lunar period).

7.2 The synodic lunar day

Following the logic from Sec. 7.1, the lunar day T ∗ seen from Earth – due to the Earth’s rotation
around it’s own axis – will be somewhat longer than that seen from a fixed star. The situation
is illustrated in Fig. 12.

Figure 12: Illustration of the lunar day. The Moon is the filled red dot encircling the Earth
along the red circle, viewed from above (north). The Earth is the open blue circle. If the Moon
was fixed in space and if it was located above point A on the Earth’s surface initially, the Moon
would be located in the same position after one full rotation of the Earth ( Te = 1 d ). However,
during the period Te , the Moon has moved with the rotation rate ωl . The Earth must therefore
make an additional rotation, corresponding to moving point A to position B , before the Moon
is again located in zenith relative to the initial point A .

One full rotation of the Earth can be expressed as

ωe Te = 2π (79)

31
where Te = 1 d.
Taking into account the simultaneous rotation of the Moon around the Earth, gives

ωe T ∗ = 2π + ωl T ∗ (80)

where T ∗ is the lunar day as seen from the Earth.

Division by 2π T ∗ gives
1 1 1
= ∗+ (81)
Te T Tl
With Tl = 27.3216 d and Te = 1 d , we obtain

T ∗ = 1.0351 d (82)

or
T ∗ = 24 hr 50 min 32.64 sec ≈ 24 hr 50 min (83)
The lunar day observed from the Earth, the synodic lunar day, is therefore about 50 minutes
longer than the solar day on the Earth.

7.3 The Earth’s daily sidereal period

The daily period of the Earth seen from a fixed star is somewhat shorter than the mean solar day
because of the movement of the Earth around the Sun. The situation is illustrated in Fig. 13.

One full rotation of the Earth can be expressed as

ωe Te = 2π (84)

where Te = 1 d.
Taking into account the simultaneous rotation of the Earth around the Sun, gives

ωe T ∗ = 2π − ωes T ∗ (85)

where T ∗ is the Earth’s sidereal day and the minus-sign is introduced since T ∗ < Te .
Division by 2π T ∗ gives
1 1 1
= ∗− (86)
Te T Tes
With Tes = 365.2422 d and Te = 1 d , we obtain

T ∗ = 0.9973 d (87)

or
T ∗ ≈ 23 hr 56 min (88)
Earth’s rotation period observed from a fixed star – the Earth’s daily sidereal period – is therefore
about 4 minutes less than the mean solar day.

32
Figure 13: Illustration of the Earth’s sidereal day. The Earth (blue circle) encircles the Sun
(black circle), viewed from above (north). If the Earth did not rotate around the Sun, any point
on the Earth’s surface (illustrated with a person with the Sun in zenith) would be back at the
same position relative to the Sun after 1 mean solar day, Te = 1 d . However, during the time
Te , the Earth has moved with the rotation rate ωes around the Sun. Therefore, seen from a fixed
star, the Earth has made slightly more than one full rotation before the person in the figure has
the Sun in zenith (note that the dashed line at point A runs parallel to the line going through
the left-most person). For this reason, the sidereal day, i.e., time from the starting point until
the the person is in position A , must be slightly shorter than Te .

Figure 14: The Earth is the blue disc, rotating with a period Te = 0.9973 d relative to a fixed
star, exemplified with the first point of Aries  (viewed from above, i.e., north). During the time
Te , the Moon (small red disc) rotates around the Earth with a rotation period Tl = 27.3216 d ,
yielding the mean synodic lunar day of 1.0351 d.

33
7.4 Relationship between the Earth’s sidereal day and the Moon’s syn-
odic day

In this case we consider rotation periods relative to a fixed star, for instance relative to the first
point of Aries11 , , see Fig. 14. One full rotation of the Earth relative to  is given by

ωe Te = 2π (89)

where Te = 0.9973 d .
Taking into account the simultaneous rotation of the Moon around the Earth, again relative to
a fixed star, leads to the relationship

ωe T ∗ = 2π + ωl T ∗ (90)

where ωl corresponds to the lunar sidereal period Tl = 27.3216 d .

Division by 2π T ∗ gives
1 1 1
= ∗+ (91)
Te T Tl
Thus
T ∗ = 1.0351 d (92)
or the lunar day as seen from the Earth – the synodic lunar day – is 1.0351 d.

7.5 Key periods and frequencies for the Moon-Earth-Sun system

Based on the above sections, a set of basic astronomical periods and frequencies can be defined
to describe the Earth-Moon-Sun system. With msd denoting the mean solar day and msh
denoting the mean solar hour, these are:

Quantity Symbol Unit

Period T msd or msh
Frequency f = 1/T 1/msd or 1/msh
Angular frequency σ = 360◦ /T deg/msh
Angular frequency ω = 2π/T rad/msh
Physical angles Cs , Cl , s, h, p, N 0 , p0 rad

Table 1: Overview of commonly used quantities in tidal analysis. The physical meaning of the
seven physical angles are indicated in Table 2 and will be explicitly defined in the subsequent
sections.

For historical and practical reasons that will become clear(er) in Sec. 8.4, the various periods
and rotation rates are put in the form Ti , σi and ωi , where the subscript i is an integer, with
the exception of Earth’s sidereal day that is denoted with the subscript s , see Table 2. /Tab. 3.2/
With the definitions in Table 2, the relationship (85) is equivalent to
2π
ω2 = − ω3 (93)
T∗

34
 Period Frequency Angular Corresp.
speed angle
T f σ ω
time cycles per deg rad
unit time unit per msh per msh deg / rad
Mean synodic solar day 0 1.00 msd 1.00 15.0000 0.2618 Cs
Mean synodic lunar day 1 1.0351 msd 0.9661369 14.4921 0.2529 Cl
Lunar sidereal month 2 27.3216 msd 0.0366011 0.5490 0.0096 s
Tropical year(∗) 3 365.2422 msd 0.0027379 0.0411 0.0007 h
Moon’s perigee 4 8.85 Jyr 0.0003093 0.0046 p
Regression of Moon’s nodes 5 18.61 Jyr 0.0001471 0.0022 N0
Perihelion 6 20,942 Jyr – – p0
Earth’s sidereal day s 0.9973 msd 1.0027973 15.0411 0.2625 –
Lunar synodic month – 29.5307 msd 0.0338631 0.5079 0.0089 –

Table 2: Overview of the basic astronomical periods and frequencies. msd is the mean solar day,
msh is the mean solar hour and Jyr is the Julian year (365.25 d). The second row gives the index
of the different quantities, e.g., the period of the Moon’s perigee is T4 = 8.85 Jyr .
(∗)
: A tropical year is the time between the Sun’s successive crossings of the first point of Aries .
Because of the precession of the equinoxes https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_precession (see
Axial precession on Wikipedia), the seasonal cycle does not remain exactly synchronized with the position
of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun. As a consequence, the tropical year is about 20 minutes shorter
than the time it takes Earth to complete one full orbit around the Sun as measured with respect to the
fixed stars (the sidereal year) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year (see Tropical year on
Wikipedia). To lowest order, as is the case in this write-up, we consider the sidereal and synodic year
as identical. Illustrations of the basic astronomical periods are given in Part I.

In expression (85), the Earth’s sidereal day is given by T ∗ = 2π/ωs , so 2π/T ∗ = ωs . Conse-
quently, /p. 48/
ωs = ω0 + ω3 or σs = σ0 + σ3 (94)

Likewise, from expression (90), /p. 48/

ωs = ω1 + ω2 or σs = σ1 + σ2 (95)

By means of the relationships in (94) and (95), ωs , σs conveniently links ω0,1,2,3 and σ0,1,2,3 ,
something that will be used in Sec. 8.
A side note: The meaning of ωs , σs is possibly easiest understood from Fig. 13 and the corre-
sponding discussion, namely the speed – and by that the period – of a day as seen from a fixed
star; the Earth’s sidereal day. Since ωs (and similarly σs ) is independent of the movement
of the Sun and the Moon, it can be used as a reference speed. We will later use this when
transferring the solar to the lunar constituents in Sec. 8.3.

7.6 The lunar and solar hour angles expressed by the sidereal time

The hour angle CP in Fig. 9 is the angle between the meridians running through the sub-lunar
point V and an arbitrary point P on the Earth’s surface, denoted Cl . Similarly, the angle
11 stjernetegnet Væren, eller vårpunktet

35
between the meridians running through the sub-solar point V and an arbitrary point P on the
Earth’s surface is Cs . Time t can be introduced with the convention that t is measured from
 and is expressed relative to a fixed star, known as the sidreal time. The description in the
following paragraphs represents the Earth-Moon system, but corresponding definitions hold for
the Earth-Sun system.
Projected onto the Earth’s equatorial plane, and by introducing the first point of Aries  and
the Greenwich meridional, Fig. 9 looks like Fig. 15. It follows that the lunar hour angle Cl

Figure 15: The celestial sphere, as shown in Fig. 9 for the Earth-Moon system, projected onto
the Earth’s equatorial plane. Vl is the sub-lunar point, P is an arbitrary point on the Earth’s
surface, and  is the first point of Aries. CP = Cl is the lunar hour angle, λP is the positive
east longitude of P , β is the the Right Ascension of the Greenwich meridian, and Al is the
lunar Right Ascension. The angles E1 Ô = λP + β and E2 Ô = Al . A similar configuration
is valid for the Earth-Sun system, denoted with the subscript s .

equals the difference between the angles E1 Ô and E2 Ô :

Cl = E1 Ô − E2 Ô = λP + β − Al (96)

Here λP is the positive east longitude of P , β is the the Right Ascension of the Greenwich
meridian, and Al is the lunar Right Ascension.
The greenwich meridian, relative to a fixed star, moves with the speed ωs = ω0 +ω3 , see Sec. 7.3.
Consequently,
β = (ω0 + ω3 ) t (97)
The Greenwich Mean Time is measured from the lower transit of the mean Sun, or from midnight
at Greenwich. Therefore, with the Greenwich Mean Time used as time reference, which is
commonly the case,
β = (ω0 + ω3 ) t − π (98)
In summary, the lunar hour angle can be put in the form /(3.20a)/

Cl = λP + (ω0 + ω3 ) t − π − Al (99)

The solar hour angle Cs is similarly given by: /(3.20b)/

36
 Cs = λP + (ω0 + ω3 ) t − π − As (100)

In the above expression, As is the solar Right Ascension.

Note that expressions (99) and (100) include several time dependencies, all expressed relative to
fixed stars: The fast-changing dependency is caused by Earth’s diurnal rotation about it’s own
axis (the ω0 + ω3 term), whereas slower dependencies are given by the Moon’s and the Sun’s
rotation around the Earth ( Cl and Cs , respectively), the latter from a geocentric point of view.
The explicit formulation of As can be derived from the Kepler’s equations (Sec. 14) and is given
by expression (284), with a corresponding expression for Al . A very slow time dependency is
given by the actual position of the first point of Aries. For most applications, the latter can be
ignored.
In the special case that the point P is located on the Greenwich Meridian, λP = 0 , and
expressions (99) and (100) become /p. 63/

Cl = (ω0 + ω3 ) t − π − Al (101)

and
Cs = (ω0 + ω3 ) t − π − As (102)

37
8 Decomposing the solar and lunar tides into a series of
simple harmonic constituents
The total tide can be expressed as a sum of many harmonic contributions. Each of these con-
tributions – called tidal component, tidal constituent or harmonic constituent – is represented
by a simple, harmonic cosine function. A capital letter (sometimes a combination of capital
and small letters), plus a numerical subscript, is used to designate each constituent. For in-
stance, the semi-diurnal tidal contribution from the Moon and the Sun are named M2 and S2 ,
respectively.
Each constituent is typically described by its speed (or frequency), expressed as degrees per
mean solar hour (hereafter deg/msh) or radians per mean solar hour (rad/msh). The speed of a
constituent is 360◦ /T , where T (msh) is the period. For S2 , the speed is then 360◦ /(12 msh) =
30◦ / msh.

8.1 Geometry of the Earth-Sun system

The Earth-Sun system, viewed from the Earth (i.e., a geocentric view), can be presented by means
of the declination angle ds , the ecliptic plane angle s = const = 23◦ 270 and the longitude angle
λs as shown in Fig. 16. From this figure, the following relationships are obtained from the three
right-angled triangles mentioned in the figure caption

H = R sin ds (103)
H = L sin s (104)
L = R sin λs (105)

The first two expressions give

L
sin ds = sin s (106)
R
Combined with the third expression, one obtains (Pugh & Woodworth, p. 46) /p. 46/

sin ds = sin λs sin s (107)

38
Figure 16: A geocentric view of the Earth-Solar system. R is the solar position vector, pointing
from the Earth’s centre to the centre of the Sun, with a declination angle ds above Earth’s
equatorial plane. The Sun’s path on sky follows the ecliptic, with s denoting the (approximately)
constant angle between Earth’s equatorial plane and the ecliptic ( s = 23◦ 270 = 23.5◦ ). The
third angle λs denotes the Sun’s eastward directed longitudinal angle with respect to the vernal
equinox  (the point where the ascending Sun crosses the equatorial plane). The vernal equinox
 is also known as the first point of Aries. Note the three right-angled triangles in the figure;
one in red, one in dark blue, and one in light blue confined by the line from the Earth’s centre
towards  and the sub-solar point (light blue dot). For the latter, the angle at the Earth’s centre
is the longitude λs . The triangle describing the angle between the Earth’s equatorial plane and
the ecliptic, the deep blue triangle, slides perpendicularly along the line between the vernal and
autumnal equinoxes.

39
8.1.1 Angular speed of the Earth and the Sun

For the geocentric view in Fig. 16, the longitude angle λs describes the Sun’s motion around
the Earth with a speed given by the duration of the tropical year12,13
360◦ deg def
= 0.0411 = σ3 (108)
365.2422 msd msh
Similarly, Cs describes the Earth’s rotation around it’s own axis relative to the Sun
360◦ deg def
= 15.0000 = σ0 (109)
24 msh msh

The angles λs and Cs , expressed in degrees from  can thus be written as

λ s = σ3 t and C s = σ0 t (110)

where t is time in msh.

Alternatively,
λs = ω3 t and C s = ω0 t (111)
where the ω -speeds have unit radians per time. In the following derivation, the latter alternative
is used.

8.1.2 Expressing the declination factor in ζ1,2 as sin ds

The expression for ζ1 , equation (67), include the factor sin 2 ds , whereas we only have an ex-
pression for sin ds (equation 107). The former term can, however, be expressed by means of
sin ds by noting that
q
(613) (603)
sin 2 ds = 2 sin ds cos ds = 2 sin ds 1 − sin2 ds (112)

The declination angle |ds | < 23.5◦ , so | sin2 ds | is a rather small factor (maximum value is 0.16).
The first order approximation of the binominal theorem (599) can then be applied to (112)
 
1
sin 2 ds ≈ 2 sin ds 1 − sin2 ds (113)
2

yielding the sought after sin ds -dependecy.

Similarly, the expression for ζ2 , equation (68), can be expressed in terms of sin ds by means of
the Pythagorean identity
(603)
cos2 ds = 1 − sin2 ds (114)
12 tropisk år
13 “tropical”comes from the Greek tropicos meaning “turn”, denoting the turning of the Sun’s seasonal motion
as seen from the Earth, i.e., the time between the Sun’s successive crossings of the first point of Aries (from
 to ), see Fig. 15. From https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year: “Because of the precession of the
equinoxes, the seasonal cycle does not remain exactly synchronised with the position of the Earth in its orbit
around the Sun. As a consequence, the tropical year is about 20 minutes shorter than the time it takes Earth to
complete one full orbit around the Sun as measured with respect to the fixed stars (the sidereal year)”. To lowest
order, the sidereal and synodic year can be considered identical.

40
8.1.3 Expressing ζ1 in terms of simple harmonics

With the above definitions and simplification, (67) can be expressed by means of φP , ds , s ,
λs and t:
1
ζ1 = sin(2φP ) sin 2 ds cos Cs
2  
(113) 1 2
= sin(2φP ) sin ds 1 − sin ds cos Cs
2
 
(107) 1 2 3
= sin(2φP ) sin s sin λs − sin s sin λs cos Cs
2
  
(617) 3 2 1 2
= sin(2φP ) sin s 1 − sin s sin λs + sin s sin 3λs cos Cs
8 8
  
(111) 3 2 1 2
= sin(2φP ) sin s 1 − sin s sin ω3 t + sin s sin 3ω3 t cos ω0 t (115)
8 8

Recall that the number in parenthesis above the equality sign points to the expression/identity
used.
For s = 23.5◦ , the 1/8-term is small (about 2 percent contribution), so (115) can be expressed
as
 
3
ζ1 = sin(2φP ) sin s 1 − sin2 s sin ω3 t cos ω0 t
8
= ζ10 sin ω3 t cos ω0 t (116)

Here ζ10 includes the time-independent contribution to ζ1 .

Expression (116) states that the temporal variation of ζ1 is governed by the basic speed ω0 = 15
deg/msh, modulated by the (slow) speed ω3 = 0.0411 deg/msh.
The identity    
(610) 1 1
sin a − sin b = 2 sin (a − b) cos (a + b) (117)
2 2
can be used to split (116) into two simple harmonics. With
1 1
ω3 t = (a − b) and ω0 t = (a + b) (118)
2 2
we obtain a = (ω0 + ω3 ) t and b = (ω0 − ω3 ) t. Thus,

ζ10
ζ1 = [sin(ω0 + ω3 ) t − sin(ω0 − ω3 ) t] (119)
2
The Sun’s diurnal contribution has therefore speeds ω0 + ω3 and ω0 − ω3 , symmetrically dis-
tributed about the basic speed ω0 .
In summary, ζ1 gives rise to two tidal constituents, originating from the Earth’s rotation around
it’s own axis with speed ω0 , modulated by the Sun’s half-yearly variation of the declination
angle. The two constituents are called the solar declination constituents:
K1 Declinational diurnal constituent (will also get a contribution from the Moon, see Sec. 8.3);
it’s speed is σ0 + σ3 = σs = 15.0411 deg/msh and the period is 23.9344 msh.

41
P1 Principal (main) solar declinational diurnal constituent; it’s speed is σ0 − σ3 = σs − 2 σ3 =
14.9589 deg/msh and period is 24.0659 msh.
In the above definitions, the speed of the Earth’s sidereal day σs = σ0 + σ3 (expression 94) has
been introduced in order to facilitate transfer of the solar to the lunar constituents.

8.1.4 Expressing ζ2 in terms of simple harmonics

Following the procedure for ζ1 , ζ2 can rewritten as

1
ζ2 = cos2 φP cos2 ds cos 2Cs
2
(603) 1
= cos2 φP (1 − sin2 ds ) cos 2Cs
2
(107) 1
= cos2 φP (1 − sin2 s sin2 λs ) cos 2Cs
2  
(616) 1 1
= cos2 φP 1 − sin2 s (1 − cos 2λs ) cos 2Cs (120)
2 2

If (120) is ordered with terms with and without λs -dependency, one obtains
  
1 2 1 2 1 2
ζ2 = cos φP 1 − sin s cos 2Cs + sin s cos 2λs cos 2Cs
2 2 2
 
1 1
= cos2 φP 1 − sin2 s cos(2 ω0 t)
2 2

1 2
+ sin s cos 2 ω3 t cos(2 ω0 t) (121)
2
In the last equality, the angular speeds from Sec. 8.1.1 have been introduced.
Similarly to ζ1 , the product cos 2 ω3 t cos(2 ω0 t) can be split into two simple harmonics by means
of the identity    
(611) 1 1
cos a + cos b = 2 cos (a + b) cos (a − b) (122)
2 2
With the choice
1 1
2 ω3 = (a − b) and 2 ω0 = (a + b) (123)
2 2
we obtain a = 2 (ω0 + ω3 ) and b = 2 (ω0 − ω3 ). Consequently,
 
1 2 1 2
ζ2 = cos φP 1 − sin s cos 2 ω0 t
2 2
1
+ sin2 s cos 2 (ω0 + ω3 )t
4 
1
+ sin2 s cos 2 (ω0 − ω3 )t (124)
4

In summary, ζ2 gives rise to three semi-diurnal tidal constituents:

S2 is the principal (main) solar semi-diurnal tide with speed 2 σ0 = 2 (σs − σ3 ) = 30 deg/msh
and a period of 12 msh.

42
K2 is the semi-diurnal declination tide from the Sun and Moon (the latter contribution is given
in Sec. 8.3), often called the lunisolar semi-diurnal constituent. It’s peed is 2 (σ0 + σ3 ) =
2 σs = 30.0822 deg/msh and the period is 11.9672 msh.
The third constituent is the second semi-diurnal solar declination tide. It’s speed is 2 (σ0 −
σ3 ) = 29.9178 deg/msh and the period is 12.0330 msh.
Since s = 23◦ 270 = const , sin2 s = 0.16 , so the two last terms in (124) are small compared to
the S2 -term. But since K2 gets a similar contribution from the Moon, this constituent is larger
than the third constituent. One may therefore neglect the third component, but not K2 .

8.1.5 The lunar fortnightly and solar annual and semi-annual tidal constituents

Expression (70) has a temporal dependency governed by cos 2dl and cos 2ds (by means of
identity 74), or half of the lunar and solar declinational periods. This gives rise to the fortnightly
and semi-annual tidal constituents (cfr. Sec. 6.3) /p. 65/
Mf , the lunar fortnightly (or semi-monthly) declinational tidal constituent with speed 2 σ2 =
1.0980 deg/msh and a period of 13.66 msd.
Ssa , the solar semi-annual declinational tidal constituent with speed 2 σ3 = 0.0821 deg/msh
and a period of 182.70 msd.
The solar semi-annual tidal constituent is greatly influenced by seasonal changes in ocean tem-
perature, resulting in a combined tidal and thermal signal.
There is also a thermally-induced annual signal which, combined with a contribution from the
eccentricity of the Earth’s orbit, give
Sa , the solar annual (elliptic) constituent with speed σ3 − σ6 = 0.0411 deg/msh and a period
of 364.96 msd.
The relative magnitude of the Mf , Ssa and Sa constituents are, respectively, 0.17, 0.08 /p. 65/
and 0.01, yielding small but non-negligible contributions to (slow) variations in the sea surface
height.

8.2 Sun’s leading semi-diurnal and diurnal tidal constituents

The following table summarise the leading solar constituents. As previously mentioned, the
Earth’s sidereal speed around it’s own axis, σs , is introduced to facilitate transfer of the solar
to the lunar constituents.

8.3 Moon’s leading semi-diurnal and diurnal tidal constituents

The lunar plane relative to Earth’s equatorial plane varies from 18◦ 180 to 28◦ 360 in 18.6 years,
but it can be considered constant for a year or so. Moon’s major tidal constituents follow then
those of the Sun derived above, i.e., with a constant angle l , corresponding to a constant ecliptic
angle s .

43
 Angular speed Period Tidal constituent
Symbol (deg/msh) (msh)
σs − 2 σ3 14.9589 24.0660 P1 Principal diurnal solar tide
σs 15.0411 23.9344 K1 Diurnal (solar+lunar) declination tide
2 (σs − σ3 ) = 2 σ0 30.0000 12.0000 S2 Principal semi-diurnal solar tide
2 (σs − 2 σ3 ) 27.8862 12.9096 (small) Semi-diurnal solar declination tide
2 σs 29.9178 12.0330 K2 Semi-diurnal (solar+lunar) declination tide

Table 3: Overview of the major solar tidal constituents, excluding variations in the Earth’s orbit
around the Sun. Note that σs = σ0 + σ3 (see 94).

From a geocentric view, the full rotation of the Moon around the Earth is given by the monthly
lunar sidereal period Tl = 27.3216 msd (see Sec. 7.1). The corresponding angular speed is

360◦ deg def

= 0.5490 = σ2 (125)
27.3216 msd msh

Furthermore, the daily (synodic) lunar period is given by σ1 , corresponding to σ0 for the
Sun.
Thus, the leading lunar constituents are as those for the Sun from Table 3, but with σ0 substi-
tuted by σ1 and σ3 substituted by σ2 . The resulting speeds and periods are listed in Table 4.

Angular speed Period Tidal constituent

Symbol (deg/msh) (msh)
σs − 2 σ2 13.9431 25.8192 O1 Principal diurnal lunar tide
σs 15.0411 23.9344 K1 Diurnal (solar+lunar) declination tide
2 (σs − σ2 ) = 2 σ1 28.9842 12.4206 M2 Principal semi-diurnal lunar tide
2 (σs − 2 σ2 ) 27.8862 12.9096 (small) Semi-diurnal lunar declination tide
2 σs 30.0822 11.9672 K2 Semi-diurnal (solar+lunar) declination tide

Table 4: Overview of the major lunar tidal constituents, excluding variations in the Moon’s orbit
around the Earth. Note that σs = σ1 + σ2 (see 95).

44
8.4 Doodson’s system for labelling tidal constituents

To facilitate a tabular overview of the (many) tidal constituents, Doodson invented a 6-digit
system characterising the speed of the constituents. The speed of the individual contributions
σn can be described by means of the 6 basic frequencies σ1 ...σ6 , /(4.1)/

σn = ia σ1 + ib σ2 + ... + if σ6 (126)

where ia...f are integers, and the frequencies σ1 ...σ6 are as listed in table 2.
Table 5 summarises the Doodson coefficients for four of the leading tidal constituents. As an
example, the speed of the S2 tide, 2(σs − σ3 ) , can be expressed in terms of σ1,...,6 by use of
the relationship σs = σ1 + σ2 (from 95):

2 (σs − σ3 ) = 2 ((σ1 + σ2 ) − σ3 ) = 2 σ1 + 2 σ2 − 2 σ3 + 0 σ4 + 0 σ5 + 0 σ6 (127)

The corresponding Doodson coefficients are then

ia = 2, ib = 2, ic = −2, id,e,f = 0 (128)

It’s common to write the coefficients as an integer sequence. For the above example, the sequence
is 22-2.000, where the period mark is introduced to ease reading.
To circumvent negative coefficients, it is common practice to add 5 to the coefficients ib ...if , see
the right-hand column in Table 5.

Table 5: Overview of the leading annual, semi-annual, fortnightly, diurnal and semi-diurnal solar
and lunar tides expressed with the default and non-negative Doodson coefficients.

Tide Period Speed Symbol Doodson Non-negative

coefficients coefficients
(deg/msh) ia ib ic .id ie if (add 5 to ib ...if )
Sa 364.96 msd 0.0411 σ3 − σ6 001.00-1 056.554
Ssa 182.70 msd 0.0821 2 σ3 002.000 057.555
Mf 13.6600 msd 1.0980 2 σ2 020.000 075.555
O1 25.8194 msh 13.9430 σs − 2 σ2 1-10.000 145.555
P1 24.0660 msh 14.9589 σs − 2 σ3 11-2.000 163.555
K1 23.9344 msh 15.0411 σs 110.000 165.555
M2 12.4206 msh 28.9841 2 (σs − σ2 ) 200.000 255.555
K2 12.0330 msh 29.9178 2 σs 220.000 275.555
S2 12.0000 msh 30.0000 2 (σs − σ3 ) 22-2.000 273.555

8.5 Tidal types

Locally, tidal variations can be mainly semi-diurnal, mainly diurnal, or (commonly) a mix be-
tween the two. Reasons for the different temporal variations are interactions between e.g. the

45
tidal forcing, bathymetry, and latitude. It is therefore common to examine the amplitude ratio
F between the leading diurnal and semi-diurnal constituents
HK1 + HO1
F = (129)
HM2 + HS2

Depending on the value of F , the following characterisations can be made



 < 0.25 Semi-diurnal variations
∈ (0.25, 1.5) Mixed, mainly semi-diurnal variations

F = (130)

 ∈ (1.5, 3) Mixed, mainly diurnal variations
>3 Diurnal variations


46
9 The spring/neap tide
In regions where the M2 and S2 tides dominate, the combined M2 + S2 tide generates a
prominent signal known as the spring tide 14 when the tidal amplitude is particularly large and
the neap tide 15 when the tidal amplitude is small, see Fig. 17.
The spring tide occurs when the three-body Earth-Moon-Sun system is closely aligned along a
line (often referred to syzygy 16 ), implying new or full Moon seen from the Earth. The neap tide
occurs when the Moon and the Sun are approximately at right angles to each other seen from
the Earth (at first-quarter and third-quarter Moon).

Figure 17: Computed M2 (top panel) and the combined M2 + S2 tides for Bergen, Norway,
based on harmonic analysis of observed sea level acquired from https://www.kartverket.no/
sehavniva/.
14 springflo, springfjære
15 nippflo,nippfjære
16 syzygy på norsk, også...

47
9.1 Derivation

The sea surface elevation Z(t) governed by the combined M2 + S2 tide can be expressed
as
Z(t) = Z0 + HM2 cos(2 σ1 t − gM2 ) + HS2 cos(2 σ0 t − gS2 ) (131)
Here Z0 is the sea surface elevation in the absence of tides, and HM2 , 2 σ1 and gM2 are the
amplitude, frequency and (constant) phase of the M2 tide. Similarly, HS2 , 2 σ0 and gS2 are
the corresponding quantities for the S2 tide.
The S2 argument can always be expressed similarly with the leading M2 argument 2 σ1 t −
gM2 :
Z(t) = Z0 + HM2 cos(2 σ1 t − gM2 ) + HS2 cos(2 σ1 t − gM2 − θ) (132)
Consequently, by comparing (131) and (132), /p. 75/

2 σ0 t − gS2 = 2 σ1 t − gM2 − θ (133)

or
θ(t) = 2(σ1 − σ0 )t + gS2 − gM2 (134)

As will be shown in Sec. 9.1.2 below, the temporally varying part of θ , in this case the angular
frequency 2(σ1 − σ0 ) , gives rise to the the fortnightly spring-neap period, or to the spring/neap
tidal signal. The difference 2 (σ0 − σ1 ) = 1.0158 deg/msh (values from table 2), yields the
spring/neap period
T = 14.7667 msd (135)
The combined M2 + S2 tide is prominent in many places, and is thus an important part of the
total tidal variation.
Note that the period of the spring/neap tide is not a basic tidal constituent in itself, but occurs
as an interference between the two tidal constituents M2 and S2 with closely matching periods
and comparable amplitudes.
Expansion of the second cosine-term in (132) gives
(605)
Z(t) = Z0 + HM2 cos(2 σ1 t − gM2 )
+HS2 {cos(2 σ1 t − gM2 ) cos θ + sin(2 σ1 t − gM2 ) sin θ}
= Z0 + (HM2 + HS2 cos θ) cos(2 σ1 t − gM2 ) + HS2 sin θ sin(2 σ1 t − gM2 ) (136)

The above expression consists of slow amplitude modulations given by the factors HM2 +HS2 cos θ
and HS2 sin θ – both with period 14.7667 msd, originating from the speed difference 2(σ1 − σ0 )
– and semi-diurnal variations given by the argument 2 σ1 t − gM2 .
The slow amplitude modulation can conveniently be expressed by means of a time dependent
amplitude α0 and argument β 0 :

HM2 + HS2 cos θ = α0 cos β 0 (137)

0 0
HS2 sin θ = α sin β (138)

β 0 can be determined upon dividing (138) by (137), yielding

 
0 HS2 sin θ 0 HS2 sin θ
tan β = , so β = arctan (139)
HM2 + HS2 cos θ HM2 + HS2 cos θ

48
Likewise, α0 can be determined by squaring and adding (137) and (138):
q
α0 = HM 2 + 2H
2
2
M2 HS2 cos θ + HS2 ) (140)

Z(t) can now be cast in the compact form (by means of the identity 605): /4.8/

Z(t) = Z0 + α0 cos(2 σ1 t − gM2 − β 0 ) (141)

9.1.1 Amplitude and range

From expression (140), the largest amplitude of the M2 + S2 tide occurs when cos θ = 1 :
0
αmax = HM2 + HS2 (142)

In this case, the (spring) tidal range varies between Z0 − (HM2 + HS2 ) and Z0 + (HM2 +
HS2 ) .
Similarly, the smallest amplitude occurs when cos θ = −1 :
0
αmin = HM2 − HS2 (143)

Thus, the neap tidal range varies between Z0 − (HM2 − HS2 ) and Z0 + (HM2 − HS2 ) .
With HM2 ≈ 2.2 HS2 (see Sec. 5.1), this implies that the spring and neap tides have amplitudes
0 0
αmax ≈ 3.2 HS2 and αmin ≈ 1.2 HS2 , respectively, with a ratio
0
αmax
0 ≈ 2.5 (144)
αmin

Based on the analysis in Fig. 17, the computed HM2 , HS2 amplitudes are 46.2 cm and 16.5 cm,
0 0
respectively, yielding a αmax /αmin ratio of 2.1. The difference between the equilibrium theory
based value of 2.5 from expression (144) and the local Bergen value of 2.1 can have several reasons:
The computed values are approximations, but more importantly, the equilibrium theory describes
the tide on an aqua-planet, whereas any single position will be influenced by basin-scale, regional
and local processes.

9.1.2 Timing of maximum amplitude

0
The largest amplitude αmax of the spring tide occurs when θ = 0 or any 2 π multiples of θ
(see 140). From expression (134), maximum amplitude in the case of θ = 0 occurs at /4.9/

gS2 − gM2
tmax = (145)
2(σ0 − σ1 )

Consequently, the fortnightly spring-neap period is given by

360◦
= 14.7667 msd (146)
2(σ0 − σ1 )

49
9.1.3 Age of the tide

The arguments of the M2 tide from (131) and the combined M2 + S2 tide from (141) are,
respectively,
2 σ1 t − gM2 and 2 σ1 t − gM2 − β 0 (147)
A time-varying time lag ∆ = ∆(t) between the M2 and M2 + S2 tides can thus be determined
from the expression
2σ1 (t + ∆) − gM2 = 2 σ1 t − gM2 − β 0 (148)
resulting in
β 0 (t)
∆(t) = − (149)
2 σ1

The time lag between the two tides is largest when β 0 reaches its maximum or minimum value,
i.e., when
dβ 0
=0 (150)
dt
with β 0 defined by (139).
With the substitution
HS2 sin θ(t)
x(t) = (151)
HM2 + HS2 cos θ(t)
expression (139) becomes
β 0 = arctan x (152)
Using the derivative of arctangent (expression 628), we obtain

dβ 0 dβ 0 dx 1 dx
= = 2
=0 (153)
dt dx dt 1 + x dt

Maximising β 0 , for a general θ , is therefore given by dx/dt = 0 . Vanishing derivative of (151)

with respect to t leads to the relationship
HS2
cos θ = − (154)
HM2

From the equilibrium theory, see Sec. 5.1, HM2 = 0.268 m and HS2 = 0.123 m. Thus,

cos θ = −0.46 , or θ = ±2.05 rad (155)

HM2 , HS2 and θ inserted into (139) gives

tan β 0 ≈ ±0.52 or β 0 ≈ ±48 rad (or ± 27 deg) (156)

Largest time lag is obtained for β 0 = ±27 deg , yielding maximum time lag from (149) of /p. 76/

∓27 deg
∆max = = ∓0.94 msh = ∓57 min (157)
28.9842 deg/msh

50
Thus, the combined M2 + S2 tide lags/leads the M2 tide with slightly less than 1 hour at
most. This time difference – the maximum lag/lead between the new and the full Moon and the
maximum spring tidal range – is called the age of the tide17 .
The time lag between the M2 and M2 + S2 tides, derived from expression (149), is plotted in
Fig. 18. During the lunar synodic period Tsynodic = 29.5307 msd (Sec. 7.1), the time lag maxima
occurs at the fraction ±2.05 rad/(2 π) of the period Tsynodic , or at

2.05 rad 2 π − 2.05 rad

Tsynodic ≈ 9.6 msd and Tsynodic ≈ 19.9 msd (158)
2π 2π

Figure 18: Illustration of the age of the tide ∆ , from expression (149), through a full lunar
synodic period of 29.5307 msd. Maximum time lag of slightly less than 1 hr, called the age of
the tide, occurs about 9.6 and 19.9 msd after full Moon.

Based on observed tidal variations, the age of the tide can be much larger than approximately
1 hr, in many places several days. The difference between the theory presented here and the
observed variations can be caused by the influence of the bathymetry, the coastal geometry, and
the friction on the tidal waves propagating into and leaving a given location. For Norway, see
p. 148 in the “Norske los” for an overview of the age of the tide18 .

9.1.4 A note

For any two waves with closely matching speed and amplitude, the beating frequency equals the
speed difference between the two waves. This follows from the derivation of the group speed as
outlined in appendix F.5, where the sum of two comparable waves (see expression 587) leads to
a ‘modified’ wave with a slowly changing amplitude and speed (expression 594).
17 tidevannets alder
18 https://www.kartverket.no/dnl/den-norske-los-1.pdf

51
9.2 Resonance between the major diurnal constituents K1 , O1 , P1

Similarly to the interaction between the leading semi-diurnal constituents M2 and S2 , the
major diurnal tidal constituents K1 , O1 , P1 will also interact.
Following the derivation of the spring-neap tide above, the periodicity of resonance between K1
(speed σs ) and O1 (speed σs − 2 σ2 ) is given by /p. 69/

360◦ 360◦
= = 13.66 msd (159)
σs − (σs − 2 σ2 ) 2 σ2

Note that this is not a tidal constituent, but modulation of the amplitude of the combined K1
and O1 tides. The period is similar to the fortnightly tide Mf .
The resonance between K1 and P1 (speed σs − 2 σ3 ) is given by

360◦ 360◦
= = 182.48 msd (160)
σs − (σs − 2 σ3 ) 2 σ3

In the above expressions, the speeds and σ -values are from table 5.

52
10 Tidal forcing in the momentum equation
The full 3-dimensional tidal flow, taking into account bathymetry and coastlines, can be described
by the primitive equations. The 3-dimensional momentum equation can be expressed in the form
(M & P (2008), Chap. 6)
Du 1
+ ∇p + fẑ × u = −g ẑ + F (161)
Dt ρ
In (161), u is the 3-dimensional velocity field, Du/Dt is the total derivative of u , p is pressure,
ρ is density, f is the Coriolis parameter, ẑ is the radial, outward-directed unit vector on a sphere,
and F is friction.
The tidal forcing from the Moon and the Sun at the surface of the Earth can be added to (161)
by introducing the pressure force (40) caused by the tidal elevation ζ (54):

Du 1
+ ∇p + fẑ × u = −g ẑ − g∇ζ + F (162)
Dt ρ
where
3 r 4 ml
    
2 1 ms 2 1
ζ= cos φ l − + cos φ s − (163)
2 me Rl3 3 Rs3 3
In the expression for ζ , cos2 φ − 1/3 is written in terms of the latitude φP and the hour angle
CP of a position P on Earth’s surface, as well as the declination angle d of the celestial body
(see Sec. 6 and expression 64):
1 1 1
cos2 φ − = cos2 φP cos2 d cos2 CP + sin(2 φP ) sin(2 d) cos CP + sin2 φP sin2 d − (164)
3 2 3
The hour (“longitude”) angle CP needs to be referenced to a fixed geographic point. A common
reference point is the point of the vernal equinox19  (also known as the first point of Aries),
see Fig. 16.
The angles φP , Cs and δ can be computed in Fortran, C and Python, for any time, from e.g.
the Naval Observatory Vector Astrometry Software (NOVAS, see Kaplan et al., 2011,
http://aa.usno.navy.mil/software/novas/novas_info.php).
The momentum equation (162), with expressions (163) and (164), together with the continuity
equation, models the full 3-dimensional dynamics of the tide. The set of equations, incorporating
realistic bathymetry, can only be solved numerically.
See also page 308 in Cushman-Roisin and Beckers, Introduction to Geophysical Fluid Dynamics,
Academic Press, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2011.

19 vårjevndøgn

53
11 Laplace’s Tidal Equations
When tidal forcing is introduced to the (quasi-)linearised version of the shallow water equations,
the obtained equations are known as Laplace’s Tidal Equations (LTE). Tidal flow is then de-
scribed as the flow of a barotropic fluid, forced by the tidal pull from the Moon and the Sun. The
phrase “shallow water equations” reflects that the wavelength of the resulting motion is large
compared to the thickness of the fluid20 .
The horizontal components of the momentum equation and the continuity equation can then be
expressed as
∂u ∂
− f v = −g (ζ + ζ) (165)
∂t ∂x
∂v ∂
+ f u = −g (ζ + ζ) (166)
∂t ∂y
∂ζ ∂ ∂
+ (uh) + (vh) = 0 (167)
∂t ∂x ∂y

In the above equations, −g∇ζ is the tidal forcing with ζ obtained from (163) and (164), ζ is
the surface elevation, and h is the ocean depth.
The horizontal momentum equations are linear, but inclusion of a friction term will typically turn
the equations non-linear. Likewise, the divergence terms in the continuity equation are nonlinear
because of the product uh and vh. Solution of LTE requires discretisation and subsequent
numerical solution.

20 See e.g.https://www.vims.edu/research/units/labgroups/tc_tutorial/longwaves.php

54
12 The tidal force expressed in terms of the tidal poten-
tial
The direct method described in Sec. 4 can be conveniently carried out by introducing the tidal
potential as described below.

12.1 The potential of a conservative force

The gravitational force is an example of a conservative force, i.e., a force with the property that
the work done in moving a particle from position a to position b is independent of the path
taken (think of changes in the potential energy when an object in Earth’s gravitational field is
moved from one position to a new position; the path taken is irrelevant, only the height difference
between the start and end positions matter).
It then follows that the gravitational force F can be expressed as the negative gradient of a
potential (a scalar) Ω
F = −∇Ω (168)
Once Ω is found, the resulting force can be readily obtained by taking the gradient of Ω. This
simplification is a main motivation of introducing the potential, and it is commonly used in
problems involving gravitation and electromagnetism.

12.2 Defining the tidal potential

From (18), we have that the tidal acceleration can be expressed as

 
q R
a = G ml − 3 (169)
q3 R
Let Ft denote the tidal force per unit mass (or acceleration). It follows then from the above
expression that  
q R
Ft = G ml − 3 (170)
q3 R
The task is therefore to determine the scalar function Ω , the tidal potential, satisfying

Ft = −∇Ω (171)

12.2.1 Gradient of the factor q/q 3

We start by searching for a scalar with the property that the gradient of the scalar equals q/q 3 .
It follows from Fig. (4) that
q=R−r (172)
In the above expression, R is a constant (fixed) vector whereas r varies spatially as it can
oriented at any location on Earth’s surface.
In a Cartesian coordinate system with time-invariant unit vectors ex , ey and ez , we may
express
r = x ex + y ey + z ez (173)

55
and
R = Rx ex + Ry ey + Rz ez (174)
Therefore,
q = (Rx − x) ex + (Ry − y) ey + (Rz − z) ez (175)

The magnitude of q becomes

1/2
q = |q| = |R − r| = (Rx − x)2 + (Ry − y)2 + (Rz − z)2

(176)

so 3/2
q 3 = (Rx − x)2 + (Ry − y)2 + (Rz − z)2

(177)

Furthermore,        
1 ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂ 1
∇ = ex + ey + ez (178)
q ∂x q ∂y q ∂z q
In the above expression
  !
∂ 1 ∂ 1
= 1/2
∂x q ∂x [(Rx − x)2 + (Ry − y)2 + (Rz − z)2 ]

1 −2(Rx − x)
= − (179)
2 [(Rx − x)2 + (Ry − y)2 + (Rz − z)2 ]3/2

Similar results are obtained for the y- and z-derivatives in (178). Consequently,
 
1 (Rx − x) ex + (Ry − y) ey + (Rz − z) ez q
∇ = = 3 (180)
q q3 q

The q/q 3 -term in (170) can therefore be expressed as ∇(1/q). This is a classical result from
both electrodynamics and analysis involving gravity.

12.2.2 Gradient of the factor R/R3

The second term on the right-hand side of (170) can also be turned into the gradient of a scalar.
For this we use that
r · R = x Rx + y Ry + z Rz (181)
Consequently,
∂ ∂ ∂
∇(r · R) = (r · R) ex + (r · R) ey + (r · R) ex
∂x ∂y ∂z
= Rx ex + Ry ey + Rz ez
= R (182)

The R/R3 -term in (170) is therefore equivalent to ∇(r · R).

56
12.2.3 Resulting tidal potential

By inserting (180) and (182) into (170), we obtain

 
1 r·R
Ft = −Gml ∇ − + +C (183)
q R3
where C is a constant.
C can be determined by noting that Ft vanishes at Earth’s centre, see the discussion in Sec. 4.7.
When r = 0 , q equals R , and we get from (183) that C = 1/R. Therefore
 
1 r·R 1
Ft = −Gml ∇ − + + = −∇Ω (184)
q R3 R
where the tidal potential Ω was introduced in (171). The tidal potential can therefore be put
in the form  
1 r·R 1
Ω = Gml − + + (185)
q R3 R

12.3 Tidal potential expressed in terms of the zenith angle

Next step is to express (185) by means of the zenith angle φ (see Fig. 4). For the 1/q-term the
procedure follows that of Sec. 4.8, starting with the law of cosines (19),
h r r i
q 2 = R2 + r2 − 2 R r cos φ = R2 1 + − 2 cos φ (186)
R R
Consequently,
h r r i1/2
q =R 1+ − 2 cos φ (187)
R R
The factor r/R has been introduced in the above expressions since it is a small number (ap-
pendix A), allowing for series expansion. The quantity 1/q can then be expended by applying
the binomial theorem (599). We neglect terms proportional to and smaller than (r/R)3 , giv-
ing
1 1 h r r i−1/2
= 1+ − 2 cos φ
q R R R
1

1 r r  (− 1 )(− 3 )  r 2  r 2 
2 2
= 1− − 2 cos φ + − 2 cos φ + . . .
R 2R R 2 R R
 
1 1  r 2 r 3  r 2
≈ 1− + cos φ + cos2 φ
R 2 R R 2 R
 
1 r 1  r 2 2


= 1 + cos φ + 3 cos φ − 1 (188)
R R 2 R

For the r · R-term, the scalar product gives

r · R = r R cos φ

so
r·R r
= 2 cos φ (189)
R3 R

57
By combining (185), (188) and (189), one obtains the tidal potential expressed in terms of the
zenith angle φ , /3.8/
r2
 
3 2 1
Ω = − Gml 3 cos φ − (190)
2 R 3

12.3.1 Radial and tangential tidal forces per unit mass

Once the tidal potential Ω is determined, the radial and tangential tidal forces per unit mass can
be determined from (171). For the gradient operator, we use the spherical (zenith) coordinate
system shown in the right panel of Fig. 33. In this system, the gradient operator is given
by (487).
The radial component Ft,r of the tidal force per unit mass is then

∂Ω r
= Gml 3 3 cos2 φ − 1


Ft,r = − (191)
∂r R
or, by introducing the gravitational acceleration g from (12), /3.9/

ml  r 3
3 cos2 φ − 1


Ft,r = g (192)
me R

Ft,r is directed outward, i.e., in the er -direction.

Similarly, the tangential (horizontal) component Ft,h of the tidal force per unit mass is

1 ∂Ω r
Ft,h = − = 3Gml 3 cos φ sin φ (193)
r ∂r R
or, with sin 2φ = 2 sin φ cos φ and by introducing the gravitational acceleration g from (12), Below
/3.9/
3 ml  r 3
Ft,h = g sin 2φ (194)
2 me R

Ft,h is oriented in the eφ direction, i.e., towards the centre line connecting the centres of the
Earth and the Moon (see Fig. 4).
Ft,r and Ft,h are identical to the tidal acceleration in (31) and (29), demonstrating the con-
sistency of the direct method presented in Sec. 4 and the method of tidal potential of this
section.

58
13 Introducing the tidal potential in the primitive momen-
tum equations
The tidal forcing of the ocean can be introduced by adding the tidal forcing per unit mass (170)
to the 3-dimensional momentum equation (161).
The tidal forcing on the Earth’s surface Ωt caused by the Moon (Ωl ) and the Sun (Ωs ) is

Ωt = Ωl + Ωs (195)

Ωl and Ωs are both on the from of (190), so

3 r 4 ml
    
2 1 ms 2 1
Ωt = − g cos φ l − + cos φ s − (196)
2 me Rl3 3 Rs3 3

where G = g r2 /me from (12) has been used.

The resulting momentum equation becomes
Du 1
+ ∇p + fẑ × u = −g ẑ − ∇(Ωt ) + F (197)
Dt ρ
Alternatively, the gravity term can be expressed as a gradient of a potential

−g ẑ = −∇Ωg (198)

where Ωg = g z. It is therefore common to put (197) in the form

Du 1
+ ∇p + fẑ × u = −∇(Ωg + Ωt ) + F (199)
Dt ρ
Note that Ωt is a function of position and time whereas Ωg can be considered time-independent.
Equation (197) or (199), together with the continuity equation, is used to simulate the full 3-
dimensional flow of the ocean tide. The linearised shallow water equivalent of the above equations
is given by (165) and (166).

59
14 Including the effect of elliptic orbits
For the theory presented, the distances between the Sun, the Earth and the Moon have been
kept constant, implying circular orbits. This assumption is correct to lowest order, but smaller
— but still non-negligible — contributions to the tide-generating forces emerge as a result of the
elliptic orbit of the Earth around the Sun, and the elliptic orbit of the Moon around the Earth.
Kepler’s laws are key to both understand and to quantify these contributions. We first consider
the Sun-Earth system.
A side note by J. Kepler, in reference to his own work21 : If anyone thinks that the obscurity of
this presentation arises from the perplexity of my mind, ... I urge any such person to read the
Conics of Apollonius. He will see that there are some matters which no mind, however gifted,
can present in such a way as to be understood in a cursory reading. There is need of meditation,
and a close thinking through of what is said.

14.1 The Sun-Earth system22

The orbit of the Earth about the Sun is an ellipse according to Kepler’s first law. The configu-
ration is shown in Fig. 19.
Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that there is a gravitational force Fe on the Earth
from the Sun given by (see Section 4.4)
GMs me Rs
Fe = − (200)
Rs2 Rs

Newton’s second law relates Fe (acting on the Earth with mass me ) and acceleration

d2 Rs
Fe = me (201)
dt2
Combined, expressions (200) and (201) give

d 2 Rs GMs
2
= − 3 Rs (202)
dt Rs

Expressed in polar coordinates (with the position of the Sun as origin), gives the following unit
vectors in the directions given by the vector Rs (denoted eR ) and in the direction of the angle
K (hereafter eK ; with the property eK ⊥ es )

eR = (cos K, sin K) (203)

eK = (− sin K, cos K) (204)

Consequently,
Rs = Rs eR (205)
21 E.g. https://larouchepub.com/eiw/public/2001/eirv28n45-20011123/eirv28n45-20011123_062-keplers_

optics_passion_for_scien.pdf
22 Mainly based on R. Fitzpatrick (2012): An Introduction to Celestial Mechanics https://doi.org/10.1017/

CBO9781139152310, M. Hendershott (2005): Lecture 1: Introduction to ocean tides https://www.whoi.edu/cms/

files/lecture01_21351.pdf, and Murray & Dermott (1999), Solar System Dynamics, Chap. 2. https://doi.
org/10.1017/CBO9781139174817

60
 y

me

Rs Perihelion

a ae K
ms p´ x

Figure 19: Illustration of the Sun-Earth system. The Earth of mass me orbits the Sun with
mass ms (and assumed to be fixed in space). Rs is the radius vector from the Sun to the Earth;
K is the true anomaly; a is the semi-major axis; e is the eccentricity; and p0 is the longitude
of the perihelion, or the angle between  (the point of reference for the Earth-Sun system) and
the positive x -axis. At present, p0 ≈ 77◦ .

61
Noting that both eR and eK change in time and denoting the individual time derivatives with
a dot, we get

ėR = K̇ (− sin K, cos K) = K̇ eK (206)

ėK = −K̇ (cos K, sin K) = −K̇ eR (207)

Consequently,
dRs
v= = Ṙs eR + Rs ėR (208)
dt
= Ṙs eR + Rs K̇ eK (209)

Furthermore,
dv d 2 Rs
a= = = R̈s eR + Ṙs ėR + (Ṙs K̇ + Rs K̈) eK + Rs K̇ ėK (210)
dt dt2
or, by means of (206) and (207),

a = (R̈s − Rs K̇ 2 ) eR + (Rs K̈ + 2Ṙs K̇) eK (211)

The equation of motion of the Earth, under the gravitational influence of the Sun (expres-
sion 200), is therefore given by
GMs
a = (R̈s − Rs K̇ 2 ) eR + (Rs K̈ + 2Ṙs K̇) eK = − eR (212)
Rs2
From the right-most equality, the radial component of the equation of motion becomes
GMs
R̈s − Rs K̇ 2 = − (213)
Rs2
and the tangential component is
Rs K̈ + 2Ṙs K̇ = 0 (214)

14.2 Kepler’s second law

The tangential component (214) is equivalent to

d(Rs2 K̇)
=0 (215)
dt
implying that the quantity
Rs2 K̇ ≡ h0 (216)
is independent of time.
The above quantity has both a geometrical and physical interpretation. The geometrical inter-
pretation follows from Fig. 20. Per definition, the length l of the outlined (red coloured) arc is
given by l = KRs . For small K , or for small changes in K , the area A of the outlined sector
is given by the half the base ( Rs ) times its height ( l ), i.e.,
1
A= KRs2 (217)
2

62
Figure 20: Illustration of the Earth orbiting the Sun. Rs is the vector from the Sun to the
Earth; K is the true anomaly; and l = K Rs is the arc length. For small K , the area A of the
outlined sector equals the area of a triangle, A = KRs2 /2 .

Temporal changes of A are thus given by

dA 1 d(KRs2 ) 1 dh0
= = =0 (218)
dt 2 dt 2 dt
Therefore, A is constant in time. Thus, Kepler’s second law) states that the radius vector from /Fig. 3.9/
the Sun to the Earth (or to any planet) sweeps out equal areas in equal times.

14.3 Kepler’s first law

The radial component (213) is non-linear in Rs , but it can be turned into a linear equation by
introducing
1 1
u= or Rs = (219)
Rs u
Temporal derivatives of Rs can now be expressed in terms of u = u(K(t)) by repeated use of
the chain rule
1 1 du dK du
Ṙs = − 2 u̇ = − 2 = −h0 (220)
u u dK dt dK
where h0 is given by (216). In a similar manner,
d2 u dK 2
2 0 2 d u
R̈s = −h0 = −u (h ) (221)
dK 2 dt dK 2
Inserting into (213) leads to
d2 u
−(h0 )2 u2 − (h0 )2 u3 = −u2 GMs (222)
dK 2
or
d2 u GMs
+u= 0 2 (223)
dK 2 (h )

The homogeneous solution to the above equation is proportional to cos K . Including the constant
right-hand side of (223) to the solution gives, with u = 1/Rs :
1 GMs
= A0 cos K + 0 2 (224)
Rs (h )
where A0 is a constant of integration. A second integration constant is embedded in the argument
of the cosine-function, so that the argument K can be adjusted by a constant phase shift
according to the chosen coordinate system.

63
Expression (224) is, as expected, the parametric equation of an ellipse, see appendix D. By direct
comparison with (524), equation (224) can be written in terms of the ellipse’s semi-major axis
a and the eccentricity e :
e
A0 = (225)
a(1 − e2 )
and
GMs 1
0 2
= (226)
(h ) a(1 − e2 )

From expression (224), Kepler’s first law states that planets move in ellipses with the Sun at one
focus.

14.4 Kepler’s third law

During one orbital period TK , the area A swept out by Rs is

A = πab (227)

From expression (218), integrating over one period,

h TK
A= (228)
2
Therefore,
2 a2 b2 a4 (1 − e2 )
TK = 4π 2 0
= 4π 2 (229)
(h ) 2 (h0 )2
where use has been made of expression (501) in the last equality.
Furthermore, from (226),
(h0 )2 = a(1 − e2 ) GMs (230)

By combining (229) and (230), we obtain /3.14/

s
a3
TK = 2π (231)
GMs

The corresponding angle frequency ωK = 2π/TK becomes

r
GMs
ωK = (232)
a3

Note that TK , and therefore ωK , is only dependent of the elliptic parameter a and the envi-
ronmental parameters G and Ms .
Kepler’s third law , from expression (231), states that the square of the orbital period of a planet
is proportional to the cube of its semi-major axis.

64
14.5 Mean anomaly E0

The true anomaly K is 2 π -periodic, but it does not change linearly in time for e 6= 0 . It
is, however, convenient to consider a 2 π -periodic angle that changes linearly in time. This
parameter — named the mean anomaly and denoted E0 — is defined by

E0 = ωK t (233)

with ωK coming from expression (232).

From https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_anomaly: The mean anomaly does not measure
an angle between physical objects. It is simply a convenient, uniform measure of how far around
its orbit a body has progressed since perihelion. The mean anomaly is one of three angular
parameters (known historically as ’anomalies’) that define a position along an orbit, the other
two being the eccentric anomaly and the true anomaly.

14.6 Real vs mean length of the radius vector, and Kepler’s equa-
tion

It is mathematically convenient to introduce the eccentric anomaly E (see Fig. 21), in stead of
the true anomaly K , in expression (224). The task is therefore to relate the elliptic ‘radius’ Rs
with that of the reference circle Rs , for brevity a , with respect to E .
We start with deriving an expression relating Rs and a , followed by Kepler’s equation giving
an equation for E .

14.6.1 Rs vs Rs

Geometric interpretation of the left panel in Fig. 21 gives

F A = 0A − 0F = a cos E − ae = a(cos E − e) (234)

and
F A = Rs cos K (235)
The combination of the above expressions gives

a(cos E − e)
Rs = (236)
cos K
or, alternatively,
a(cos E − e)
cos K = (237)
Rs

The equation for an ellipse in polar coordinates is given by expression (523)

a(1 − e2 )
Rs = (238)
1 + e cos K
or
Rs (1 + e cos K) = a(1 − e2 ) (239)

65
Figure 21: Illustration of the Sun-Earth system. The Earth of mass me orbits the Sun with
mass ms (and assumed to be fixed in space). Rs is the vector from the Sun to the Earth; K
is the true anomaly; a is the semi-major axis; and e is the eccentricity.

Insertion of (237) yields  

a(cos E − e)
Rs 1+e = a(1 − e2 ) (240)
Rs
or, after solving for Rs ,
Rs = a(1 − e cos E) (241)

In stead of the circle radius a , we may use Rs — the mean and constant radius of the principal
circle — leading to
Rs = Rs (1 − e cos E) (242)
(4.3 in Gerkema 2019).
The non-circularity of the elliptic orbit is thus given by

Rs 1
= (243)
Rs 1 − e cos E

For small values of the eccentricity e , the right-hand side of (243) can be series expanded by
means of the binominal theorem, see appendix H.1. We obtain, to lowest order

Rs
= 1 + e cos E (244)
Rs

Next, we need to obtain an equation for E following the orbiting motion of the body M in
Fig. 21.

14.6.2 Kepler’s equation

The area swept out by the orbiting body M can be interpreted from the right panel of Fig. 21.

66
Firstly, the area AE defined by the eccentric anomaly and the reference circle is given by
E a2
AE = π a2 =E (245)
2π 2
where E is in radians. Any y -value on an ellipse equals the constant factor
p
b/a = 1 − e2 (246)
of the corresponding y -value on the reference circle (see appendix D.3). The area of the tri-
coloured region Acol in Fig. 21 therefore equals
√
p
2
a2 1 − e2
Acol = AE 1 − e = E (247)
2

The sector area swept out by K is given by area Acol minus the pink √ triangle in Fig. 21, Apink .
The latter equals half of the baseline c = ae times the height a sin E 1 − e2 :
√
2 1 − e2
Apink = a e sin E (248)
2

The sought-after sector area AK swept out by K is therefore given by

√
1 − e2
AK = Acol − Apink = a2 (E − e sin E) (249)
2

The area AK is proportional to time t , the latter set to zero at perihelion 23 , i.e., the point
of least distance between the Sun and the Earth or, which is equivalent, when M crosses the
positive x -axis in Fig. 21. Therefore,
AK = C t (250)
where C is a constant to be determined.
Let TK and ωK denote the period and frequency of the elliptic motion, respectively. When
E = 2π , AK equals the area of the ellipse,
p
AK = πab = πa2 1 − e2 (251)
where the relationship (502) has been used in the last equality. Consequently,
p
C TK = πa2 1 − e2 (252)
so √
2 1 − e2
C = πa (253)
TK

By combining expressions (249), (250) and (253), we get Kepler’s equation

E − e sin E = ωK t (254)
yielding a relationship between the eccentric anomaly E and the time t since perihelion.
Introducing the mean anomaly from expression (233) gives

E0 = E − e sin E (255)
23 For the Earth-Moon system, the corresponding point is called perigee.

67
14.6.3 Solving Kepler’s equation

Kepler’s equation (255) is transcendental and cannot be solved directly. But the equation can
be solved by iteration. As an example, equation (255) can be put in the form

Ei+1 = E0 + e sin Ei , i = 0, 1, ... (256)

Since the magnitude of the Ei derivative of the right-hand side is less than unity, max |e cos Ei | =
e < 1 , the given iterative scheme converge (the Fixed Point Theorem).
For the first approximations, this give

E1 = E0 + e sin E0 (257)
E2 = E0 + e sin E1 = E0 + e sin(E0 + e sin E0 ) (258)

The last term on the right-hand side of (258) can be expanded by means of the sum and difference
identity (604), leading to

E2 = E0 + e [sin E0 cos(e sin E0 ) + cos E0 sin(e sin E0 )] (259)

For small arguments x , the following series expansions are valid

sin x = x + O(x3 ) (260)

x2
cos x = 1− + O(x4 ) (261)
2
Thus,
E2 = E0 + e [sin E0 + e sin E0 cos E0 ] + O(e3 ) = E0 + e sin E0 + O(e2 ) (262)

For an example of how to numerically determine E , see e.g.

https://www.csun.edu/~hcmth017/master/node16.html.

14.6.4 Rs /Rs expressed by means of E0

Similar to the procedure outlined in Section 14.6.3, the ratio Rs /Rs , from (244), can be expanded
as follows:
Rs
= 1 + e sin E
Rs
≈ 1 + e[cos(E0 + e sin E0 )]
= 1 + e[cos E0 cos(e sin E0 ) − sin E0 sin(e sin E0 )]
= 1 + e cos E0 + O(e2 ) (263)

Thus, to first order in e ,

Rs
= 1 + e cos E0 (264)
Rs

68
14.6.5 Introducing the ecliptic longitude and the longitude of perihelion

The ratio between the length of the actual and mean radius vector in equation (244) can be
expressed in terms of the Sun’s geocentric mean ecliptic longitude h , increasing by 0.0411◦ per
mean solar hour, and the longitude of the solar perigee (called perihelion) p0 . From Fig. 22, the
celestial longitude λs , is
λs = p0 + K (265)

Figure 22: Left panel is as Fig. 19, but including the principal circle; the eccentric anomaly E
(the projection of the Earth, me , onto the principal circle in the y -direction); and the celestial
longitude (or true longitude) λs , running from  to the actual position of the Earth. In the
right panel, an imaginary body (green dot) describes a circular orbit with constant rotation rate
ωK as defined on page 67.

By defining the mean ecliptic longitude relative to  according to

h = p0 + E0 (266)

it follows that
E0 = h − p0 (267)
Thus, from (264), /3.15/
Rs
= 1 + e cos(h − p0 ) (268)
Rs

Furthermore, by combining (276) and (266), we have the relationship

λs = h + K − E0 (269)

In the above expression and elsewhere, the true anomaly K can be written in terms of E , and
subsequently E0 , by combining the two equivalent expressions (238) and (243):
1 + e cos K 1
= (270)
1 − e2 1 − e cos E

69
The smallness of e leads to, by means of the binominal theorem (599) applied to (270), a series
expansion in e :
1 − e2
1 + e cos K = = (1 − e2 )(1 + e cos E + e2 cos2 E + O(e3 ))
1 − e cos E
= 1 + e cos E + e2 cos2 E − e2 + O(e3 ) (271)

Consequently, to first order in e ,

cos K = cos E + e (cos2 E − 1) = cos E + e sin2 E (272)

Upon substituting expression (257) for E and following the procedure outlined in Section 14.6.3,
we get

cos K = cos(E0 + e sin E0 ) − e sin2 (E0 + e sin E0 )

= cos E0 cos(e sin E0 ) − sin E0 sin(e sin E0 )
− e [sin E0 cos(e sin E0 ) + cos E0 sin(e sin E0 )]2
= cos E0 − e sin2 E0 − e [sin E0 + e sin E0 cos E0 ]2 + O(e2 )
= cos E0 − 2e sin2 E0 + O(e2 ) (273)

Similarly, by applying the procedure outlined in Section 14.6.3,

cos(E0 + 2e sin E0 ) = cos E0 cos(2e sin E0 ) − sin E0 sin(2e sin E0 )

= cos E0 − sin E0 2e sin E0 + O(e2 )
= cos E0 − 2e sin2 E0 + O(e2 ) (274)

The right-hand side of the two expressions (273) and (274) are identical to the first order in e ,
implying that (to the first order in e )

K = E0 + 2e sin E0 (275)

Thus, fom expression (269),

λs = h + 2e sin E0 (276)
or, by using (267), /3.16/
λs = h + 2e sin(h − p0 ) (277)

14.7 Right Ascension

The cotangent rule (627) can be applied to the spherical triangle SS 0 in Fig. 23. This
gives
cos As cos s = sin As cot λs (278)
where we have used that the angle at S 0 is a right-angle. The above equation is equivalent
to
sin As cos λs = sin λs cos As cos s (279)

For cos s , the half-angle identity (618) can be used:

1 − tan2 (s /2)

cos s = (280)
1 + tan2 (s /2)

70
 z
P

S
O λs δs

εs S´
Υ As

Figure 23: The celestial sphere with the Vernal Equinox (  ), the Sun ( S ), the equatorial plane
OS 0 , the ecliptic OS , the celestial north pole P , and the meridian P SS 0 . In the spherical
triangle SS 0 , the arc S is the celestial longitude λs , the arc S 0 is the Right Ascension
As , and the arc SS 0 is the declination δs . The angle at  is the obliquity s and the angle at
S 0 is a right-angle. Caption and drawing is based on Fig. 7.7 in Capderou (2004).

71
Thus,  s   s 
sin As cos λs 1 + tan2 = sin λs cos As 1 − tan2 (281)
2 2
Rearranging gives
s
sin As cos λs − cos As sin λs = −(sin As cos λs + sin λs cos As ) tan2 (282)
2
or, by means of the sum and difference identity (604),
 
s
sin(As − λs ) = − tan2 sin(As + λs ) (283)
2

Since s = 0.41 is relatively small, As ≈ λs . Series expansion to lowest order gives, from
expression (624): /3.17/
 
s
As = λs − tan2 sin(2λs ) (284)
2

14.8 Equation of time

The time given on a sundial does approximately, but not exactly, match the time on the clock.
The two time frames would be identical if Earth’s orbit was circular and if Earth’s equatorial
plane was identical to the plane swept out by Earth’s orbit. In this case Earth’s motion could
be described with a constant, circular rotation rate. Actually, the clock time is defined in this
way: That any given time interval represents the same (circular, ecliptic) motion of the Earth
around the Sun. From a geocentric perspective, the latter represents the motion of the mean
Sun, where mean represents averaging over a year, i.e., averaging over one full orbit.
The motion of the true Sun takes into account the elliptic path (Fig. 19), leading to alternating
phases of acceleration and deceleration during the orbit (Section 14.2). Furthermore, the tilt
between the celestial longitude λs and the celestial equator As (Fig. 23), implies that different
distances are travelled during the same time interval. The difference between the Right Ascension
of the mean Sun (clock time) and the Right Ascension of the true Sun (sundial time), at any
time t , is known as the equation of time.

14.8.1 Equation of center

The effect of the Earth’s acceleration/deceleration along it’s elliptical orbit relative to a circular
orbit with constant rotation rate is called the equation of center , EC . Based on this, EC is the
difference between the true anomaly K and the mean anomaly E0 , see Fig. 22:
EC = K − E0 (285)

Thus, by means of (275) and to the first order in e ,

EC = 2e sin E0 (286)
EC = ωK t has, per construction, a period of one year, with t = 0 at perihelion. EC is positive
for the first half of the year, implying that the actual position of Earth is ahead of an imaginary
body moving at constant speed along the reference circle. EC has an amplitude of
EC,amp = 2e = 0.0334 rad (287)

72
14.8.2 Longitudinal differences

The difference in length ER between the Right Ascension As and the celestial longitude λs ,
see Fig. 23, is
s
ER = As − λs = − tan2 sin(2λs ) (288)
2
where use has been made of expression (284) in the last equality.
Realtive to perihelion, the argument
For small eccentricity, from (276),
λs ≈ h = E0 + p0 (289)
where (266) has been used in the last equality. Thus,
s
ER = − tan2 sin 2(E0 + p0 ) (290)
2

14.8.3 Equation of time, final expression

Based on the above, the expression for the equation of time ET , can be put in the form
s
ET = EC + ER = 2e sin E0 − tan2 sin 2(E0 + p0 ) (291)
2
with E0 = ωK t from (233) and p0 = 77◦ = 1.3439 rad .

14.8.4 Equation of time, graphical representation

If we let t denote the day D of the year and let t = 0 correspond to January 1, the passage at
perigee on January 3 occurs at D = 3 . With these choices, and using that a full year has 365
days (for simplicity), we get  
2π
EC = 2e sin (D − 3) (292)
365
EC is in radians, but we want to express it in suitable time units. This can be done by trans-
ferring the amplitude 2 e from radians to days, and thereafter to minutes, by using the relation-
ship
2 π corresponds to 1 D = 1440 min (293)
With e = 0.0167 , we get
   
1440 2π 2π
EC [min] = 0.0334 sin (D − 3) = 7.44 sin (D − 3) (294)
2π 365 365
where [min] denotes that EC is given in minutes.
Similarly, the argument 2 E0 in ER becomes
2π
2 E0 = 2 (D − 3) (295)
365
The second argument in ER , p0 , is a constant phase relative to perigee, see Fig. 22. p0 = −77◦
or, in radians,
2π
p0 = −77 (296)
360

73
Thus,   
s2 D−3 77
ER = − tan sin 4 π − (297)
2 365 360
With s = 23◦ 270 = 23.45◦ , we obtain
    
D−3 77 4π
ER [min] = −9.87 sin 4 π − = −9.87 sin (D − 81.07) (298)
365 360 365

In summary,
   
2π 4π
ET [min] = 7.44 sin (D − 3) − 9.87 sin (D − 81.07) (299)
365 365

with EC in minutes and D in days with D = 1, 2, ..., 365 , with D = 1 for January 1. The
resulting variation throughout the year is shown in Fig. 24. /Fig. 3.10/

Figure 24: The equation of time ET (black line), with it’s two contributions EC (red) and ER
(blue). Positive values means that the time according to a sundial is ahead of the mean time
(i.e., ahead of the clock time). Filled circles show the extrema of ET , with maximum value at
14 Feb with ET = +14.27 min and minimum value at 1 Nov with ET = −16.35 min . Open
circles show the four zero-crossings at 16 Apr, 14 Jun, 1 Sep, and 25 Dec. The stated dates are
approximate; they may vary by one to two days depending on the actual year. On longer time
scales, e and s vary slowly, implying changes in ET .

74
Figure 25: A sequence showing the true anomaly (blue line/dot), the true anomaly vertically
projected onto the reference circle (red dot and red circle, respectively), and the mean anomaly
(green line/dot) on the reference circle, during a full period T . The panels run from the upper,
left panel and down, column-by-column, with increments of T /7 . Thus, the upper, left panel
is at time t = 0 , the middle, left panel is at t = T /7 , etc. The eccentricity is set to 0.4,
so the mismatch between the true and mean anomaly is greatly exaggerated compared to the
Earth-Sun system. An animation of the above sequence is available from http://folk.uib.no/
ngfhd/Teaching/Div/anim.gif.

75
Part III

Tidal harmonic analysis

15 Background
The idea back tidal harmonic analysis is to represent tidal generated sea surface height variations
or tidal currents – by means of a sum of simple trigonometric functions, the latter with frequencies
given by the equilibrium theory.
Let the surface elevation ζm denote an arbitrary tidal constituent m /p. 12/
ζm (t) = Hm cos(ωm t − gm ) (300)
with amplitude Hm , frequency ωm (known from tidal equilibrium analysis) and phase gm . By
means of identity (605), expression (300) can be put in the form

ζm (t) = Am cos ωm t + Bm sin ωm t (301)

where
Am = Hm cos gm , and Bm = Hm sin gm (302)
are constant factors in time.
The sum of the square and the ratio of the the above relationships give
p Bm
Hm = A2m + Bm
2 , and gm = arctan (303)
Am
Consequently, once Am and Bm are known, Hm and gm , and consequently ζm (t) from (300),
are also known.
The observed (real) surface elevation X(t) can always be written in terms of the mean sea level
Z0 (only slowly changing in time, for instance because of global warming, but treated as time
independent here), tidal variations T (t) , and a residual R(t) :
X(t) = Z0 + T (t) + R(t) (304)
By construction, T (t) describes the variations in X(t) better and better as more tidal con-
stituents are included.
Let us first assume that the residual vanishes, i.e., that R(t) = 0 . The coefficients Am and
Bm can then be determined by searching for the minimum difference between the observed sea
surface anomalies, X 0 (t) = X(t) − Z0 , and the tidal contribution to the sea surface elevation,
T (t) .
For a single tidal constituent m , the minimisation can be expressed as searching the minimum
value of the non-negative quantity
(X 0 (t) − ζm )2 (305)
For a given time interval, say from t = 0 to t = tk , this is equivalent of minimising the
integral Z tk
I= (X 0 (t) − ζm )2 dt (306)
t=0

76
Since X 0 (t) is known from the observed sea level time series, the integral I is a function of Am
and Bm only (remember that ωm is known from the equilibrium theory). We therefore search
for those Am and Bm that minimise I :
∂I ∂I
= 0, and =0 (307)
∂Am ∂Bm
Upon differentiation, Z tk
∂I
= −2 (X 0 (t) − ζm ) cos ωm t dt = 0 (308)
∂Am t=0
and Z tk
∂I
= −2 (X 0 (t) − ζm ) sin ωm t dt = 0 (309)
∂Bm t=0

Insertion of ζm from (301) gives, respectively,

Z tk Z tk Z tk
0 2
X (t) cos ωm t dt − Am cos ωm t dt − Bm sin ωm t cos ωm t dt = 0 (310)
t=0 t=0 t=0

and
Z tk Z tk Z tk
X 0 (t) sin ωm t dt − Am sin ωm t cos ωm t dt − Bm sin2 ωm t dt = 0 (311)
t=0 t=0 t=0

Simplification

For simplicity, we assume that tk equals multiple periods Tm of the tidal constituent m . In
this special case, using identity (623),
Z tk =nTm
sin ωm t cos ωm t dt = 0 (312)
t=0

where n is an integer.
Furthermore, from identities (621) and (622), it follows that
Z tk Z tk
tk
2
cos ωm t dt = sin2 ωm t dt = (313)
t=0 t=0 2

Consequently, from expressions (310) and (311),

Z tk
2
Am = X 0 (t) cos ωm t dt (314)
tk t=0

and Z tk
2
Bm = X 0 (t) sin ωm t dt (315)
tk t=0

Note that the right hand side of the above integrals are known; X 0 (t) is observed and ωm is
known from the equilibrium theory. Am and Bm , and consequently ζm from (301), can thus
be determined.

77
16 Numerical solution, sea surface height variations
Any integral can be transferred to sums, and the sums can then readily be evaluated by numerical
methods. We therefore transfer the integrals (314) and (315) to sums.
The transformation can, as an example, be done with the following choices/substitutions:
Length of timestep dt :
dt = ∆t (316)
In the following we use ∆t = 1 hr , implying one-hourly readings of the sea
surface elevation. Other time steps can, of course, be used.

Number of observations K + 1 :
We assume that the sea surface height anomaly X 0 (t) consists of K + 1 discrete
(hourly) readings, so the continuous time series X 0 (t) is transferred to the
discrete series
Xk0 , k = 0, 1, ..., K (317)

Timing t of the K + 1 observations:

Based on the above, the discrete readings take place at

t = 0, ∆t, ..., K ∆t (318)

Thus, an arbitrary time within the descerete time series is given by t = k ∆t .

The total duration tk of the time series:

1 1
tk = K ∆t , so = (319)
tk K ∆t

The frequency ωm and period Tm of the tidal constituent m :

2π
ωm = (320)
Tm
Here ωm , Tm are known quantities from the equilibrium theory.
Based on the above, the integrals (314) and (315) can be transferred to discrete form:
K  
2 X 0 2π
Am = Xk cos k ∆t (321)
K Tm
k=0
K  
2 X 0 2π
Bm = Xk sin k ∆t (322)
K Tm
k=0

Once Am and Bm are determined from the above formulas, the amplitude Hm and the phase
gm can be determined from the two expressions in (303). This, in turn, determines the tidal
time series from expression (301) that approximates the observed time series X 0 (t) .
Note that the procedure is only valid when the length of the analysed portion of the sea level
time series is a multiple M of the tidal period under consideration, or for tk = M Tm , where
M is a positive integer.

78
For accurate extraction of a given tidal constituent from the observed time series, it is important
to sample over many tidal periods, so M  1 . As a rule of thumb, we should sample over a
time interval that includes, at least, one spring period (14.7667 days). The reason for this is
that a shorter time interval will miss the prominent interaction between the M2 and S2 tides.
Thus, for semi-diurnal tidal constituents with period of around 12 hr, M should be larger than
30.
Preferably – and as a rule of thumb – the length of the time series analysed should be three to
four times longer than the longest period of interest. Generally, a long time series yields a more
accurate model (although slowly varying tidal constituents, i.e., those given by the speeds ω4,5,6
need to be included for very long time series).

16.1 Extraction of the M2 tide

For M2 , the above constraints are met, as an example, with the following choices: Firstly, from
the tidal equilibrium analysis, we have that

TM2 = 12.42 hr (323)

With hourly sea level data, ∆t = 1 hr . Since 50 times the M2 period is an integer, we can
chose M = 50 (i.e., 50 times the M2 period), since this leads to an integer number of time
steps:
50 × 12.42 = 621 (324)
Thus, 621 hourly time steps, or K = 620 in expressions (321) and (322), can be used to extract
the M2 constituent from the observed time series.

16.2 Note 1

An integer number of time steps are required for carrying out the above given sums. Therefore,
as an example, M = 30 times the M2 period would not work properly since 30 × 12.42 = 372.6
time steps.
For the M2 tide, M is therefore chosen to ensure that the product M TM2 is an integer. Strictly
speaking, the above holds for TM2 given with a two-digit precision. Higher precisions can, of
course, be treated similarly.

16.3 Note 2

Based on the total length of the observed time series X 0 (t) , we may chose any multiple M of
Tm . In general, the accuracy of our model increases with increasing M . For a time series X 0 (t)
covering a little more than 100 days, we may chose M = 200 and k = 2484 (yielding a total
time span of 103.5 days).

16.4 Extraction of the S2 tide

Likewise, for S2 , we have that

TS2 = 12.00 hr (325)

79
With ∆t = 1 hr and 60 times the S2 period (so M = 60 ), we get

60 × 12.00 = 720 (326)

(i.e., 720 hourly time steps, or K = 719 ).

16.5 Extraction of the N2 tide

The main tidal constituent taking into account the Moon’s elliptic (i.e., non-circular) orbit is
N2 with speed 2σ1 − σ2 + σ4 = 28.4397 deg/msh (the 7/2 -term in expression 536), or

TN2 = 12.66 hr (327)

With ∆t = 1 hr and 50 times the N2 period (so M = 50 ), we get

50 × 12.66 = 720 (328)

(i.e., 720 hourly time steps, or K = 719 ).

16.6 Extraction of the K2 tide

For K2 ,
TK2 = 11.97 hr (329)
With ∆t = 1 hr and 100 times the K2 period (so M = 100 ), we get

k = 100 × 11.97 = 1197 (330)

(i.e., 1197 hourly time steps, or K = 1196 ).

16.7 Extraction of the O1 tide

For O1 ,
TO1 = 25.82 hr (331)
With ∆t = 1 hr and 100 times the O1 period (so M = 100 ), we get

k = 100 × 25.82 = 2582 (332)

(i.e., 2582 hourly time steps, or K = 2581 ).

16.8 Extraction of the K1 tide

For K1 ,
TK1 = 23.93 hr (333)
With ∆t = 1 hr and 100 times the K1 period (so M = 100 ), we get

k = 100 × 23.93 = 2393 (334)

(i.e., 2393 hourly time steps, or K = 2392 ).

80
16.9 Note 3

Care needs to be taken when computing gm from expression (303), with values 0 ≤ gm < 2π ,
due to the multiple-valued tan x - and arctan x -functions for 0 ≤ x < 2 π . The situation is
outlined in Fig. 26.

Figure 26: Right panel: Illustration of tan x = B/A on a unit circle, with the signs of the
quantities A, B given (with B > 0 in the upper and B < 0 in the lower quadrants, and
A > 0 in the right and A < 0 in the left quadrants, respectively). Left panel: Graph of
x = arctan B/A , with the signs of A, B consistent with the right panel.

Starting with tan x = B/A , see right panel in Fig. 26, it follows that
0 ≤ x < π/2 for B > 0, A > 0 (335)
π/2 ≤ x < π for B > 0, A < 0 (336)
π ≤ x < 3π/2 for B < 0, A < 0 (337)
3π/2 ≤ x < 2π for B < 0, A > 0 (338)
Therefore, the four combinations of signs of A and B dictate which quadrant x = arctan B/A
belongs to.
For any value of Bm /Am , arctan Bm /Am belongs to the open interval between −π/2 and +π/2 ,
implying that gm (see expression 303) is restricted to values between −π/2 and π/2 .
However, based on the signs of Am and Bm , we can uniquely construct the physically consistent
value of gm spanning out the entire interval from 0 to 2π . From the left panel in Fig. 26, the
value of gm can be computed according to the following algorithm:
Bm > 0, Am > 0 : gm = arctan(Bm /Am ) (339)
Bm > 0, Am < 0 : gm = arctan(Bm /Am ) + π (340)
Bm < 0, Am < 0 : gm = arctan(Bm /Am ) + π (341)
Bm < 0, Am > 0 : gm = arctan(Bm /Am ) + 2π (342)

81
The exact syntax depends on the actual programming language used. An internet search “atan2
python” will, as an example, provide the details of the implementation and use of the atan2-
function in python.

16.10 Note 4

From the above, it follows that different lengths (or number of time steps) of the observed time
series is used to extract the different tidal constituents. This is fine, but we need to ensure that
the observed time series is sufficiently long so that all tidal constituents of interest are covered
by the length of the observed time series.
For the plotting, it is convenient to use a time interval covering a few fortnightly spring-neap
tides.
For detailed inspection of the tidal constituents and the observed time series, 10 or so tidal
periods may be plotted.
There are several software packages for tidal analysis. Make e.g. a search python tidal analysis
or matlab tidal analysis on the net.

17 Tidal current analysis

As a starting point we assume that the tidal current components are on the form /App. B/

u = U cos(ωt − gu ) (343)

v = V cos(ωt − gv ) (344)
Here U, V are the current amplitudes, gu , gv (rad) are the phase angles, and ω (rad) is the
speed of the tidal constituent under consideration. Note that for a given tidal constituent, the
pair of unknowns U and gu , as well as V and gv , can be obtained similarly to the harmonic
analysis of the sea surface height, see Sec. 16.
Based on expressions (343) and (344), characteristic properties of the tidal current, like the speed,
the direction of flow, the semi-major and semi-minor axes, and the direction of the rotation can
be derived.

17.1 Direction of flow θ and current speed q

From expressions (343) and (344), it follows directly that the direction of the flow θ is given
by
V cos(ωt − gv )
tan θ = (345)
U cos(ωt − gu )
and that the current speed q , expressed in terms of q 2 = u2 + v 2 , equals

q 2 = U 2 cos2 (ωt − gu ) + V 2 cos2 (ωt − gv ) (346)

82
Figure 27: Observed (black line) and modelled (red line) sea surface hight (SSH, in m) at the
Norwegian coastal cities Bergen (top panel), Tromsø (mid panel) and Ny-Ålesund (bottom panel)
for the first 300 days of 2012. The modelled sea surface height is based on the algorithm described
in the text, and includes the sum of the M2 , S2 , N2 , K2 , O1 , and K1 constituents. The
difference between the observed and modelled sea surface height can be attributed to an imperfect
(simplified) model and the effect of weather. Note different ranges on the y-axes. Data from
Kartverket, https://www.kartverket.no/sehavniva/.

83
Figure 28: As Fig. 28, but showing the residuals, i.e., the difference between observed and
modelled sea level height.

84
17.2 Semi-major and semi-minor axes

By means of identity (614), it folllows that

1 2
q2 = U [1 + cos 2(ωt − gu )] + V 2 [1 + cos 2(ωt − gv )] (347)
2
1 2
= U + V 2 + U 2 cos 2(ωt − gu ) + V 2 cos 2(ωt − gv ) (348)
2

The last cos -term in (348) can be expressed with the common factor ωt − gu , similarly to the
derivation of the fortnightly signal (see expression 132):
cos 2(ωt − gv ) = cos 2[ωt − gu + (gu − gv )] (349)
(605)
= cos 2(ωt − gu ) cos 2(gu − gv ) − sin 2(ωt − gu ) sin 2(gu − gv ) (350)
Thus,
1 2 1
q2 = (U + V 2 ) + [U 2 + V 2 cos 2(gu − gv )] cos 2(ωt − gu )
2 2
1
− V 2 sin 2(gu − gv ) sin 2(ωt − gu ) (351)
2

Following the analysis of the fortnightly tide, see equations (137) and (138), an amplitude α
and phase δ can be introduced by means of the expressions
U 2 + V 2 cos 2(gu − gv ) = α2 cos 2δ (352)
2 2
V sin 2(gu − gv ) = α sin 2δ (353)
The sum of the square of the above equations determines α :
α4 = [U 2 + V 2 cos 2(gu − gv )]2 + [V 2 sin 2(gu − gv )]2
= U 4 + V 4 + 2 U 2 V 2 cos 2(gu − gv ) (354)
Furthermore, expression (353) divided by (352) determines δ :
V 2 sin 2(gu − gv )
tan 2δ = (355)
U2 + V 2 cos 2(gu − gv )

The introduction of α and δ implies that expression (351) can be written as

1 2 1 1
q2 = (U + V 2 ) + α2 cos 2δ cos 2(ωt − gu ) − α2 sin 2δ sin 2(ωt − gu )
2 2 2
(615) 1 2 1
= [U + V 2 ] + α2 cos 2(ωt − gu + δ)
2 2
1 2
= [U + V 2 − α2 ] + α2 cos2 (ωt − gu + δ) (356)
2

Consequently, the maximum current speed qmax , or the semi-major current axis, is given
by
2 1
qmax = [U 2 + V 2 + α2 ] (357)
2
Likewise, the minimum current speed qmin , or the semi-minor current axis, is
2 1 2
qmin = [U + V 2 − α2 ] (358)
2

85
17.3 Time of maximum current speed

From expression (356), the maximum current speed occurs when

ωt − gu + δ = m π , where m = 0, 1, 2, ... (359)

17.4 Direction of maximum current speed

Expression (359) with, for simplicity, m = 0 , gives the following relationship for the cosine-
argument in (356) at the time of maximum speed

ωt − gu = −δ (360)

The direction of the maximum current speed follows then directly from expression (345),

V cos(gu − gv − δ)
θmax = arctan (361)
U cos δ

17.5 Direction of rotation

The direction of the rotation is given by the sign of dθ/dt . To simplify the differentiation,
expression (345) can be put in the form

V cos(ωt − gv )
tan θ = =x (362)
U cos(ωt − gu )

where x has been introduced for convenience. We than have that

θ = arctan x (363)

The change of θ with time is then given by the chain rule

∂θ ∂θ ∂x (628) 1 ∂x
= = (364)
∂t ∂x ∂t 1 + x2 ∂t
The sign of ∂θ/∂t is therefore given by the sign of ∂x/∂t . Upon differentiation,

∂x UV ω
= 2 sin(gv − gu ) (365)
∂t U cos2 (ωt − gu )

Since the above fraction is always positive, the direction of rotation, ∂θ/∂t , is governed by the
value of the argument of the sin -function:
∂θ
0 < gv − gu < π gives > 0, or anticlockwise rotation, (366)
∂t
∂θ
π < gv − gu < 2π gives < 0, or clockwise rotation, (367)
∂t
∂θ
gv − gu = 0, π, 2π, ... gives = 0, or rectilinear flow. (368)
∂t

86
A side note for the sake of completeness: From the definition of x given by expression (362), we
get
q2 1 U 2 cos2 (ωt − gu )
1 + x2 = 2 , so = (369)
U cos2 (ωt − gu ) 1 + x2 q2
where q 2 is given by expression (346).
With ∂x/∂t given by (365), the following expression yields the temporal derivative of θ :

∂θ UV ω
= sin(gv − gu ) (370)
∂t q2

As stated above, the sign of the above expression is identical to that of expression (365), i.e., the
sign of sin(gv − gu ) .

87
Part IV

Tidal related wave dynamics

18 The shallow water equations
A wave is a physical process that transport information – such as surface elevation or energy –
in time and space, without or with little advection of mass associated with the transport. This
is in contrast to the geostrophic balance and ageostrophic flow in the atmosphere and ocean that
is always associated with advection of mass. Accordingly, a wave signal is propagated without
or with little influence of the Earth’s rotation, although the propagation velocity can be large.
In contrast, advection of mass will always be influenced by the Coriolis effect, linearly increasing
with the speed of the fluid.
A general overview of definitions and key properties of waves is given in appendix F.

18.1 Starting point and configuration

The basis for the shallow water equations is the standard form of the horizontal momentum
equation
∂u ∂u ∂u 1 ∂p
+u + v fv = − + Fx (371)
∂t ∂x ∂y ρ ∂x
∂v ∂v ∂v 1 ∂p
+u +v + fu = − + Fy (372)
∂t ∂x ∂y ρ ∂y
and the continuity equation
∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρ u) = 0 (373)
∂t
with u = (u, v).
We consider a homogeneous (ρ = ρ0 ), frictionless (FH = 0) and barotropic (∂u/∂z = ∂v/∂z = 0)
fluid with free surface ζ(x, y, t) as illustrated in Fig. 29. The equations (371)–(373) can then be
expressed as
∂u ∂u ∂u 1 ∂p
+u +v − fv = − (374)
∂t ∂x ∂y ρ0 ∂x
∂v ∂v ∂v 1 ∂p
+u +v + fu = − (375)
∂t ∂x ∂y ρ0 ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂w
+ + =0 (376)
∂x ∂y ∂z

18.2 The continuity equation

In the che continuity equation (376), u and v are independent of z (due to the assumption a
barotropic fluid), but ∂u/∂x 6= 0 and ∂v/∂y 6= 0, so that we can have divergent flow.

88
Figure 29: Illustration of a homogeneous væ fluid with free surface ζ(x, y, t) and general
bathymetry b(x, y) . h(x, y, t) describes the total depth of the fluid. zref = D is a reference
level which describes the mean surface height.

We consider the homogeneous fluid shown in Fig. 29 and integrates (376) from the bottom
z = b(x, y) to the free surface z = b(x, y) + h(x, y, t). This gives
  Z b+h
∂u ∂v b+h
+ dz + w|b = 0 (377)
∂x ∂y b

In the above expression, w(z = b + h) is the motion of the free surface. This can be expressed
using the total derivative (describing how the surface changes with the motion)

Dz D
w(z = b + h) = = (b + h)
dt b+h dt
∂ ∂ ∂
= (b + h) + u (b + h) + v (b + h)
∂t ∂x ∂y
∂h ∂ ∂
= + u (b + h) + v (b + h) (378)
∂t ∂x ∂y
Similarily,
db ∂b ∂b
w(z = b) = =u +v (379)
dt ∂x ∂y
Expressions (378) and (379) inserted in (377) gives
 
∂u ∂v ∂h ∂ ∂ ∂b ∂b
+ (b + hb) + + u (b + h) + v (b + h) − u −v =0 (380)
∂x ∂y ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
or
∂h ∂ ∂
+ (h u) + (h v) = 0 (381)
∂t ∂x ∂y
which is the continuity equation expressed by the local change of the fluid thickness h and
divergence of huH .

89
Alternatively, since
h(x, y, t) + b(x, y) = D + ζ(x, y, t) (382)
the time derivative in (381) can be is expressed by ζ

∂ζ ∂ ∂
+ (hu) + (hv) = 0 (383)
∂t ∂x ∂y

18.3 The momentum equations

The horizontal momentum equations is given by (374) and (375).

The pressure p(x, y, z, t) is given by the hydrostatic equation

∂p
= −gρ0 (384)
∂z
Pressure fluctuations due to changes to the surface height can be expressed as
b+h
p|D = −gρ0 (b + h − D) (385)

(385) can be written

ps − p(D) = −gρ0 ζ (386)
or
p(D) = ps + gρ0 ζ(x, y, t) (387)
Similarly, for an arbitrarily depth z1 (see Fig. 29),

p(z1 ) = gρ0 ∆z + ps + gρ0 ζ(x, y, t) (388)

where ∆z = D − z1 .
Over time, there are (very) small spatial variations in the surface pressure ps . We can there-
fore ignore the contribution from ∇ps . From the expressions (387) and (388) it then follows
that
∂p(D) ∂p(z1 ) ∂ζ
= = gρ0 (389)
∂x ∂x ∂x
The same relationship holds for ∂/∂y. It is therefore only the surface displacement ζ which gives
rise to the pressure force in a homogeneous fluid. For this reason p = gρ0 ζ is called the dynamic
pressure.

18.4 The final set of equations

The above gives the shallow water equations expressed in terms of u, v, h and ζ
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂ζ
+u +v − f v = −g (390)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂x
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂ζ
+u +v + f u = −g (391)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂y
∂ζ ∂ ∂
+ (hu) + (hv) = 0 (392)
∂t ∂x ∂y

90
For flat bottom we have that
h(x, y, t) = D + ζ(x, y, t) (393)

Note that the phrase shallow water equations do not imply that the waves are found in shallow
waters. Rather, the phrase implies that the wavelength of the waves are much longer than the
thickness of the fluid24 .

24 See e.g.https://www.vims.edu/research/units/labgroups/tc_tutorial/longwaves.php

91
19 Gravity waves

19.1 One-dimensional (surface) gravity waves

Gravity waves occur at the boundary between the ocean and atmosphere, or more generally
between two (or more) fluids with different densities. In the following we consider surface waves.
The force acting on these waves is gravity, hence the name (surface) gravity waves.
If the waves describe small fluctuations in the wave variables, the wave equation (390)–(392)
can be linearized. This means that any product of wave variables, such as the advection terms
in (390) and (391), can be neglected. Furthermore, we start by neglecting the effect of Earth’s
rotation, implying that the local derivative term (∂/∂t) is much larger than the Coriolis-term
(the effect of the Earth’s rotation is discussed in the following section).
With f = 0 and by considering a one-dimensional wave movement in the x -direction (v = 0 and
∂/∂y = 0), equation (390) and (392) can be written as /5.3/

∂u ∂ζ
= −g (394)
∂t ∂x
∂ζ ∂u
= −D (395)
∂t ∂x
The velocity component u can be eliminated from the above expressions by considering ∂(394)/∂x
and ∂(395)∂t, giving the classical wave equation

∂2ζ ∂2ζ
− gD =0 (396)
∂t2 ∂x2

The wave equation (396) can be solved by seeking solutions of the form (see appendix F)

ζ = Re {ζ0 exp[i(kx − ωt)]} (397)

where Re denotes the real part, ζ0 is the amplitude, k is the wave number in the x-direction
and ω is the angular frequency, both assumed to be positive quantities.
Insertion of (397) into (396) leads to the dispersion relation

−ω 2 + gD k 2 = 0 (398)

Since the wave’s phase velocity c is given by c = ω/k (see appendix F), the phase velocity of the
gravity wave c is given by /p. 100/
p
c = c0 = ± gD (399)
The phase velocity c0 is independent of the wave number k, so the gravity wave is non-dispersive.
Gravity waves in a homogeneous,
√ smooth and barotrop fluid propagate therefore with a phase ve-
locity proportional to gD, and are independent of the wave wave number or wavelength.

92
19.1.1 Typical wavelengths for tidal waves

Since ω = 2π/T and k = 2π/λ , it follows that

ω λ p
c= = = gD (400)
k T
where the last equality is given by (399). Consequently,
p
λ=T gD (401)

For the diurnal and semi-diurnal tides, the periods are T1 ≈ 24 hr and T2 ≈ 12 hr , respectively.
The resulting wavelengths for some ocean depths D is given in table 6.

Depth Period, diurnal tide Period, semi-diurnal tide

D (m) T1 ≈ 24 hr T2 ≈ 12 hr
20 λ1 ≈ 1200 λ2 ≈ 600
50 1900 950
100 8600 4300

Table 6: Typical wavelengths λ1 (km) and λ2 (km) for diurnal and semi-durnal tides with
approximate periods T1 and T2 , and for three ocean depths D (m).

It follows from the table that the gravity waves – and by that waves governed by tidal forces –
have very long wavelengths. Only at shallow water, at depths less than 20 m for diurnal tides
and less than 50 m for semi-diurnal tides, the wavelengths are less than 1000 km. The tidal
wavelengths are therefore, in general, much longer than the depth of the ocean, in accordance
with the phrase shallow water equations as described by the end of Sec. 18.4.

93
19.2 One-dimensional gravity waves in a closed channel

An externally forced ocean basin or ocean channel will lead to standing waves with wavelengths
determined by the geometry of the basin/channel. The resulting standing waves are the eigen-
modes of the system, also called seiches.
For a closed channel with length L (m) and with boundaries at x = 0 and x = L , kine-
matic boundary conditions impose no flow across the boundary: u|x=0 = u|x=L = 0 . From
equation (394), this results in the two boundary conditions:

∂ζ ∂ζ
= =0 (402)
∂x x=0 ∂x x=L

If we assume that the surface elevation ζ can be expressed by means of trigonometric waves
travelling in both the positive and negative x -direction, the surface elevation can be written
as
ζ = A exp[i(ωt − kx)] + B exp[i(ωt + kx)] (403)
where A and B are the amplitudes for waves travelling in the positive and negative x -directions,
respectively. Thus,
∂ζ
= −ikA exp[i(ωt − kx)] + ikB exp[i(ωt + kx)] (404)
∂x
which, by means of the boundary condition at x = 0 in expression (402) yields A = B .
Therefore,

ζ = A exp[i(ωt − kx)] + exp[i(ωt + kx)]

= A{exp(−ikx) + exp(ikx)} exp(iωt)
= 2A cos(kx) exp(iωt) (405)

where the identity

exp(±iϕ) = cos ϕ ± i sin ϕ (406)
is used in the last equality.
At the other end of the cannel, at x = L , we get from (405):

∂ζ
= −2kA sin(kx) exp(iωt)|x=L = 0 (407)
∂x x=L

which is satisfied for

kL = nπ , n = 1, 2, ... (408)
Note that n = 0 is also a solution of the above, but since k = 0 imply infinitely long wavelengths,
this solution can be disregarded in a finite ocean, limiting n = 1, 2, ... .
From expression (400), it follows that
ω 2π
k=√ = √ (409)
gD T gD

where ω = 2π/T is used in the last equality. By combining (408) and (409), the following
eigenmode, natural or seiche periods are obtained: /5.6 & 7.8/

94
 2L
Tn = √ , n = 1, 2, 3, ... (410)
n gD

The longest period

√ T1 occurs for n = 1 , with the following periods equal to 1/2 , 1/3 , 1/4 ,...
of T1 . T1 = 2L/ gD is known as Merian’s formula.
√ √
Since T1 = 2L/ gD and c = gD , we get that

2L
T1 = (411)
c
In addition, by using the definitions λ = 2π/k and c = ω/k , we have that

2π 2π 2π λ λ
T1 = = = = (412)
ω ck c 2π c
From (411) and (412), it follows that
λ = 2L (413)
Thus, for T1 , the wavelength is twice the length of the channel, implying that we have two equal
waves, travelling in opposite directions, yielding a standing wave pattern.

19.3 One-dimensional gravity waves in a semi-closed channel

If the channel is open in one end, in our case at x = L , the infinite reservoir of water outside the
channel dictates the surface elevation at the opening of the channel. In this case expression (405)
at x = L becomes
ζ|x=L = 2A cos(kx) exp(iωt)|x=L = A0 exp(iω 0 t) (414)
where A0 and ω 0 are the amplitude and the frequency of the externally forced, large-scale ocean
tide. Consequently,
exp(iω 0 t)
2A = A0 (415)
cos(kL) exp(iωt)
and from equation (405),
cos(kx)
ζ = A0 exp(iω 0 t) (416)
cos(kL)

The channel response is largest, leading to resonance, when cos(kL) → 0 , or for

π
kL = n , n = 1, 3, 5, ... (417)
2

Expression (409) and (417) give /7.9/

4L
Tn = √ , n = 1, 3, 5, ... (418)
n gD

95
19.3.1 Resonance

Any combinations of D and L in expression (418) yielding periods around 12 or 24 hours will
lead to resonance with the semi-diurnal or diurnal tides, giving rise to particularly high tides at
the end (the head) of the bay or channel.
Should, for instance, D be in the range 30–35 m and L = 200 km, T1 is around 12 hr and
is thus close to the period of the semi-diurnal tides, resulting in particularly high tides at the
head of the bay or channel. The given depth and length scales are representative for the Severn
Estuary between England and Wales, explaining the large tidal variations of 10–15 m in the
region.
For periods
√ close to 12 hr (as an example), larger values of n , yield resonance for smaller values
of L/ D . So resonance can be found in fjords, bays and channels with different configura-
tions.

96
20 Sverdrup waves and other related waves
Also here we consider long surface waves, implying waves with wavelengths much longer than
the thickness of the fluid. The effect of Earth’s rotation is now considered by introducing the
Coriolis-terms in the momentum equations. Variations in the Earth’s rotation are, however,
neglected, so f = const.
Moreover, it is assumed that the waves has infinite horizontal extent in the two horizontal
dimensions. The resulting waves are often called the Sverdrup waves. The basic equations
follows from (390)–(392)

∂u ∂ζ
− f v = −g (419)
∂t ∂x
∂v ∂ζ
+ f u = −g (420)
∂t ∂y
 
∂ζ ∂u ∂v
+D + = 0 (421)
∂t ∂x ∂y

20.1 Derivation

If we assume a solution on the form

u, v, ζ ∝ exp[i (kx + ly − ωt)] (422)

where k = 2π/λx and l = 2π/λy are the wave numbers in the x - and y -directions (and λx,y
are the corresponding wavelengths, see Sec. F), respectively, the following algebraic relations are
obtained
−iωu − f v = −igkζ (423)
−iωv + f u = −iglζ (424)
−iωζ + D(ku + lv) = 0 (425)
The equations (423)–(425) constitute a set of three equations with three unknowns, and can be
expressed in matrix form as
  
−iω −f igk u
 f −iω igl   v  = 0 (426)
iDk iDl −iω ζ

Non-trivial solutions exist when the equation system’s determinant vanishes. This gives the
following relationship
ω[ω 2 − f 2 − gD(k 2 + l2 )] = 0 (427)
or, by introducing the horizontal wave number kh2 = k 2 + l2 ,

ω[ω 2 − f 2 − gDkh2 ] = 0 (428)

If the phase speed of the gravity waves c20 = gD is introduced, one obtains

ω[ω 2 − f 2 − c20 kh2 ] = 0 (429)

97
The expressions (428) and (429) are the dispersion relationship of the Sverdrup waves. It is
generally different physical mechanisms involved for the different solutions of the dispersion
relationship. It is therefore convenient to discuss the different solutions separately.
Since the expression in square brackets in (428) and (429) includes the wave number kh , the
Sverdrup waves are dispersive. Waves with different wave numbers (or wavelengths) will therefore
propagate at different speeds.

20.2 Case ω = 0

The trivial solution ω = 0 from (428) is consistent with ∂/∂t = 0. From the governing equations
(419) and (420), we see that this solution is the geostrophic force balance. The stationary (i.e.,
time-invariant) solution of the shallow water equations is thus geostrophic balance.

20.3 Case ω 2 = f 2 + c20 kh2

For
ω 2 = f 2 + c20 kh2 (430)
|ω| ≥ |f | for all possible wave solutions.
Furthermore, the dispersion relationship is symmetrical with respect to the x- and y-directions.
This means that neither the x - or y -direction has a special significance for the wave field. We
can therefore orient the coordinate system where the x -axis is aligned with the direction of
the wave propagation. In this case, kh = k and l = 0 . The resulting dispersion relationship
becomes
ω 2 = f 2 + c20 k 2 (431)

The phase speed c is given by c = ω/k , see (574). Thus,

ω 1 2
1/2
c= = f + c20 k 2
k k
 2 1/2
f
= c0 + 1
k 2 c20
 1/2
1
= c0 1 + 2 2 (432)
k Lρ

where Lρ = c0 /f is the Rossby deformation radius. The above equation shows that the phase
speed c increases with decreasing wave number or increasing wavelength.
The group velocity of the wave is given by cg = ∂ω/∂k, see Sec. F.5. Differentiation of the
dispersion relationship (431) gives
2ω ∂ω = 2kc20 ∂k (433)
or
k 2 c2
cg = c0 = 0 (434)
ω c
Accordingly, the product c cg equals the constant c20 . The group speed therefore decreases with
increasing wavelengths.

98
Figure 30: Graphic representation of the dispersion relation given by (431). In addition, the
dispersion relation for gravity waves (Sec. 19.1) and inertial oscillations (Sec. 20.6) are shown.
Lρ is the Rossby deformation radius, IWR is the inertial wave regime where the Earth’s rotation
is important, and GWR is the gravity wave regime where the effect of Earth’s rotation is of small
or vanishing importance.

All possible wave solutions given by (431), expressed in terms of the wave number k and fre-
quency ω , are illustrated in Fig. 30. For small wave number k (long waves), the wave properties
follows those of the near inertia waves (see Sec. 20.6) and the effect of the Earth’s rotation f is
important. For large wave numbers (short waves), the effect of Earth’s rotation has little effect.
In the latter case, the wave regime is associated with gravitational waves (Sec. 19.1).

20.3.1 The resulting wave motion

For l = 0, it follows from (423) and (424) that

−iωu − f v = −igkζ (435)

and
−iωv + f u = 0 (436)
From (436),
ω
u=i v (437)
f
which inserted in (435) gives
ω2 − f 2
v = −igkζ (438)
f
Since, from expression (431),
ω 2 − f 2 = gDk 2 (439)

99
one gets that
f
v = −i ζ (440)
kD
so u from (437) becomes
ω
u= ζ (441)
kD
Since |ω| ≥ |f | , it follows from (440) and (441) that |u| ≥ |v| , or that the wave has a net
propagation in the x -direction.
Only the real part of the solution has a physical meaning. If we assume that the amplitude ζ0 is
real, it follows that
ζ = Re{ζ0 exp[i(kx − ωt)]} = ζ0 cos(kx − ωt) (442)
(442) inserted in (441) and (440) gives
ζ0
u=ω cos(kx − ωt) (443)
kD
ζ0
v=f sin(kx − ωt) (444)
kD
Thus, the Earth’s rotation is not felt in the x -direction, while the y -direction is influenced by
f.
For a fixed point in space, for example at x = 0 , the following temporal change takes place,
assuming f > 0 (northern hemisphere) and by using ζ00 = ζ0 /(kD) > 0 :

ωt = 0 : u = ωζ00 > 0, v = 0 (445)

ωt = π/2 : u = 0, v = −f ζ00 <0 (446)
ωt = π : u= −ωζ00 < 0, v = 0 (447)
ωt = 3π/2 : u = 0, v = f ζ00 > 0 (448)

The speed components span out ellipses as shown in the upper panel of Fig. 31 with clockwise
rotation of the velocity vectors in the northern hemisphere. Moreover, the ellipse’s major axis is
oriented in the direction of u , i.e., in the direction of the wave propagation. The ratio between
the semi-major and semi-minor axes is given by |ω|/|f |.
A particle’s position is found by integrating (443) and (444) with respect to time t. This
gives

x ∝ − sin(−ωt) (449)
y ∝ cos(−ωt) (450)

The resulting motion is clockwise (anti-cyclonic) in the northern hemisphere, see bottom panel
of Fig. 31. Due to variations in water depth, the coastline geometry and non-linear wave-wave
interactions, the horizontal tidal movement can be both cyclonic and anti-cyclonic. But for an
infinite ocean with flat bottom, which are the underlying assumptions for the Sverdrup waves,
the tidal ellipses describe anti-cyclonic movement.
The spatial characteristics at a given time, for example at t = 0 , yields the relationships shown
in Table (7).
The corresponding movement in the xy -plane is shown in the lower part of Fig. (32). In this fig-
ure, the velocity-component in the direction of the wave propagation, u , is shown with burgundy

100
 v

ωt = π ωt = 0
u = -ω ζ0’, v = 0 u = ω ζ0’, v = 0

ωt = π/2
u = 0, v = -f ζ0’

y
ωt = 0

ωt = π/2

Figure 31: Illustration of the temporal change of the u - and v -components (top panel) and
the corresponding x - and y -positions (lower panel) in the northern hemisphere. The resulting
motion is directed with the clock (anti-cyclonic rotation).

Argument x u y v ζ
kx = 0 0 ωζ00 f ζ00 /k 0 ζ0
kx = π/2 −ωζ00 /k 0 0 f ζ00 0
kx = π 0 -ωζ00 −f ζ00 /k 0 −ζ0
kx = 3π/2 ωζ00 /k 0 0 −f ζ00 0

Table 7: Overview of the magnitude and sign of x , y , u , v and ζ for four values of the
argument kx , and for t = 0 .

101
coloured, horizontal arrows. It follows that there is convergence in the left half and divergence
in the right half of the figure. Therefore, the surface is lifted in the convergent zone and low-
ered where divergence takes place (burgundy coloured, vertical arrows in the figure). Since the
wave form is fixed (expression 422), the lifting and lowering of the surface implies that the wave
propagates in the positive x -direction. It is therefore the fluid oscillation in the x -direction,
resulting in convergence and divergence in the fluid, that drives the wave forward.

Figure 32: Illustration of the surface elevation ζ and the u -component of fluid particles in
the vertical xz -plane at t = 0 or for any constant time (upper part of the figure), and the
corresponding particle movements in the horizontal xy -plane (ellipses in the mid part of the
figure), representing northern hemisphere Sverdrup waves. “Convergence” and “Divergence”
denote, respectively, convergent and divergent flow in the x -direction. The current vector for
the (many) individual ellipses between kx = 0 and kx = π/2 are sketched at the bottom of the
figure.

20.3.2 Approximate length of the tidal axes

If the horizontal tidal component in the direction of the propagation of the tidal wave is in the
form
u = u0 sin(−ωt) (451)

102
the length of the, for instance, semi-major tidal axis ∆x can be obtained by integrating (451) over
one quarter of a tidal period T , from t = 0 to t = T /4 (see Fig. 31). With u = dx/dt ,
Z T /4 Z T /4
dx
dt = u0 sin(−ωt) dt (452)
t=0 dt t=0

Thus,
uo T /4 u0 T
xt=T /4 − xt=0 ≡ ∆x = [cos(−ωt)]0 = [0 − 1] = −uo (453)
ω ω 2π
where ω = 2π/T has been used in the last equality. Therefore,
T
|∆x| = u0 (454)
2π

For the M2 tide, TM2 = 12.42 hr . In this case,

∆xM2 ≈ (7 · 103 s) u0 (455)
For moderately to very strong M2 tidal currents, u0 ranges from 0.1 m/s to 1 m/s , respec-
tively, and the corresponding lengths of the semi-major axes are
∆xM2 ≈ 0.7 km and ∆xM2 ≈ 7 km (456)

The particle trajectories describing the elliptic path are thus orders of magnitude smaller than
the typical wavelength of several 100 km to a few 1000 km for the tidal waves, see Sec. 19.1.1.
It is, however, the coordinated movement of the small-scale tidal ellipses that generates the
large-scale progression of the tidal wave. Put differently, the progression of the fast, large-scale
tidal wave seen as variations in the surface elevation ζ is not associated with advection of mass,
but it is a consequence of the coordinated horizontal, smaller-scale, elliptic trajectories of water
packages throughout the water column. The latter movements do represent advection of mass.
Passive particles released in the ocean, or e.g. buoyant neutral fish eggs or larvae, will therefore,
in the absence of other processes and forces, span out an elliptic trajectory during a tidal period,
i.e., approximately every 12 hr or 24 hr depending on the tidal regime at a given location.

20.4 Case f = 0
√ √
In the case of no rotation, f = 0 , ω = ± gD k and the phase speed c = ω/k = ± gD. This
is the solution of gravity waves.

20.5 Case k 2  f 2 /(gD) (short waves)

The dispersion relationship (430) can be put in the form

s  2 
f
ω = ± gD + k2 (457)
gD
√
For k 2  f 2 /(gD)
√ , implying waves with short wavelengths, ω ≈ ± gD k and the phase speed
c = ω/k ≈ ± gD. Also this solution regime represents the gravity waves. The reason for this
is that waves with wavelengths much shorter than the deformation radius Lρ are only weakly
influenced by the rotation of the Earth.

103
20.6 Case k 2  f 2 /(gD) (long waves)

In the case of (very) long wavelengths, e.g. for k 2  f 2 /(gD) , ω → ±f (see 457). This case
represents large-scale, horizontal oscillations with the frequency of the Coriolis parameter f .
These are the inertial oscillations or waves.
For ω = f and since k is small (i.e., k → 0 ), expression (423) gives

u = iv (458)

Consequently,

u = Re{iv0 exp(−if t)} = Re{iv0 [cos(−f t) + i sin(−f t)]} = −v0 sin(−f t) (459)

and
v = Re{v0 exp(−if t)} = Re{v0 [cos(−f t) + i sin(−f t)]} = v0 cos(−f t) (460)
On the northern hemisphere with f > 0 , expression (459) and (460) describe a circular, hori-
zontal motion with radius v0 and clockwise (or anti-cyclonic) rotation. These are the inertial
oscillations in the ocean.

104
20.7 Interaction between tidal ellipses and internal oscillations

From Sections 20.3.1 and 20.6, it follows that tidal ellipses and inertial motion describe similar,
rotational movement. Thus, if the period of any of the (major) tidal constituents are similar
to the period of the inertial oscillations, strong interactions (resonance) are expected. This is
indeed the case at specific geographic latitudes φ , known as critical latitudes. /p. 126/
If we assume that the temporal evolution of the horizontal velocity component u of a tidal
ellipsis can be written as
u ∝ exp(−i ωt) (461)
the local acceleration term in the momentum equation, ∂u/∂t , scales as

ωu (462)

Similarly, the momentum equation’s Coriolis-term f ẑ × u scales as

fu (463)

where f = 2Ω sin φ is the Coriolis parameter, Ω is the Earth’s rotation vector ( Ω = 2π/(24 msh) ),
and ẑ is the outward directed unit vector. Thus, the two terms are comparable when ω =
f.
For the M2 tide, the speed follows from Tables 2 and 5:

ω = 2 (ωs − ω2 ) = 2 ω1 (464)

with ω1 = 0.2529 rad/msh . Consequently, ω = f = 2 Ω sin ϕ occurs for /p. 126/

ω
sin φ = , or for φ = ±75◦ (465)
2Ω
Thus, strong interaction between the M2 tide and inertial oscillations are expected (and indeed
observed) at 75◦ N, like in the Barents Sea, and at 75◦ S in the Southern Ocean’s Weddel and
Ross Seas.
Also two times the M2 tidal period may interact with the inertial oscillations. This gives rise
to the critical latitudes
φ = ±29◦ (466)

For the K1 tide with frequency ω = ω1 + ω2 = 0.2622 rad/msh (see Tables 2 and 5), the critical
latitudes are /p. 126/
φ = ±30◦ (467)

The above latitudes are susceptible for particularly strong tidal mixing.

105
Part V

Appendix
A Some key parameters of the Earth, Moon, Sun sys-
tem

A.1 Mass

The mass of the Earth me , Moon ml and Sun ms are

me = 5.9722 · 1024 kg (468)

ml = 7.35 · 1022 kg (469)
30
ms = 1.9884 · 10 kg (470)

The following mass ratios are then obtained

me ml
≈ 80 , ≈ 0.012 (471)
ml me
me ms
≈ 3 × 10−6 , ≈ 3 × 105 (472)
ms me
(473)

A.2 Length and distance

Earth’s mean radius is

|r| = 6.378 · 106 m (474)
Often a , in stead of |r| , is used to denote the Earth’s mean radius.
The mean distance between the Earth and the Moon, and the Earth and the Sun, are

Rl, mean = 3.844 · 108 m (475)

11
Rs, mean = 1.496 · 10 m (476)

The following distance ratios are obtained

a Rl, mean
≈ 0.017 , ≈ 60 (477)
Rl, mean r
a Rs, mean
≈ 4 × 10−5 , ≈ 2 × 104 (478)
Rs, mean r
(479)

106
B Spherical coordinates

B.1 Two commonly used spherical coordinate systems

Spherical coordinates are, by construction, convenient for any type of spherical problems. Fig. 33
illustrates two commonly used variants of spherical coordinates.

Figure 33: Illustration of two spherical coordinate systems.

The system to the left is described by Ψ (angle in longitudinal direction, 0 ≥ Ψ ≥ 2π), ϕ

(angle in the latitudinal direction, −π/2 ≥ ϕ ≥ π/2) and r (length in the radial direction,
r ≥ 0). This coordinate system is commonly used in oceanography and meteorology because of
the correspondence with the commonly used Earth’s latitude and longitude positions.
The system to the right is described by Ψ (azimuth angle, 0 ≥ Ψ ≥ 2π), φ (zenith angle,
0 ≥ φ ≥ π) and r (length in the radial direction, r ≥ 0). This coordinate system is commonly
used in problems involving gravitational or electric potential as will become clear shortly.
Note that the set of coordinates in the order (Ψ , ϕ , r) for the system to the left in Fig. 33, and
(r , φ , Ψ) for the system to the right, are both right-hand coordinate systems. Also note that
the actual naming of the various angels may vary depending on the problem; the azimuth angle
Ψ is, as an example, commonly labelled λ in meteorology and oceanography.

B.2 Volume and surface elements in spherical coordinates

B.2.1 Spherical volume elements

The volume element formed by perturbing each of the three coordinates, denoted by δ in the
following, can be obtained as follows:
For the system to the left in Fig. 33, small changes in r form a line segment of length δr in
the direction of r; small changes in ϕ form an upward directed arc of length r δϕ; and small
changes in Ψ form an arc in the xy-plane of length r cos ϕ δΨ. The resulting volume element is

107
the product of the three length contributions

δVΨϕr = r2 cos ϕ δr δϕ δΨ (480)

Correspondingly, for the system to the right in the figure, small changes in r form a line segment
of length δr in the direction of r , small changes in φ form an downward directed arc of length
r δφ , and small changes in Ψ form an arc in the xy-plane of length r sin φ δΨ. The resulting
volume element is
δVrφΨ = r2 sin φ δr δφ δΨ (481)

B.2.2 Spherical surface elements

If r is kept constant at r = a , the surface area S of the sphere spanned out by the two
pairs of angles (Ψ , ϕ) and (φ , Ψ) is given the volume elements above when changes in r are
ignored
δSΨϕ = a2 cos ϕ δϕ δΨ (482)
δSφΨ = a2 sin φ δφ δΨ (483)

Integration over the full sphere, i.e.,

Z 2π Z π/2
δSΨϕ dϕ dΨ (484)
Ψ=0 ϕ=−π/2

Z 2π Z π
δSφΨ dφ dΨ (485)
Ψ=0 φ=0

result in the surface area of a sphere with radius a , namely 4πa2 , as expected.

B.2.3 Relationship with the Earth-Moon system

Note that in the system to the right in Fig. 33, the zenith angle φ is always non-negative.
For r = const and 0 ≤ Ψ < 2π , the resulting geometry forms a cone with angle 0 ≤ φ ≤ π
centred around the positive z-axis. A cone is also spanned out for r = const , ϕ = const and
0 ≥ Ψ ≥ 2π in the system to the left in the figure. In the latter case, however, the latitudinal
angle −π/2 ≤ ϕ ≤ π/2 takes both signs.
It is the non-negative zenith-angle φ in the coordinate system to the right in Fig. 33, similar
to the zenith angle φ in tidal theory when the centre line in Fig. 4 is aligned with the z-axis
in Fig. 33, that makes the (φ, Ψ)-system particularly suited for problems involving gravitational
potential (or problems involving electric potentials), see e.g. Sec. 4.10.1.

B.2.4 Gradient operator in spherical coordinates

The gradient operator expressed in terms of the two spherical coordinate systems in Fig. 33 can
be expressed in terms of the two system’s scale factors.

108
For the system to the left in Fig. 33, the scale factors in the Ψ, ϕ, r-directions are r cos ϕ , r
and 1, respectively. The resulting gradient operator is therefore
 
1 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂
∇= , , = eΨ + eϕ + er (486)
r cos ϕ ∂Ψ r ∂ϕ ∂r r cos ϕ ∂Ψ r ∂ϕ ∂r

In the above expression, eΨ , eϕ and er are the unit vectors in the Ψ, ϕ, r-directions, respec-
tively.
Similarly, for the right system in Fig. 33, the scale factors in the r, φ, Ψ-directions are 1 , r and
r sin φ , respectively. The resulting gradient operator becomes
 
∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
∇= , , = er + eφ + eΨ (487)
∂r r ∂φ r sin φ ∂Ψ ∂r r ∂φ r sin φ ∂Ψ

109
C The three lunar tidal components
To show the identity between the right hand sides of (64) and (65), one can first note that ζ1 is
common to both expressions and can therefor be ignored in the following.
Expansion and reordering of ζ0 gives
  
3 1 1
ζ0 = sin2 φ − sin2 d −
2 3 3
3 1 1 1
= sin2 φ sin2 d − sin2 φ − sin2 d +
2 2 2 6
1 1 1 1
= sin φ sin d + sin φ sin d − sin φ − sin2 d +
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 6
2 2 1 2 2 1 2 1
= sin φ sin d + sin φ (sin d − 1) − sin d +
2 2 6
2 2 1 2 2 1 2 1
= sin φ sin d − sin φ cos d − sin d + (488)
2 2 6
In the second last line, the identity
sin2 a + cos2 a = 1 (489)
has been used.
Furthermore
1
ζ2 = cos2 φ cos2 d cos(2CP )
2
1
= cos2 φ cos2 d − cos2 φ cos2 d (490)
2
Here the identity
cos 2a = cos2 a − sin2 a = 2 cos2 a − 1 (491)
has been used (with the help of identity (489) in the last equality).
With ζ0 from (488) and ζ2 from (490), one obtains
1 1 1
ζ0 + ζ2 = sin2 φ sin2 d −
sin2 φ cos2 d − sin2 d +
2 2 6
2 2 2 1 2 2
+ cos φ cos d cos CP − cos φ cos d (492)
2
The second and last term on the right hand side can be combined into
1
− cos2 d (493)
2
so
1 1 1
ζ0 + ζ2 = sin2 φ sin2 d − cos2 d − sin2 d + + cos2 φ cos2 d cos2 CP (494)
2 2 6
Comparison between the right hand sides of (64) and (494), and remembering that ζ1 has
already been taken care of, shows that the two last terms on the right hand side of (494) have
their counterparts on the right hand side of (64). For the remaining terms on the right hand side
of (494), one obtains
1 1 1 1 1 1
sin2 φ sin2 d − cos2 d − sin2 d + = sin2 φ sin2 d − + = sin2 φ sin2 d − (495)
2 2 6 2 6 3
which is identical to the remaining terms on the right hand side of (64).

110
D Elliptic geometry25
An ellipse is the locus of points M in the plane such as the sum of the distances M F and M F 0
to two fixed points F and F 0 , called the foci , is constant. A basic configuration is shown in
Figure 34.
From the definition, an ellipsis can be formed by fixing a non-stretching string of length l at two
sticks (the foci points), a distance d < l apart. A third moveable stick will then form the ellipse
if the string runs on the outer side of the latter, while the stick is continuously moved with the
string fully stretched.

y
Principal circle

Ellipse

b M

R
a E K
F’ c = ae F x

Figure 34: Illustration of an ellipse. a and b are the semi-major and semi-minor axes, respec-
tively; F and F 0 are the foci points (of which a point with mass is located in foci point F
whereas F 0 is an empty focus (i.e., no mass)); M is a point on the ellipse; R and K are the
distance F M and the angle angle between the x -axis and the line segment R , respectively; c
is the distance between the centre of the ellipse and the foci points; and e is the eccentricity
of the ellipse satisfying c = a e , with 0 ≤ e < 1 . The angles K and E are called the true
anomaly and the eccentric anomaly, respectively. Note that the eccentric anomaly defines the
angle between the horizontal axis and a point on the principal circle given by a vertical line
running through M .

As seen from Fig. 34, the eccentricity e is defined by the relationship

c = ae, 0≤e<1 (496)
25 Mainly
based on the excellent treatise by M. Capderou (2014): Handbook of Satellite Orbits. From Kepler to
GPS, ISBN 978-3-319-03415-7, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-03416-4, Springer International Publishing Switzerland.

111
Let
R=FM and R0 = F 0 M (497)

In the case K = 0 , it follows that

R=a−c and R0 = a + c (498)
Therefore,
R + R0 = 2 a (499)
0
or that the sum of R + R is constant, consistent with the definition. That the constant equals
2 a follows directly from Fig. 34 in the case K = 0 , but is otherwise not intuitively given.
Another property is obtained when K = π/2 . In this case
R = R0 = a (500)
(from 499), and Pythagoras gives
b2 = a2 − c2 = a2 (1 − e2 ) (501)
In the last equality, the definition (505) is being used. Thus,
b p
= 1 − e2 (502)
a

D.1 Cartesian coordinates

In Cartesian coordinates, M is located at the point (x, y) and F is located at (c, 0) . Pythagoras
gives
R2 = (x − c)2 + y 2 = (x − ae)2 + y 2 (503)
Likewise,
R02 = (x + c)2 + y 2 = (x + ae)2 + y 2 (504)
Therefore
R02 − R2 = 4 cx = 4 ae x (505)
Furthermore
R02 − R2 = (R0 − R)(R0 + R) (506)
and by means of (499), we obtain
R0 − R = 2 ex (507)
0
Finally, by combining (499) and (507), we get the lengths of R and R expressed in Cartesian
coordinates
R = a − ex (508)
0
R = a + ex (509)

The standard Cartesian formula for an ellipse is obtained by combining (503) and (508):
R2 = (x + ae)2 + y 2 = (a − ex)2 (510)
giving
x2 y2
+ =1 (511)
a2 a2 (1 − e2 )
or, by means of (501),
x2 y2
+ =1 (512)
a2 b2

112
D.2 Semilatus rectum

The distance p from the x -axis to any point y on the ellipsis is called the ellipse’s semilatus
rectum, see Fig. 35.

(ae,b2/a)
b
p

a ae (ae,0)
x

(ae,-b2/a)

Figure 35: Illustration of the semilatus rectum p of an ellipse, the latter with semi-major and
semi-minor axes a and b , respectively, and eccentricity e .

The semilatus rectum can be derived from expression (512), with x = ae :

y2
= 1 − e2 (513)
b2
But from expression (502)
b2
1 − e2 = (514)
a2
therefore
b2
y=± (515)
a
and the semilatus rectum is therefore p = b2 /a ( a > b ) .
Furthermore, the ratio b/a given by (502) implies that p can be expressed as

p = a(1 − e2 ) (516)

113
D.3 The y -value of an ellipse relative to the reference circle

On a reference circle, the positive y value at x = ae is given by Pythagoras

p
ycircle = a 1 − e2 (517)

On an ellipse, the corresponding y -value is given by expression (513)

p
yellipse = b 1 − e2 (518)

Therefore, for any x -value, the ratio of the y -value of the ellipse and the reference circle is
constant and is given by
yellipse b p
= = 1 − e2 (519)
ycircle a
where the last equality comes from expression (502).

D.4 Polar coordinates

We first define a Cartesian coordinate system centred on the foci point F . The x -coordinate of
F , labelled X , is
X = x − c = x − ea (520)
The length R , from (508), can now be expressed as

R = a − ex = a − e(X + ea) = a(1 − e2 ) − eX (521)

From Fig. 34,

X = R cos K (522)
Inserting into (521) and rearranging yields the equation for an ellipse in polar coordinates

a(1 − e2 )
R(K) = (523)
1 + e cos K
The inverse of R can be expressed with one term proportional to cos K plus a constant
term:
1 e 1
= cos K + (524)
R(K) a(1 − e2 ) a(1 − e2 )
Thus, expressions (523) and (524) are the polar counterparts to the more commonly known
cartesian expression given by (512).

114
E Miscellaneous notes

E.1 Including variations in the lunar distance

The lunar distance Rl in the Equilibrium Tide, see expressions (69)–(72), is not constant, but
varies according to the Moon’s elliptic path around the Earth. The latter has the form of the
varying Sun–Earth distance, see expression (268), but expressed with the lunar subscript l , the
mean ecliptic longitude s increasing by the speed σ2 = 0.5490 deg/msh , the longitude of the
lunar perigee p (speed σ4 ; the period is 8.85 year) and the mean eccentricity of the Moon’s
orbit e = 0.0549 : /3.18/
Rl
= 1 + e cos(s − p) (525)
Rl
In the above expression, Rl is the mean lunar distance.
Including varying lunar distance in the semi-diurnal component C2 , see expression (72), gives /p. 63/
"  #
3
a 3
C2 (t) = cos dl [1 + e cos(s − p)]3 cos 2 Cl
2
Rl 4
= Ψ [1 + e cos(s − p)]3 cos 2 Cl (526)

where " 3 #
a 3
Ψ= cos2 dl (527)
Rl 4
has been included for convenience.
Due to the smallness of e , the binomial formula gives

[1 + e cos(s − p)]3 ≈ 1 + 3 e cos(s − p) (528)

From (99), with /p. 49/

λP = 0 , λl = s + 2e sin(s − p) , h = ω3 t (529) /p. 63/
where, for simplicity, λP = 0 implies that the point P is located on the Greenwich meridian, /(3.19)/
we obtain

cos 2 Cl = cos 2 [ω0 t + h − s − π − 2 e sin(s − p)]

= cos 2 [δ − 2 e sin(s − p)] (530)

In the above expression

δ ≡ ω0 t + h − s − π (531)

Expression (532) can be simplified, again by using the smallness of e :

cos 2 Cl = cos 2 [δ − 2 e sin(s − p)]

= cos [2 δ − 4 e sin(s − p)]
(605)
= cos 2 δ cos([4 e sin(s − p)] + sin 2 δ sin([4 e sin(s − p)]
≈ cos 2 δ + 4 e sin 2 δ sin(s − p) (532)

115
where (624) and (625) are used in the last equality.
With expression (528) and (532) inserted into (526), we obtain

C2 (t) = Ψ [cos 2 δ + 4 e sin 2 δ sin(s − p) + 3 e cos(s − p) cos 2 δ ] (533)

From the identities (606) and (601), we get

4 e sin 2 δ sin(s − p) = 2 e cos(2δ − s + p) − 2 e cos(2δ + s − p) (534)

Similarly, the identities (607) and (601) give

3 3
3 e cos(s − p) cos 2 δ = e cos(2δ − s + p) + e cos(2δ + s − p) (535)
2 2
Consequently, /4.3/
 
7 1
C2 (t) = Ψ cos 2δ + e cos(2δ − s + p) − e cos(2δ + s − p) (536)
2 2

The three terms in (536) are, in order, the lunar M2 , N2 and L2 constituents. The corre- /p. 64/
sponding speeds are 2 σ1 , 2σ1 − σ2 + σ4 and 2σ1 + σ2 + σ4 , whereas the relative amplitudes
are, for e = 0.0549 :
M2 : N2 : L2 = 1.000 : 0.196 : 0.027 (537)

E.2 High and low water times and heights

E.2.1 High water times and heights

We consider the height T (t) of the major M2 tide and another minor tidal constituent: /p. 368/

T (t) = HM2 cos ωt + A cos nt + B sin nt (538)

The latter minor constituent can be cast into the form of a single trignometric function by
introducing the amplitude R and the angle θ :

A = R cos θ (539)
B = R sin θ (540)

The above equations relate A, B and R, θ :

B
R 2 = A2 + B 2 , and tan θ = (541)
A
Thus, by means of expression (605), equation (538) can also be written as

T (t) = HM2 cos ωt + R cos(nt − θ) (542)

Maximum value of (538) occurs for a vanishing temporal derivative:

∂T (t)
= −ωHM2 sin ωt − nA sin nt + nB cos nt = 0 (543)
∂t

116
If t = 0 denotes the time for maximum M2 , we can use for small t :

cos ωt ≈ cos nt ≈ 1 , sin ωt ≈ ωt , and sin nt ≈ nt (544)

The maximum amplitude Hmax of the combined tide occurs when the time derivative in (543)
vanishes:
−ω 2 tmax HM2 − n2 tmax A + n B = 0 (545)
As long as M2 is the leading tidal constituent, R/HM2  1 , giving
Bn
tmax = (546)
HM2 ω 2

With tmax inserted into (538), and by using

1
cos ωtmax ≈ 1 − (ωtmax )2 , cos ntmax ≈ 1 , sin ntmax ≈ ntmax (547)
2
we obtain
1  n 2 B 2
Hmax = HM2 + A + (548)
2 ω HM2

E.2.2 Low water times and heights

Likewise, if we let t = 0 occur at minimum M2 , expression (538) reads

T (t) = −HM2 cos ωt + A cos nt + B sin nt (549)

With the same simplifications as above, we obtain

Bn
tmin = − (550)
HM2 ω 2
With tmin inserted into (549), and by using
1
cos ωtmin ≈ 1 − (ωtmin )2 , cos ntmin ≈ 1 , sin ntmin ≈ ntmin (551)
2
we get
1  n 2 B 2
Hmin = −HM2 + A − (552)
2 ω HM2

E.2.3 Temporal average

The temporal averaged value or any quantity Ψ , denoted Ψ , averaged over many tidal periods
m Tt , are given by
Z m Tt
1
Ψ= Ψ dt (553)
m Tt 0

The temporal average of Hmax from (548) with A, B given by (540), gives the following for the
first term Z m Tt
Hmax m Tt
Z
1
Hmax = Hmax dt = dt = Hmax (554)
m Tt t=0 m Tt t=0

117
The second terms gives no contribution due to the symmetric cosine -contribution around zero:
Z m Tt Z m 2π
1 1
A= A dt = R cos θ dθ = 0 (555)
m Tt t=0 m 2π θ=0

For the third term, the sin2 -dependency gives a contribution due to it’s non-negative val-
ues: Z m 2π m 2π
2
R2

2
1 2 2 (622) R θ sin 2θ
B = R sin θ dθ = − = (556)
m 2π θ=0 m 2π 2 4 θ=0 2
Consequently, from (548),
1  n 2 R2
Hmax = Hmax + (557)
4 ω HM2

Likewise, the temporal average of Hmin , from (552), becomes

1  n 2 R2
Hmin = −Hmin − (558)
4 ω HM2

Thus, the Mean High Water (MHW) and Mean Low Water (MLW) are given by /C.1/

MHW = Hmax (559)

MLW = Hmin (560)

The Mean Tide Level (MTL) is the mean of MHW and MLW, so

MTL = 0 (561)

Finally, the Mean Tidal Range (MTR) is the difference between MHW and MLW,

1  n 2 R 2
MTR = MHW − MLW = 2 Hmax + (562)
2 ω HM2

E.3 Polar tide

If ω and r are the Earth’s rotation and radius vectors, respectively, the centrifugal acceleration
due to Earth’s rotation can be written as

−ω × (ω × r) = ω 2 R (0, − sin ϕ, cos ϕ) (563)

Here R = r cos ϕ is the distance from the rotation axis to a point A on Earth’s surface and ϕ
is the latitude of A .
Alternatively, R can be expressed in terms of the colatitide θ ,

R = r sin θ (564)

The centrifugal acceleration can be written as the gradient to a scalar, the centrifugal potential
V:  2 2
ω R
−ω × (ω × r) = ∇ = ∇V (565)
2

118
Thus, /p. 260/
1
V = ω 2 r2 sin2 θ (566)
2
A small change in the colatitude angle δθ will lead to a change δV in the centrifugal potential
accroding to the expression
1 2 2 (604) 1 2 2
δV = ω r 2 sin θ cos θ δθ = ω r sin 2θ δθ (567)
2 2

Thus, perturbations in θ , for instance caused by polar motion, give rise to largest changes in /Fig. 10.5/
the centrifugal acceleration at ±45◦ , and vanishing changes at equator and at the poles.

119
F Some wave characteristics
A wave in the ocean (or in the atmosphere or in a fluid) can be described as
a physical processes that transport information in time and space, such as energy,
without or with little advection of mass associated with the transport, and with speed
and direction that is generally different from the advection of mass (or the ocean
general circulation).

F.1 Properties of waves in one spatial dimension

Any perturbation (small change) can be expressed as the sum of trigonometric (sine or cosine)
waves, each having a specific amplitude, wavelength, period, and phase.

F.1.1 Spatial variation

A stationary wave in the x -direction, for example expressed as the sea level elevation ζ (m),
can be written as  
x
ζ(x) = a cos 2π (568)
λx
or a sum of waves of similar form.
The wave elevation ζ is characterised by
Amplitude a : Implying that ζ varies between ±a. Unit is metre.
Wavelength λx : Implying that the wave repeats itself when x = ± n λx , where n
is an integer. Unit is metre.

F.1.2 Spatial-temporal variations

A wave will normally propagate in time. The wave’s

Speed, alternatively it’s phase speed is denoted cx , see also phase speed be-
low. The wave can propagate in the positive and the negative x -direction.
Thus, the phase speed is ±cx , with the convention that cx > 0 . Alternatively,
cx may take both positive and negative values without explicit notation of the
sign. Unit is m s−1 .
Since speed = distance/time , the wave propagates a distance x0 = ±cx t in time t . The wave
form (568) can then be written as
 
2π
ζ(x, t) = a cos (x ± cx t) (569)
λx

The above wave is characterised by

The phase given by the argument 2π(x ± cx t)/λx (in radians). Points with con-
stant phase are points where the wave form has the same value, like the wave
crest or the wave through.

120
Positive sign in front cx t in (569) describes a wave propagating in the negative x -direction.
This is seen from 2π(x + cx t)/λx = C , where C is a constant (i.e., we consider a constant
phase). Therefore, x = Cλx /(2π) − cx t. Since λx , cx > 0 , this implies decreasing x with
increasing t . Similarly, negative sign in front of cx t gives rise to wave propagation in the
positive x-direction.

F.1.3 Wave number

Instead of using wavelength λx , it is common to express the wave with the

Wavenumber kx (unit m−1 ). The relationship between the wave number and
the wavelength is given by
2π
kx = (570)
λx
The wave number is the number of wavelengths confined by the “length” 2π .
For example, a wave with wavelength 100 km has a wave number 6.3×10−5 m−1 .
Therefore, the wave number does not have to be an integer.
Using (570) in (569), the latter can be expressed as
ζ(x, t) = a cos[kx (x ± cx t)] (571)

F.1.4 Other definitions

The period T is the time it takes for a point on the wave to repeat itself. T
therefore equals the time it takes for the wave to propagate one wavelength
T = λx /cx (572)

The angular frequency (also called the angular speed) ω is a measure of the
temporal variation of the wave
2π
ω= (573)
T
The phase speed cx is the speed of the wave, for example, the speed of the wave
crest or through. Consequently,
λx ω
cx = = (574)
T kx
where (570) and (573) in the last equality.
By using ω and kx , expression (571) be put in the form
ζ(x, t) = a cos(kx x ± ωt) (575)

Expressions (569), (571) and (575) describes the same: For fixed time t = t0 , the surface
elevation ζ is a wave form in x -direction repeating itself with the wavelength λx , that is, the
wave form is repeated for x = ± n λx where n is an integer. Similarly, for a fixed point x = x0 ,
ζ describes a standing wave with time t , i.e., a wave that repeats itself every t = ± n T ( n
being an integer).
Finally,

121
 The phase of a wave is given by the argument kx x±ωt and expresses any specific
point in the wave cycle. The phase varies from 0 to 2π.

F.2 Two-dimensional waves

The above can be extended to multiple dimensions. In two dimensions, the surface elevation can
be expressed as
ζ = a cos(kx x + ky y ± ωt) = a cos(k · x ± ωt) (576)
where
The wave number vector k = (kx , ky ) = kx x̂ + ky ŷ, with magnitude

k 2 = kx2 +2 ky (577)

and direction
k
k̂ = (578)
k
The phase speed is
ω
c= (579)
k
and the wavelength is
2π
λ= (580)
k
with the wave number k given by (577).

F.3 Complex notation

Rather than assuming the wave in the form of a cosine (or sine) wave as described above, it is
convenient to express the wave in complex form:

a exp[i(k · x ± ωt)] (581)

The physical meaningful quantity will then be the real part of the complex number

Re {a exp[i(k · x ± ωt)]} (582)

In the above expression, Re denotes the real part, a is the (complex) wave amplitude, k =
kx x̂ + ky ŷ is the wave number vector in the x - and y -directions, x = xx̂ + yŷ is the position
vector and ω is the angular frequency or speed.
Since
exp iψ = cos ψ + i sin ψ (583)
expression (582) is on the (standard) wave form

a cos(k · x ± ωt) (584)

It has here been assumed that the amplitude a is real.

The waveform given by (582) is particularly convenient since the derivative of the exponen-
tial function equals the function itself, corrected with algebraic coefficients resulting from the

122
use of the chain rule. This implies that derivations are readily substituted by algebraic coeffi-
cients:
∂ ∂ ∂
→ ikx , → iky , and → ±iω (585)
∂x ∂y ∂t
This implies that, for example, the shallow water equations can be expressed as a set of algebraic
equations that can be readily analysed. The resulting algebraic expression encompass all possible
combinations of wave parameters and physical (environmental) parameters that satisfy the full,
continuous set of equations. This, together with a physical interpretation of the wave solution,
gives a full description of the waves.

F.4 Dispersion relationship

The algebraic relationship between ω and k , expressed as ω = f (k) , is the wave dispersion
relationship.

F.4.1 Non-dispersive waves

If ω has a linear dependence on k , implying that ω ∝ k , the wave is said to be non-dispersive.

In this case the waves propagate with the same phase velocity, see (574) and (579), irrespective
of the wavelength.

F.4.2 Dispersive waves

If ω does not depend linearly on k , waves with different wavelengths will propagate with different
phase speeds. In this case, the wave is said to the dispersive.

F.5 Group speed

For dispersive waves, energy does not propagate with a single trigonometric wave, but with the
“total” contribution from all waves forming the wave field. The “total contribution” is given by
the group speed, representing the total contribution from all wave components forming a wave
field. Thus, the group speed is in many respects a more central quantity than the properties of
individual wave components.
The group speed is given by the expression
∂ω
cg = (586)
∂k
Nice illustrations of the relationship between the phase speed and group speed are given here:
http://www.isvr.soton.ac.uk/spcg/tutorial/tutorial/Tutorial_files/Web-further-dispersive.
htm+.

123
F.5.1 Derivation

The expression for the group speed, equation (586), can be understood by considering two waves with
nearly equal wave numbers and wave frequencies, so k1 ≈ k2 and ω1 ≈ ω2 in the following expres-
sion:
ζ = ζ0 cos(k1 x − ω1 t) + ζ0 cos(k2 x − ω2 t) (587)
From the identity
cos(a ± b) = cos a cos b ∓ sin a sin b (588)
it follows that
cos(a + b) + cos(a − b) = 2 cos a cos b (589)
With
1 1
a= (k1 + k2 )x − (ω1 + ω2 )t (590)
2 2
and
1 1
b= (k2 − k1 )x − (ω2 − ω1 )t (591)
2 2
expression (587) be put in the form
   
1 1 1 1
ζ = 2ζ0 cos (k1 + k2 )x − (ω1 + ω2 )t cos (k2 − k1 )x − (ω2 − ω1 )t (592)
2 2 2 2

Since the waves are assumed to have similar (albeit not identical) wave numbers and frequencies, it
follows that k1 ≈ k2 and ω1 ≈ ω2 . We can now define
k1 + k2 ω1 + ω2
k= , ω= , ∆k = k2 − k1 , ∆ω = ω2 − ω1 (593)
2 2
Upon insertion into (592), one obtains
 
1 1
ζ = 2 ζ0 cos ∆k x − ∆ω t cos(kx − ωt) (594)
2 2

Expression (594) is a wave that propagates as a standard wave on the form cos(kx − ωt) with the
phase speed c = ω/k , but where the amplitude 2 ζ0 is modulated with a slowly varying wave given by
cos(∆k x/2 − ∆ω t/2) with (a long) wavelength of 4π/∆k and with a (long) period of 4π/∆ω .
The modulation wave propagate with a speed given by λ/T (see experssion 574). The latter ratio can
be expressed in terms of wave number k and frequency ω :
∆ω
(595)
∆k
or, for small ∆ω and ∆k,
∂ω
(596)
∂k
It is the latter quantity that is the wave’s group speed, which can be viewed as the “total contribution”
from all wave components. Propagation of the wave’s energy is thus associated with the collective speed
of the individual wave components, not the speed of any individual wave component.
A variant of experssion (594) is illustrated in Fig. 17, showing the modulation of the combined M2 and
S2 tidal constituents in Bergen, Norway. The basic periods for the two tidal constituents are around
12 hr, yielding a slowly varying (beating) period of about 14 days. In this example, the group speed is
represented by the fortnightly signal, not the speed of the individual wave components.

124
G Resources
Equinoxes, Solstices, Perihelion, and Aphelion:
http://aa.usno.navy.mil/data/docs/EarthSeasons.php
Lunar Perigee and Apogee Calculator:
http://www.fourmilab.ch/earthview/pacalc.html
Norwegian Mapping Authority, Sea Level and Tides:
https://www.kartverket.no/sehavniva
Norwegian Mapping Authority, Tide Tables for the Norwegian Coast and Svalbard:
https://www.kartverket.no/en/sehavniva/Tidevann-og-vannstand/Tide-Tables/
Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level:
http://www.psmsl.org/data
NOVAS, Positional Astronomy:
http://aa.usno.navy.mil/software/novas/novas_info.php
Pugh & Woodworth, Sea-Level Science, Cambridge, 2014:
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139235778
Kowalik & Luick, The Oceanography of Tides, Fairbanks, January, 2013:
http://www.uaf.edu/files/sfos/Kowalik/tide_book.pdf
TSOFT, A software package for the analysis of Time Series and Earth Tides
http://seismologie.be/en/downloads/tsoft
Tide and Current Glossary
https://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/publications/glossary2.pdf

125
H Formulas and identities

H.1 Binominal theorem for rational exponents

For all rational26 numbers r , the following identity exists
r−1 2 r−1r−2 3
(1 + x)r = 1 + r x + r x +r x + ... (597)
2 2 3
For a derivation, see e.g.
http://www.trans4mind.com/personal_development/mathematics/series/binomialProofAllAlgebra.htm.

For |x|  1 , the linear and quadric approximation of (597) becomes

(1 + x)r = 1 + r x (598)

and
r(r − 1) 2
(1 + x)r = 1 + r x + x (599)
2

H.2 Some trigonometric identities

Negative angle identities

sin(−x) = − sin x (600)

cos(−x) = cos x (601)
tan(−x) = − tan x (602)

Pythagorean identity

sin2 a + cos2 a = 1 (603)

Sum and difference identities

sin(a ± b) = sin a cos b ± cos a sin b (604)

cos(a ± b) = cos a cos b ∓ sin a sin b (605)

Product identities

2 sin a sin b = cos(a − b) − cos(a + b) (606)

2 cos a cos b = cos(a − b) + cos(a + b) (607)
1
sin2 a = (1 − cos 2a) (608)
2
1
cos2 a = (1 + cos 2a) (609)
2
26 A rational number is any number that can be expressed as the quotient or fraction p/q of two integers, with

the denominator q not equal to zero.

126
Product sum identities
   
a±b a∓b
sin a ± sin b = 2 sin cos (610)
2 2
   
a+b a−b
cos a + cos b = 2 cos cos (611)
2 2
   
a+b a−b
cos a − cos b = −2 sin sin (612)
2 2

Double angle identities

sin 2a = 2 sin a cos a (613)

2 2
cos 2a = cos a − sin a (614)

cos 2a = 2 cos2 a − 1 (615)

2
= 1 − 2 sin a (616)

Triple angle identity

1
sin3 a = (3 sin a − sin 3a) (617)
4

Half-angle identities

1 − tan2 (a/2)
cos a = (618)
1 + tan2 (a/2)

Integrals
Z
1
sin 2x dx = − cos 2x + C (619)
2
Z
cos x cos 3x
cos 2x sin x dx = − +C (620)
2 6
Z
x sin 2x
cos2 x dx = + +C (621)
2 4
Z
x sin 2x
sin2 x dx = − +C (622)
2 4
Z
cos 2x
sin x cos x dx = − +C (623)
4

Lowest order approximations

sin x ≈ x for x1 (624)

cos x ≈ 1 for x1 (625)

127
Law of cosines

For any triangle with sides a , b and c , with the angle between a and b being C , the following
relationship holds:
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2 ab cos C (626)

Cotangent formula

On a spherical triangle, let the four elements

side – angle – side – angle
lie adjacent to each other. If the elements are referred to as
outer side (OS) – inner angle (IA) – inner side (IS) – outer angle (OA)
then the formula
cos(IS) cos(IA) = sin(IS) cot(OS) − sin(IA) cot(OA) (627)
is valid. An example of the location of the four spherical triangle elements is illustrated in Fig. 36.

OA
OS

IS

IA

Figure 36: Illustration of one out of three ways to locate the four adjacent elements ‘outer side’
(OS) – ‘inner angle’ (IA) – ‘inner side’ (IS) – ‘outer angle’ (OA) on a spherical triangle (outlined
in magenta). This ordering is consistent with the cotangent formula written in the form (627).

128
Derivative of arctan x

d arctan x 1
= (628)
dx 1 + x2

I Norwegian dictionary
The following dictionary is an excerpt (with a few additions) from the Norwegian Mapping
Authority’s online dictionary,
https://www.kartverket.no/Systemsider/Ordbok.

Altimeter Høydemåler, instrument til å måle høyden over Ekvidistanse Den loddrette avstanden mellom to
et bestemt nivå. nabohøydekurver.

Amfidromisk punkt Et punkt uten tidevann. Et slikt Ellipsoide Ellipsoide er ein geometrisk form. Jordkloden
punkt finnes sørvest for Egersund. har tilnærma form som ein ellipsoide, og ein nyttar
ein ellipsoide-modell til å rekne ut ei matematisk
Apogeum Det punktet i månens eller en jordsatellitts høgde over havet.
bane som ligger lengst borte fra jorda. Motsatt av
perigeum. Ellipsoidisk høyde Et punkts avstand fra referanseellip-
soiden, målt langs ellipsoidenormalen.
Buegrad Enhet ved måling av sirkelbue. Ved en buegrad
er vinkelen mellom vinkelbena i sirkelbuen 1 grad. Fjordoverføring Måling av høydeforskjell over fjord,
En sirkel deles inn i 360 grader (360), så en buegrad vann eller elv, der vanlige nivelleringsmetoder blir
er 1/360 av en sirkels omkrets. erstattet av synkrone avlesninger med spesielt
nøyaktig instrumentering og observasjonsprosedyre.
Brakkvann Sjøvann med saltholdighet mellom ca. 0,5 og
17,0 promille. Flø Stigende tidevann.

Corioliskraften En såkalt fiktiv kraft som påvirker et leg- Frihøyde Høyde for fri passasje. Frihøyde er mer om-
eme som beveger seg i forhold til jordoverflaten. fattende enn friseilingshøyde. Frihøyde omfatter
Corioliskraften skyldes jordas rotasjon. En som også minste høyde i tunneler, underganger, vei-
står på jordoverflaten vil oppleve at et legeme får /jernbanebruer, foruten minste høyde av kraftlinjer
en avbøyning mot høyre for bevegelsesretningen på over terrenget, bygning osv.
den nordlige halvkule og mot venstre på den sørlige
halvkule. Friseilingshøyde Minste seilingshøyde under bru, luft-
spenn og lignende fra et gitt referansenivå. Fra
Deklinasjon Astronomisk koordinat som sammen med 1. januar 2000 er høyeste astronomiske tidevann
rektascensjon gir entydig posisjon. Vinkelen ved (HAT) referansenivå for friseilingshøyde.
observasjonsstedet (himmelkulens sentrum) mellom
en linje som går gjennom himmellegemet og him- Geodesi Geodesi er vitenskapen om jordens form, beveg-
melkulens ekvatorplan. Deklinasjonen måles som else, tyngdefelt og endringer i disse størrelsene.
den delen av storsirkelen som ligger mellom himmel-
legemet og ekvatorplanet. Deklinasjonen er positiv Geodetisk datum Parametre som definerer et koordinat-
når himmellegemet er nord for ekvator og negativ systems plassering og orientering i forhold til jorda.
når det er sør for ekvator. Det skilles gjerne mellom et horisontalt datum, for
angivelse av nord og øst-koordinater, og et vertikalt
Dobbelt høyvann Høyvann som består av to maksima datum for angivelse av høyder. I dag brukes også
av tilnærmet samme høyde og atskilt av en kortere begrepet referansesystem i stedet for datum.
periode med noe lavere vannstand.
Geoide Geoiden er en referansehøyde som representerer
Dobbelt lavvann Lavvann som består av to minima av den teoretiske høyden på havet i fravær av tide-
tilnærmet samme høyde og atskilt av en kortere pe- vannsbevegelse, havstrømmer eller bølger. Den
riode med noe høyere vannstand. følger havets tenkte forlengelse under kontinentene.
For å kunne danne denne referansehøyden må man
Drivlegeme Flytende objekt (for eksempel en flaske, kjenne jordens tyngdefelt, som ikke er likt over alt.
stang, bøye, strømkors eller drivkort) som er bereg- Geoiden er et helt nødvendig utgangspunkt for alle
net på å bestemme strømmens retning og fart ved nøyaktige høydemålinger, som de svrt viktige kli-
gjentatt bestemmelse av legemets plass mens det mavariablene havnivå, havsirkulasjon og istykkelse.
flyter fritt. Aktiviteter som krever nøyaktige høydemålinger,
som konstruksjon og byutvikling, er avhengig av
Dybde Loddrett avstand fra et gitt referansenivå ned til geoiden som utgangspunkt.
bunnen eller til et annet objekt.
Geoidemodell En modell som angir hvor høyt geoiden
Ebbe Synkende tidevann. ligger i forhold til en valgt ellipsoide.

Ekliptikk Jordbaneplanets skjæringssirkel med him- Geopotensialtallet Differanse i tyngdepotensial mellom

melkulen, eller solbanen sett fra jorden. geoiden og et punkt over geoiden.

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Geosentrisk Med jorda som midtpunkt, i motsetning til opp og danne en ujevn havoverflate, og havnivået
heliosentrisk, som har sola som midtpunkt. endres.

Gjentaksintervall Beregninger av hvor hyppig en storm- Horisontalt datum Et referansesystem som angir nord-
flo av en viss størrelse statistisk sett vil opptre. og øst-koordinater, i motsetning til et vertikalt da-
Høyvann (lavvann) med x års gjentaksintervall: tum (høydedatum), som angir høyder.
Vannstanden forventes i gjennomsnitt å bli så høy
(lav) en gang i løpet av x antall år. Kalles også Href Høydereferansemodell som gir forskjellen mel-
returverdi eller returnivå. lom høyder i NN1954 og EUREF89. En
høydereferansemodell angir høydedifferansen mel-
GLOSS Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS) lom en ellipsoide og en geoide.
er et internasjonalt program opprettet under
beskyttelse av Joint Technical Commission for Hydrografisk nivellement Overføring av middelvann
Oceanography and Marine Meteorology (JCOMM) (og andre nivå) fra et sted med en lang observasjon-
(www.jcomm.info/) tilhørende World Meteorolog- srekke (av vannstand) til et sted med kort obser-
ical Organisation (WMO) og Intergovernmental vasjonsrekke. Metoden benytter samtidige vann-
Oceanographic Commission (IOC). GLOSS skal standsobservasjoner på de to stedene. Brukes også
være en bidragsyter i å etablere globale og re- ved sekundærhavn-beregning.
gionale målenett for vannstand av høy kvalitet, der
dataene brukes til forskning innen klima, vannstand Høydedatum Et referansesystem som angir høyder (også
og oseanografi. Den viktigste delen til GLOSS kalt vertikalt datum), i motsetning til et horisontalt
består av et globalt målenett (hovednettverk) der datum, som angir nord- og øst-koordinater.
290 vannstandsmålere inngår. Mer informasjon på
Høydereferansemodell Modell som angir høydedifferansen
www.gloss-sealevel.org.
mellom en ellipsoide og en geoide. Href er
GMT Greenwich (middel-) tid, det samme som UT (Uni- høydereferansemodell som gir forskjellen mellom
versal Time). høyder i NN1954 og EUREF89.

Greenwich Bydel i London med observatorium grunnlagt Høydesystem Vertikalt eller geodetisk datum, og et nett
1675. Lengdesirkelen gjennom observatoriet har av utvalgte fastmerker som er høydebestemt i dette
siden 1883 vært ansett som nullsirkelen (nullmerid- datumet.
ianen). Observatoriet ble ca. 1950 flyttet til Her-
Høyvann Høyeste vannstand på et sted i løpet av n tide-
stmonceaux i Sussex, men Greenwich-meridianen
vannsperiode, også kalt flo.
gjelder fremdeles som nullmeridianen. Greenwich
Mean Time, forkortet GMT, middelsoltid i Green- Isoraki Linje på et tidevannskart som går gjennom steder
wich, regnes etter 1925 fra midnatt (tidligere regnet der høyvann inntreffer på samme tid. Tidspunktene
fra middag). for høyvann er angitt i forhold til månens passasje
gjennom n bestemt meridian, for eksempel 0 E. Iso-
Grunnlinjepunkt Koordinatbestemt punkt på de ytter-
rakiene gir oversikt over tidevannsbølgens forplant-
ste nes og skjær som stikker opp av havet ved lav-
ning.
vann.
Jevndøgn Dato når solen under sin årlige bevegelse
Harmonisk analyse Matematisk metode som løser opp
langs ekliptikken kommer til skjæringspunktet
en (observert) kurve i en rekke cosinuskurver. Ofte
(jevndøgnspunktene) mellom ekliptikken og himme-
brukt til analyse av vannstandskurver. Resultatet
lens ekvator. Solens deklinasjon er da null, det vil
kan settes sammen etter et visst mønster for å
si at dag og natt er like lange. Vårjevndøgn inntre-
beregne tidevannet i et vilkårlig tidspunkt.
ffer 20. eller 21. mars og høstjevndøgn 22. eller 23.
Harmonisk konstant Amplitude og faseforskyvning for september.
en harmonisk konstituent beregnet for et bestemt
sted. Beregnes ved hjelp av harmonisk analyse. K1 Et ledd i en matematisk rekke som beskriver tide-
vannsvariasjonene. Hvert ledd i rekken represen-
Harmonisk konstituent En av flere cosinusfunksjoner i terer periodiske virkninger på tidevannet fra måne
den matematiske modellen for tidevannet. Ampli- og sol, og er gitt med en amplitude og fase. K1 er
tude og fase for konstituenten beregnes ved hjelp en lunisolar (tilknytning både til månen og solen),
av harmonisk analyse. Frekvensen er beregnet fra heldaglig konstituent. Sammen med konstituenten
teorien for likevektstidevann. O1 uttrykker den effekten av månens deklinasjon.
Mens den sammen med konstituenten P1 uttrykker
HAT Høyeste astronomiske tidevann (HAT) er høyeste effekten av solens deklinasjon.
mulige vannstand uten værets virkning. Det vil si
uten påvirkning fra blant annet vind, lufttrykk og K2 Denne konstituenten modulerer amplituden og
temperatur. frekvensen til M2 og S2 for deklinasjonseffekten
for henholdsvis månen og solen.
Havnetid Tidsrommet fra månen passerer stedets merid-
ian (eller annen referansemeridian) til første L2 Månen går i en elliptisk bane rundt jorden, der
påfølgende høyvann inntreffer. Havnetiden har månens banehastighet varierer i ellipsebanen. Kon-
et karakteristisk forløp gjennom en spring-nipp- stituenten L2 modulerer sammen med konstituenten
periode. Vanligvis angis midlere havnetid. N2 amplituden og frekvensen til M2 for effekten av
denne variasjonen.
Havnivå Havets gjennomsnittsnivå målt over en lang
periode, slik at variasjoner forårsaket av tide- Landheving Landheving innebærer at landjorden hever
vannskrefter og vær ikke påvirker resultatet. seg. Landhevingen i Skandinavia skyldes i hoved-
Havnivået er den trege komponenten av vannstand. sak at isen som trykket landjorden ned under siste
istid, har smeltet. Dermed hever landet seg. Land-
Havstrøm Havstrømmer påvirker havnivået. Jo raskere hevingen varierer fra sted til sted, men er på det
overflatestrømmene i havet går, jo mer vil de bule meste nesten 7 millimeter i året i forhold til jordens

130
 sentrum. I forhold til havnivå er landhevingen ca 2 NN1954 Normal Null 1954 (NN1954) er navn på det
millimeter lavere siden havnivået også stiger. nasjonale høydesystemet fra 1954 som fortsatt er
i bruk i Norge. NN1954 er også fysisk knyttet til
LAT Laveste astronomiske tidevann (LAT) er laveste et bestemt fastmerke ved Tregde vannstandsmåler
mulige vannstand uten værets virkning. Det vil si (nær Mandal). Høyden på dette fastmerket er
uten påvirkning fra blant annet vind, lufttrykk og basert på en utjevning fra 1954 av middelvann-
temperatur. standsberegningene for vannstandsmålerne i Oslo,
Nevlunghavn, Tregde, Stavanger, Bergen, Kjølsdal
Lavvann Laveste vannstand på et sted i løpet av n tide- og Heimsjø. NN1954 avløses innen år 2015 av Nor-
vannsperiode, også kalt fjære. mal Null 2000 (NN2000).
Likevektstidevann Modell av tidevannet som forutsetter NN2000 NN2000 er Norges nye høydesystem som innføres
at jordkloden er fullstendig dekket av et jevntykt gradvis fram til 2016/2017. Høydesystemet er den
vannlag og der vannet antas å være uten friksjon og referansen som ligger til grunn når man angir hvor
treghet. Modellen gir ikke korrekte verdier for tide- mange meter over havet (moh.) for eksempel et fjell
vannsvariasjonene, men inngår som en viktig del av eller en innsjø ligger.
det teoretiske grunnlag for forståelsen av tidevann.
NNN1957 Nord-norsk null 1957 (NNN1957) var vertikalt
M2 Et ledd i en matematisk rekke som beskriver tide- datum for det nasjonale høydesystem i Nord-Norge,
vannsvariasjonene. Hvert ledd i rekken represen- nord for Tysfjord og i Lofoten, fram til 1996.
terer periodiske virkninger på tidevannet fra måne NNN1957 ble brukt som navn på både det ver-
og sol, og er gitt med en amplitude og fase. M2 er tikale datumet og på høydesystemet. I 1957 ble
det dominerende tidevannsbidraget fra månen. det innført et nytt utgangsnivå for høyder i Nord-
Norge. På den tiden var det en rekke veibrudd med
Mellomeuropeisk tid Tidssone som ligger en time foran ferjeforbindelser mellom Fauske og Narvik. Følgelig
Greenwich middeltid, dvs. GMT + 1 time. Fellestid var det ikke noen direkte forbindelse mellom nivelle-
for de fleste europeiske land. mentslinjene nord for Narvik og det sørnorske niv-
ellementsnettet. Det var derfor behov for å etablere
Meridian Meridian eller lengdegrad er en tenkt linje i jor-
et fundamentalpunkt for Nord-Norge. Det er uprak-
dens koordinatsystem som går mellom Nordpolen og
tisk å operere med to offisielle høydesystemer. For
Sydpolen. Meridianene står vinkelrett på ekvator.
alle tekniske formål må vi kunne si at NN1954 og
Nullmeridianen går gjennom Greenwich i London.
NNN1957 faller sammen. Det ble derfor vedtatt at
Middel høyvann Gjennomsnitt av alle høyvann i en 19- betegnelsen NNN1957 skulle falle bort fra 1. januar
årsperiode. 1996.

Middel lavvann Gjennomsnitt av alle lavvann i en 19- Normaltid Et lands offisielle tid, i Norge brukes mel-
årsperiode. lomeuropeisk tid.

Middel nipp høyvann Gjennomsnitt av alle høyvannene O1 Et ledd i en matematisk rekke som beskriver tide-
i nipperioder i løpet av 19 år. vannsvariasjonene. O1 er en lunar (tilknytning til
månen) heldaglig konstituent. Sammen med kon-
Middel nipp lavvann Gjennomsnitt av alle lavvannene i stituenten K1 uttrykker den effekten av månens
nipperioder i løpet av 19 år. deklinasjon.

Middel spring høyvann Gjennomsnitt av alle P1 Et ledd i en matematisk rekke som beskriver tide-
høyvannene i springperioder i løpet av 19 år. vannsvariasjonene. Hvert ledd i rekken represen-
terer periodiske virkninger på tidevannet fra måne
Middel spring lavvann Gjennomsnitt av alle lav- og sol, og er gitt med en amplitude og fase. P1
vannene i springperioder i løpet av 19 år. er solar (tilknytning til solen) heldaglig konstituent.
Sammen med konstituenten K1 uttrykker den effek-
Middelvann Middelvann (MV) er gjennomsnitt av alle ten av solens deklinasjon.
vannstandsmålinger i en 19-årsperiode.
Predikert tidevann Ved hjelp av harmonisk analyse
Målernull Nullpunkt for en vannstandsmåler. Er i prin- bestemmes konstantene i en modell for tidevan-
sippet et tilfeldig valgt nivå. net. Med modellen kan tidevannet beregnes for et
vilkårlig, fremtidig tidspunkt (predikeres). Tide-
N2 Sammen med konstituenten L2, modulerer N2 ampli- vannstabeller er basert på predikert tidevann.
tuden og frekvensen til M2 for effekten av variasjo-
nen i månens banehastighet på grunn av månens Perigeum Punkt i månens eller en jordsatellitts bane som
elliptiske bane rundt jorden. ligger nærmest jorden. Perigeum er motsatt av
apogeum.
Nasjonalt høydesystem Nasjonalt vedtatt høydesystem.
NN1954 er eksempel på et nasjonalt høydesystem. Potensialflate Flate hvor potensialet har samme verdi. I
litteratur også kalt ekvipotensialflate.
Nipp Nipp får man når tidevannet er på sitt laveste. Det
skjer når tidevannskreftene fra månen og sola virker Presisjonsnivellement Nivellement som setter strenge
mest mulig sammen. krav til utførelse og kontroll. Det er vanlig å sette
krav om at en strekning skal måles både fram og
Nivellement Målemetode for nøyaktig høydebestemmelse, tilbake, og at avviket skal være under en viss toler-
relatert til loddlinjen. Målingen skjer ved å foreta anse.
horisontale sikt med et nivellerinstrument mot lod-
drett oppstilte nivellerstenger eller meterskalaer. Referanseflate Entydig definert flate som målinger og
Ved å summere høydeforskjellene mellom mange beregninger henføres til. Ellipsoide, geoide, kvasi-
horisontale sikteliner får vi nøyaktige høyder langt geoide og sjøkartnull er eksempler på referanseflater
inne i landet. for høyde/dybde.

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Referansenivå Høyder og dybder må refereres til et den roterende jorden. Tilsvarende deformasjon i
bestemt nullnivå. havet kalles tidevann.

Returnivå Beregnet nivå vannstanden sjelden overstiger. Tidevann Vannstandsendringer som skyldes variasjoner i
Returnivå med 5 års gjentaksintervall: Statistisk tiltrekningskreftene fra månen og sola på jorda.
sett forventer man så høy vannstand en gang i løpet
av 5 år. For et gitt år er det 1/5 = 20 Tidevannets alder Tidsrommet fra ny- eller fullmåne til
det neste spring høyvann. Angis ofte oftest ved
ROS-analyse Risiko- og sårbarhetsanalyse. Risiko = hjelp av harmoniske konstanter.
usikkerhet knyttet til forekomst og alvorlighet av
uønskede hendelser. Sårbarhet = et uttrykk for et Tidevannsbølge Lang bølge forårsaket av tide-
systems manglende evne til å fungere og oppnå sine vannskraften fra sol og måne. Bølgelengden kan
mål når det utsettes for påkjenninger. Les mer bli flere tusen kilometer. Den dannes ute på de
store havområder og forplanter seg mot kontinen-
S2 Et ledd i en matematisk rekke som beskriver tide- tene der den forårsaker høyvann og lavvann. Bølgen
vannsvariasjonene. Hvert ledd i rekken represen- kan gjennomgå betydelige endringer som følge av
terer periodiske virkninger på tidevannet fra måne hindringer (landmasser og bunnformasjoner) på vei
og sol, og er gitt med en amplitude og fase. S2 er mot kysten.
det dominerende tidevannsbidraget fra solen.
Tidevannskart Kart som for n harmonisk konstituent
Satellittaltimetri Målinger av havnivå som utføres ved viser tidevannets karakter over større eller min-
at en satellitt måler sin egen høyde over jordkloden dre områder. Vises ved linjer som går gjennom
ved hjelp av radar eller laser. Dersom satellittens steder der høyvann inntreffer samtidig (isorakier)
høyde er kjent i en referanseramme, er det mulig eller gjennom steder med samme tidevannsampli-
å bestemme høyden på havoverflaten i den samme tude.
referanserammen ved å trekke den målte avstanden
fra satellitthøyden. Tidevannsklokke Et urverk som følger månen og viser
når det er høyvann eller lavvann.
Sekundærhavn Havn der tidevannstabeller vanligvis an-
gir tidsdifferansen (av og til også høydedifferansen) Tidevannsperiode Tid mellom to påfølgende høyvann
for høyvann og lavvann i forhold til en bestemt stan- eller lavvann. I Norge er tidevannsperioden i middel
dardhavn. 12 timer og 25 minutter.

Tidevannsstang Gradert stang (vanligvis centimeterin-

Sjøkartnull Nullnivå for dybder i sjøkart og høyder i
ndeling) som anbringes vertikalt i sjøen for avlesning
tidevannstabeller. Sjøkartnull er fra 1. januar
av vannstanden. Skalaen på en tidevannsstang er
2000 lagt til laveste astronomiske tidevann (LAT).
vanligvis innmålt i forhold til et vannstandsmerke.
Langs Sørlandskysten og i Oslofjorden er tide-
vannsvariasjonene små i forhold til værets virkn- Tidevannsstrøm Strøm i havet forårsaket av tide-
ing på vannstanden (vind, lufttrykk og temper- vannskreftene fra sol og måne. På åpent hav vil
atur). Sjøkartnull er derfor av sikkerhetsmessige tidevannsstrømmen rotere 360 i løpet av en tide-
grunner lagt 20 cm lavere enn LAT langs kysten fra vannsperiode. Nær kysten og i fjorder og sund vil
svenskegrensen til Utsira og 30 cm lavere enn LAT tidevannsstrømmen ha en nesten rett bevegelse frem
i indre Oslofjord (innenfor Drøbaksundet). og tilbake.
Spring Spring får man når tidevannet er på sitt høyeste. Tidevannsutbuling Se utbuling.
Det skjer når tidevannskreftene fra månen og sola
virker mest mulig sammen. Spring inntrer i de Topografi Topografi er en beskrivelse av jordoverflatens
fleste steder i Norge ved hver nymåne og fullmåne, terreng og synlige objekter, slik som høyde, vege-
omtrent hver fjortende dag. tasjon, hav, innsjøer, bebyggelse og veier.

Standardhavn Sted der harmoniske konstanter er Tyngdekraft Tiltrekningskraft som virker mellom alle
bestemt ved registrering av vannstand over et lengre partikler med masse i universet, også kalt gravi-
tidsrom. I tidevannstabellen oppgis alle tidspunkt tasjonskraft.
og høyder for høyvann og lavvann for standard-
havnene. Tyngdepotensial Summen av gravitasjons- og sentrifu-
galpotensial.
Stangnull Nullpunkt for en tidevannsstang.
Tørrfall Sjøkart: Del av kysten som ligger i dyb-
Stormflo Når værets virkning på vannstanden er spesielt deområdet fra middel høyvann til 0.5 m under
stor, kalles det stormflo. Dette skyldes som regel sjøkartnull. Landkart: Sandbanker og avleiringer
lavt lufttrykk og kraftig vind som presser vannet inn i elver. Oversvømmes ved høy vannføring.
mot kysten. Dersom en stormflo faller sammen med
en springperiode, kan man få ekstra høy vannstand. Utbuling Opphopning av vann på jorden grunnet månens
(og solens) tiltrekning. Hadde ikke jorden rotert
Strømkart Kart over sjøområdene som viser horison- (eller dersom jordens rotasjon var tilstrekkelig lav),
tal strømhastighet. Ofte angis strømforholdene i ville utbulingen ligge på sentrallinjen mellom jord
forhold til tidspunktet for høyvann i en standard- og måne. Grunnet jordens raske rotasjon, i kombi-
havn. Strømmen presenteres ved piler der fart og nasjon med friksjon mellom jord og hav, ligger utbu-
retning symboliseres. lingen til venstre for senterlinjen – eller at den ligger
foran månen – når jord-månesystemet betraktes fra
Strømmåler Instrument til måling av vannmassers fart nord.
og/eller retning.
Vannstand Høyden av vannflaten på et bestemt sted på
Tidejord Periodisk deformasjon av den delvis elastiske et gitt tidspunkt. For havet påvirkes vannstanden
jordkroppen forårsaket av himmellegemenes (i første av tidevann og værets virkning (vind, lufttrykk,
rekke solens og månens) gravitasjonstiltrekning på med mer).

132
Vannstandsmerke Fastmerke i terrenget brukt som Vref Betegnelse på en høydereferansemodell som an-
referansemerke for vannstand. Gjerne knyttet til et gir høydeforskjellen mellom NN1954 og EUREF89,
nivellementsnett. beregnet fra en geoidemodell.

Vertikalt datum Referansesystem som angir høyder Værets virkning Påvirkning på vannstanden som
(også kalt høydedatum), i motsetning til et horison- skyldes vind, lufttrykk og temperatur. Ekstra store
talt datum, som angir nord- og øst-koordinater. vrbidrag kalles stormflo.

J Acknowledgement
The author would like to acknowledge comments and suggestions from the following students
and readers: Yannick Kern (student, fall 2016), Aleksander Dürr Libæk and Øystein Markhus
Breiteig (student, fall 2018), and Victor Cesar Martins de Aguiar (student, fall 2019).

133
K Index
A - Note: under ‘construction’..., central angle, 18
1 direct method, 10
tidal potential, 55
Binominal theorem, 16, 40, 57, 70, zenith, 18
126 Equilibrium Tide, 10, 20, 21
integration constant, 19
Centre line, 10 maximum amplitude, 21
Critical latitude, 105 Moon, 26
Solar planets, 21
Dispersion relationship, 98
surface elevation, 19, 25
Dynamic pressure, 90
First point of Aries, 34
Earth-Moon system Force
barycentre, 12 conservative, 55
centre of mass, 10 gravitational, 12
forces, 12 tractive, 18
geometry, 10
lunar periods, 8 Greenwich Mean Time, 36
net gravity, 15 Inertial oscillations, 104
revolution, 13
sub-lunar point, 24 Kepler’s laws, 37, 60, 62–64
surface elevation, 18 first law, 60, 63, 64
zenith angle, 15 second law, 62, 63
Earth-Moon-Sun system, 7 third law, 64
Earth-Sun system, 38 two body system, 13
declination angle, 24, 38
ecliptic plane angle, 38 Laplace’s Tidal Equations (LTE), 54
geocentric view, 38, 40 Moon
hour angle, 24 declination, 18
latitude angle, 24 lunar day, 31
longitude angle, 38 lunar longitude, 115
tropical year, 40 perigee, 67
Ecliptic perihelion, 13
mean longitude, 115 right ascension, 36
Eigenmode, 94
Ellipse Newton’s law
eccentric anomaly, 111 secod, 12
eccentricity, 61, 64, 111 universal gravitation, 12
focus, 111 Revolution, 13, 14
mean anomaly, 65 Rossby deformation radius, 98
semi-major axis, 111
semi-minor axis, 111 Seiche, 94
true anomaly, 61, 111 Merian’s formula, 95
Equation Shallow water equations (SWE), 91,
transcedental, 68 93
Equation of center, 72 Sidereal period, 29
Equation of time, 15, 72, 73 lunar monthly, 29
Equilibrium theory, 10 sidereal period

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 Earth’s daily period, 32 K1 , 41
Sidereal time, 36 K2 , 43
Sun M2 , 38
aphelion, 13 Mf , 43
celestial longitude, 69 P1 , 42
eccentric anomaly, 69 S2 , 38, 42
mean, 72 Sa , 43
mean ecliptic longitude, 69 Ssa , 43
mean solar day, 34 K1 , 44
mean solar hour, 34 K2 , 44
perihelion, 67, 69 M2 , 44
right ascension, 37 O1 , 44
tropical year, 40 P1 , 44
true, 72 S2 , 44
true longitude, 69 Doodson numbers, 45
Synodic period, 29 Tide, 7
lunar monthly, 29 age, 51
Syzygy, 47 equilibrium theory, 76
fortnightly signal, 124
Tidal acceleration neap, 47
geometric approach, 16 potential, 55
radial component, 18 spring, 47
radial, tangential, 16 Trigonometric identities, 126
tangential component, 18
vector analysis approach, 17 Vernal equinox, 53
Tidal analysis
current, 82 Wave
current speed, 82 angular frequency, 121
direction of flow, 82 complex notation, 122
direction of maximum speed, 86 dispersion relationship, 123
direction of rotation, 86 dispersive, 98, 123
harmonic analysis, 76 group speed, 123
sea surface height, 76 internal oscillations, 105
sea surface height discretisation, non-dispersive, 92, 123
78 period, 121
semi-major axes, 85 phase, 122
semi-minor axes, 85 phase speed, 120, 121
time of maximum speed, 86 Sverdrup wave, 98
Tidal constituents wave number vector, 122

135