Admixtures in Concrete

Gokarna Bahadur Motra

Why Admixtures in Concrete?

Workability tests
Comparison of Consistency Measurements by Various Methods
WORKABILITY SLUMP VEE – BEE TIME COMPACTING
DESCRIPTION mm (seconds) FACTOR

Extremely dry - 32 – 18 -

Very stiff - 18 – 10 0.70

Stiff 0 – 25 10 – 5 0.75

Stiff plastic 25 – 50 5–3 0.85

Plastic 75 – 100 3–0 0.90

Flowing 150 – 175 - 0.95

Common durability problems in concrete

1. Corrosion of steel in reinforced concrete

2. Sulphate and other chemical attack of concrete
3. Alkali-aggregate reaction
4. Freezing and thawing damage

Durability and permeability

• The presence of water, or its involvement in the reactions is necessary for the
problems to occur. Thus, the durability of concrete is intrinsically related to its
water-tightness, or permeability.
Introduction
Admixtures can be used to modify various fresh and hardened concrete properties:
Fresh State Hardened State
• Decrease water content • Increase compressive strength
• Increases slump and workability • Improve freeze / thaw resistance
• Reduce segregation • Improve impact & abrasion resistance

• Reduce rate of slump loss • Reduce shrinkage cracking

• Improve pumpability • Reduce permeability
• Increase chloride resistance
• Improves frost resistance
• Increases sulphate resistance
• Improve placeability and finishibality • Abrasion resistance increases
• Modify the rate of bleeding
• Retard or accelerate setting time
Admixtures in Concrete
What is Admixture?
• A material other than water, aggregates, hydraulic cement, and fiber reinforcement,
used as an ingredient of a cementitious mixture to modify its freshly mixed, setting, or
hardened properties and that is added to the batch before or during its mixing.
• Additives to the concrete are used to achieve desired properties, which may be difficult
with just the normal constituents of concrete.
• Mineral admixtures (fly ash, silica fume [SF], and slags) are usually added to concrete
in larger amounts to enhance the workability of fresh concrete; to improve resistance
of concrete to thermal cracking, alkali-aggregate expansion, and sulfate attack; and to
enable a reduction in cement content.
• Producers use admixtures primarily to reduce the cost of concrete construction; to
modify the properties of hardened concrete; to ensure the quality of concrete during
mixing, transporting, placing, and curing; and to overcome certain emergencies during
concrete operations.
Major reasons for using admixtures
• To reduce the cost of concrete construction
• To maintain the quality of concrete during the stages of mixing, transporting, placing,
and curing in adverse and varying weather conditions
• To overcome certain emergencies during concreting operations
• Keep in mind that no admixture of any type or amount can be considered a substitute
for good concrete practice
• Increase workability without increasing water content or decrease the water content at
the same workability;
• Retard or accelerate time of initial setting;
• Reduce or prevent shrinkage or create slight expansion;
• Modify the rate or capacity for bleeding;
• Reduce segregation;
• Improve pumpability;
• Retard or reduce heat evolution during early hardening;
Major reasons for using admixtures
• Accelerate the rate of strength development at early ages;
• Increase strength (compressive, tensile, or flexural);
• Increase durability or resistance to severe conditions of exposure,
including application of deicing salts and other chemicals;
• Decrease permeability of concrete;
• Control expansion caused by the reaction of alkalis with potentially
reactive aggregate constituents;
• Increase bond of concrete to steel reinforcement;
• Improve impact and abrasion resistance;
 • Each class of admixture is defined by its primary function.
• It may have one or more secondary functions, however, and its
use may affect, positively or negatively, concrete properties other than those desired

1. Chemical Admixtures
Types of admixture
for concrete 2. Mineral Additives

3. Polymers base
1. Chemical Admixture Types
• Water-reducing admixtures (plasticizers)
• Retarding admixtures
• Accelerators and Retarding Plasticizers
• Corrosion inhibitors
• Air-entraining admixtures
• Lubricants or surfactants
• Water retaining (Note: this type is intended to reduce
bleeding from concrete)
1. Chemical Admixtures
• Chemical admixtures in principle, interfere with the action of cement within
concrete, and including its hydration.
• Depending on the desired effect, a chemical admixture could be:
- Set regulators
• Accelerators
• Retarders
- Water reducers including high range water reducers
- Air entertainers
- Corrosion inhibitors etc.
• Normal water reducer reduce the demand by 10 to 15 percent, while a high range water reducer
reduces water demand by about 25 to 30 percent.
• Air entertainers entrap air intentionally and consciously to modify concrete properties.
• Chemical admixtures used to reduce corrosion are called corrosion inhibitors.
Presence of nitrites modifies the pore solution in a manner that, the reinforcing
bars in concrete become more resistant to corrosion. Electrochemical process
involving corrosion is slowed down.
Chemical Admixtures in Concrete
• Available in liquid forms
• Batched by volume
• Dosage are small special care need to be taken at the time
of batching
• Pure admixture is often diluted with water and then added
as a part of the unit water content required to be mixed, to
ensure a better distribution in the concrete.
Dosage of Chemical Admixtures in Concrete
• Added in relatively small dosage in terms of cement content.
• A dosage of 1% by weight of cement in a concrete containing 450 kgs/m3 of cement,
means 4.5 kgs of admixture per m3 of concrete.
• The weight of a cubic meter of concrete is about 2400kgs, so the chemical admixture
constitutes less than 0.2% of the concrete by weight.
Example:
• Chemical admixture is an aqueous solution – 4 kgs is dissolved in 10 liters of water.
i) Chemical admixture’s requirement: 400 kgs/m3 of cement in the concrete mix, we need 4 kgs of the
chemical admixture. Herein, 4 kgs of chemical admixture is dissolved in 10 liters of water. Take 10
liters of this concentrated and the total water to be added is adjusted. If original water demand is 180
kg/m3, then 10 kgs of chemical admixture need to be subtracted and 170 kg/m3 of water should be
applied.
ii) If 6 kgs of chemical admixture is required, that is about 7.5 percent of that concrete mix, then 15 liters
of the concentrate is added and 15 liters of the water, adjusted against the total water required. If
original water demand is 180 kg/m3, then 15 kgs of chemical admixture need to be subtracted and 165
kg/m3 of water should be applied.
Accelerators and Retarders (Set Regulators)
• They are used under special conditions – when concrete is used in cold or hot
temperatures, there could be a need to regulate the setting process – either to
accelerate it or retard it.
• A retarder could also be used to prevent formation of cold joint. Similarly, an
accelerator can be used in cases when early strength is required.
Water Reducers
Water reducing agents (or high range water reducing agents)
• They are used to reduce water demand for a given slump (workability).
• Their effectiveness can be measured in terms of the percentage of water
reduction that can be achieved for a given dosage.
• Example: If 180 kgs of water is required for a certain slump (without an
admixture), and we use an admixture, which at a certain dosage, can reduce
water by 20%, then we can get the same slump with (180-36), i.e., 154 kgs.
• 1% ⟶5%, 10% ⟶
• ? ⟵ 15%
Air Entraining Admixtures
• Entrained concrete (AE), where an admixture has been added consciously
entrain air into the system.
• Non air entrained concrete is one, where air may be still present, but it is the
entrapped air, and not entrained air, and it is there only unintentionally and not
entrained.
• Air entrainment is accompanied by increase in workability, that the unit water
content may have to be reduced for a certain workability.
Principal performance requirements for admixtures given in BS EN 934-2
Dosage of Admixture

BS EN 934–2 advises that “trial tests should be carried out with the materials
to be used on site to find the dosage necessary to achieve the desired result”.
The concrete producer may well have the results of such tests, which should
be obtained before specifying the type and dose of admixture for a specific
concrete mix.
1. admixtures of the same type from different manufacturers may well require
different doses to achieve the desired effect;
2. the effect of admixtures is dependent on the particular cement and
aggregates used in the concrete.
Plasticizers (Water Reducers)
Plasticizers (Water Reducers) Superplasticizer is practiced for
• Production of flowing, self levelling, self compacting
concrete
• Production of high strength and high performance
concrete.
Water Reducer and High Range Water Reducer

Definition (ACI 116)

Admixtures that either increase slump of freshly
mixed mortar or concrete without increasing water
content OR maintain slump with a reduced amount
of water, the effect being due to factors other than
air entrainment
Water Reducer and High Range Water Reducer
How they work?

Without Admixture With Admixture

Water Reducer and High Range Water Reducer

How they work?

Without Admixture
With Admixture
How Conventional Type A Water Reducers (Plasticizers) Work?
Dispersion Effect: Portland cement will have a tendency to flocculate in wet concrete.
These flocculation entrap certain amount of water used in the mix. When cement
particles are deflocculated, the water trapped inside the flocs gets released and now
available to fluidify mix.
Retarding Effect: It is mentioned earlier that plasticizer gets adsorbed in the surface of
cement particles and form a thin sheath. This thin sheath inhibits the surface hydration
reaction between water and cement as long as sufficient plasticizer molecules are
available at the particle/solution interface. +
+ +
Water
+ +

+
+ Cement
+ +

Cement grains naturally cluster together to

form flocs, which trap water inside them
Floc Busting Action of Water Reducers
• In general, these chemicals act
1. Water reducer coats the cement grains as dispersants for Portland
2. Water reducer imparts negative charge to cement particles.
cement grains • By separating and spreading
3. Like charges repel cement grains away from out the cement particles,
each other internal friction is reduced, and
slump and workability of the
- concrete is increased
- • Lowering w/c is a key method
Freed Water for improving durability
-
Cement
-
 + +
+ -
+ + -
+ + admix =
+
+ +
-
Cement flocs are broken up and water is evenly dispersed

The Result:
• Increased Water Cut (Lower W/C Ratio): Lower water/cement ratio
means improved product strength and quality.

• Improved Workability: Concrete that is easier to place and finish, with

no sacrifice in quality
Effect of Water Reducer Water Reducer (disperses materials
for better flowability)

No Water Reducer (Materials are

clinging together)
COMB POLYMERS

Cement Dispersion by Steric Repulsion (arrangement of atoms in molecule)

Water Comb Teeth

Hooking units,
Comb Backbone
++ + ++ +
+ +
+ +

Cement Cement

Comb polymer

Steric (physical)
Repulsion Force
Superplasticizers (High Range Water Reducers)
Why Water Reduction?
• Provides dispersion of cement
particles
• Strength
• reduces water demand while
maintaining slump (workability)
thus increases concrete strength
• Benefit
• lower concrete permeability
• can reduce concrete costs with
less cementitious material if Superplasticizer action: a) creating “grease” layer, b)
used correctly surrounding grains of cement with negative charge, c) decreasing
of surface water tension, d) long chains of polymer, physically
precluding the grains of cement to approach each other
Superplasticizers (High Range Water Reducers)

Amount used Results - benefits

• Based on various types of superplasticizers • Permits reduction of water content about

different amount is used. 30% without reducing the workability
• Lignosulphonates – not more 0.25% • It is possible to use w/c ratio as low as
• Carboxylic acids – 0.1% 0.25 or even lower and yet to make
• Sulphonated malanie-formaldehyde flowing concrete to obtain strength of
condensates (SMF) – 0.5 to 3% order 120 MPa or more.
• Sulphonated naphthalene-formaldehyde
condensates (SNF) – 0.5 to 3%
Classification
• Normal water reducer TYPE A (decreases the water requirements by about 5 –
10%)
• Ca or Na salts of lignosulfonic acid
• salts of hydroxycarboxylic acids
• Carbohydrate
• Gluconates
• Mid-range water-reducing (decreases the water requirements by about 6 – 12%)
…. no ASTM
• Complex aqueous solution of lignosulfonates with accelerating admixtures
• Polycarboxylate ether with set and strength enhancing ingredients
• Superplasticizer TYPE F&G (decreases the water requirements by about 12 -
30%)
• Sulfonated melamine formaldehyde
• Sulfonated naphtalene formaldehyde
• Polycarboxylates
Slump Flow Test - SCC
Retarding & Set Stabilizing
Retarding Admixtures and/or Set Stabilizers (Retarders)
How it works?
A retarder is an admixture that slows down the
• Decreases the rate of cement
hydration (C3S) chemical process of hydration so that
concrete remains plastic and workable for a
• Admixture absorbs into
calcium hydroxide atoms and longer time than concrete without the retarder.
temporarily inhibit their 1. Retarders are used to overcome the
growth into larger crystals accelerating effect of high temperature on
setting properties of concrete in hot weather.
Effects on Concrete 2. Very useful when concrete has to be place in
• Delays Initial set very difficult conditions and delay may occur
• Extends workable time in transporting and placing.
3. Gypsum and Calcium Sulphate are well
known retarders.
4. Other examples are: starches, cellulose
products, sugars, acids or salts of acids
Retarders
Retarders
Accelerators
Accelerators
• How they work?
• Increases rate of cement hydration (C3S)
• Why accelerate concrete?
• Shorten the setting time
• Quicker early strength
• Reduce bleeding
• Earlier finishing
• Improved initial protection against freezing
• Earlier use of structure / piece
• Reduction of protection time to achieve a given quality
• In emergency repair work
Accelerating Admixtures

• 2 Classes of Accelerating Admixtures:

• Set Accelerator
• Strength Accelerator (Early Age)

• Calcium Chloride is a well known accelerator, but

BEWARE, it should not be used in reinforced concrete

• Several non-chloride, non-corrosive accelerators are

available, but generally most are not as effective as calcium
chloride
Calcium Chloride
• Very effective & economical accelerator
•
• Cautions when using chloride-bearing •
Calcium chloride (Not used now)
Some of the soluble carbonates
admixture • Silicates fluosilicates (Expensive)
• DO NOT use in ANY reinforced concrete • Some of the organic compounds
• high potential to cause corrosion such as triethenolamine (Expensive)
• calcium chloride should not exceed 2% in non
reinforced concrete
• calcium chloride should not exceed 1% when
concrete contains uncoated aluminum conduit
• can cause discoloration issues (dark and light gray
spots, especially on hard trowled finishes)
Time of Set Control Retarding vs Accelerating

Always a
compromise
Corrosion Inhibitors
Corrosion Inhibitors
• How it works?
• Passive film enhances the protection of reinforcing steel
from corrosion in the concrete
• Generally, corrosion inhibitors are not needed to protect
steel reinforcing, due to the passivating effect of the
high pH in the concrete.
• Effects on Concrete
• May accelerate initial set
• May improve early age strength
Corrosion Inhibitors

• Control Corrosion of Steel Reinforcement

• Dosage dependent on anticipated chloride level
Air Entraining
 Air-Entraining Admixtures
• One of the important advancements made in concrete technology was the
discovery of air entrained concrete. (was made during the 1930s)
• It is produced by mixing a small quantity of air entraining agent or by using air
entraining cement
• Minute spherical bubbles of size ranging from 5 microns to 80 microns distributed
evenly in the entire mass of concrete.

As temperature drops, pores During freezing, water in the capillary Under pressure, water will be pushed
created by air entrainment allow pores expands; however, water enters into the air-entrainment pores and not
the water a place to go as it freezes. toward air-entrained pores crack the concrete matrix
Air-Entraining Admixtures
• the spacing factor should not be greater than 0.2 mm
• These incorporated millions of non-coalescing air bubbles, which will act as flexible
ball bearings and will modify the properties of plastic concrete regarding
workability, segregation, bleeding and finishing quality of concrete.
• Are used to produce concrete that is resistant to the effects of freezing and thawing
and to improve workability

Polished section of air-entrained concrete as seen

through a microscopic
Air-Entraining Admixtures
Significance of freezing and thawing
• The most potentially destructive weathering factor is
freezing and thawing while the concrete is wet,
particularly in the presence of de-icing chemicals used
for snow and ice removal
• Contrary to fresh concrete which can be protected, we
can’t avoid the exposure of mature concrete to
alternating freezing and thawing
• Due to freezing and thawing, hardened concrete can
suffer both internal as well as surface damage. Internal
damage can lead to loss of strength and structural
integrity.
Air-Entraining Admixtures
ASTM C260
• Overview
• Create stable system of microscopic air bubbles
• How it works?
• Microscopic air bubbles gives water a place to
expand during freezing conditions
• Effects on Concrete
• Increased resistance to freeze-thaw damage
• Improved workability of fresh concrete
• Every 1% air entraining potentially reduces the
concrete strength by up to 5-10%
Mechanism of Frost Damage
• Hydraulic pressures
• Caused by the 9% expansion of water upon freezing
• Growing ice crystals displace unfrozen water
• If a capillary is above critical saturation (91.7% filled with water)
hydraulic pressures results as freezing progresses
• At low water contents, no hydraulic pressure should exist

Critical saturation begins at 91.7%

Water expands 9% on freezing
Water is forced ahead of the advancing
freezing front
Internal hydrostatic pressures can
disrupt the concrete
Effect of Entrained Air
Surface Damage

1.6

Cumulative mass loss (kg/m2)

1.4
1.2 2% air
1
4% air
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2 6% air
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Number of F & T cycles

 ASTM C 672: Samples are monitored visually and for loss of mass
over a period of 50 or more cycles of freezing and thawing in
presence of salts
Mechanism of Air Entrainment
Hydrophobic end is attracted + Factors effecting the
- - development of air
to air within bubbles + Aggregate +
- entrainment
-
Surface tension reduced – + + • Mixing time
- -
stable bubbles +
• Materials
Charges around bubbles lead • Sequencing
to repulsive forces between Air + • Temperature
- -
bubbles (prevent coalescence) Cement
+ - + • Mixing Action
Bubbles adhere to cement & + • Equipment
aggregate particles – cohesion - Cement -
+ - + - • Dosage Rates
of mix improved +
- • Admixtures
+ Aggregate
• *Almost everything!
AEA’s do not add air to the -
+
concrete…they make the air that is already
there…STABLE
• How much air should be in concrete (no admixtures)?
• Less than 3%
2. Mineral Admixtures
Motivation to use Mineral Admixtures
• It comes from one of the following:
- Industrial byproduct utilization
- Environmental concern (Sustainable Development)
- Economy in cement consumption
- Reduced heat of hydration
- Durability considerations
- High strength requirements
Mineral Admixtures in Concrete: They are use in concrete mixes usually
- As a partial replacement of cement, or
- In addition to the cement
to improve the properties of the concrete. This can be terms of development of
compressive strength, or liberation of the heat of hydration, or any other parameter.
2. Mineral Admixtures
• Fly ash, ground granulated blast-furnace slag,
silica fume, and natural pozzolans, such as
calcined shale, calcined clay or metakaolin, are
materials that, when used in conjunction with
portland or blended cement, contribute to the
properties of the hardened concrete through
hydraulic or pozzolanic activity or both (Fig.). Fig. Supplementary cementitious materials. From left to right,
fly ash (Class C), metakaolin (calcined clay), silica fume, fly
• A pozzolana is a siliceous or aluminosiliceous ash (Class F), slag, and calcined shale.
material that, in finely divided form and in the
presence of moisture, chemically reacts with the
calcium hydroxide released by the hydration of
portland cement to form calcium silicate hydrate
and other cementitious compounds.
• Pozzolans and slags are generally catergorized as
supplementary cementitious materials or mineral
admixtures.
Fig. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) micrograph of fly ash particles at 1000X. Although most fly
ash spheres are solid, some particles, called cenospheres, are hollow (as shown in the micrograph).
Mineral Admixtures
Table. Specifications and Classes of Supplementary Cementitious Materials
• They may be used in addition • Ground granulated iron blast-furnace slags—ASTM C 989 (AASHTO M 30
to or as a partial replacement of
• Grade 80 Slags with a low activity index
Portland cement or blended
cement in concrete, depending • Grade 100 Slags with a moderate activity index
on the properties of the • Grade 120 Slags with a high activity index
materials and the desired effect
on concrete. • Fly ash and natural pozzolans—ASTM C 618 (AASHTO M 295)
• The optimum amount to use • Class N Raw or calcined natural pozzolans including:
should be established by
• Diatomaceous earths
testing to determine
• (1) whether the material is • Opaline cherts and shales
indeed improving the property, • Tuffs and volcanic ashes or pumicites
and • Calcined clays, including metakaolin,
• (2) the correct dosage rate, as
• and shales
an overdose or underdose can
be harmful or not achieve the • Class F Fly ash with pozzolanic properties
desired effect. • Class C
• Fly ash with pozzolanic and cementitious properties
• Silica fume—ASTM C 1240
Mineral Admixtures: Fly Ash
• Fly ash, the most widely used supplementary cementitious material in concrete, is a byproduct of the combustion
of pulverized coal in thermal power plants (electric power generating plants).
• During combustion of coal, 75-80% of the ash flies out with the flue gas, so called fly ash. The ash that doesn’t
fly out is called “bottom ash”, which can be processed as aggregate, but is not used in concrete. The quality and
composition of fly ash depends on the type of cola being burnt.
• Upon ignition in the furnace, most of the volatile matter and carbon in the coal are burned off. During
combustion, the coal’s mineral impurities (such as clay, feldspar, quartz, and shale) fuse in suspension and are
carried away from the combustion chamber by the exhaust gases. In the process, the fused material cools and
solidifies into spherical glassy particles called fly ash (Fig. 3-2).
• The fly ash is then collected from the exhaust gases by electrostatic precipitators or bag filters.
• Fly ash is a finely divided powder resembling Portland cement (Fig.).
• The particle sizes in fly ash vary from less than 1 μm (micrometer) to more than 100 μm with the typical particle
size measuring under 20 μm. Only 10% to 30% of the particles by mass are larger than 45 μm.
• The surface area is typically 300 to 500 m2/kg

Fig. Fly ash, a powder resembling cement,

has been used in concrete since the 1930s.
Mineral Admixtures
Fly ash
• It is primarily silicate glass containing silica, alumina, iron, and calcium. Minor constituents are
magnesium, sulfur, sodium, potassium, and carbon. Crystalline compounds are present in small amounts.
The relative density (specific gravity) of fly ash generally ranges between 1.9 and 2.8 and the color is
generally gray.
Slag
• Ground granulated blast-furnace slag (Fig.), also called slag cement, is made from iron blast-furnace slag;
it is a nonmetallic hydraulic cement consisting essentially of silicates and aluminosilicates of calcium
developed in a molten condition simultaneously with iron in a blast furnace. The molten slag at a
temperature of about 1500°C (2730°F) is rapidly chilled by quenching in water to form a glassy sandlike
granulated material.
• The granulated material, which is ground to less than 45 microns, has a surface area fineness of about 400
to 600 m2/kg Blaine. The relative density (specific gravity) for ground granulated blast furnace slag is in
the range of 2.85 to 2.95.
• The rough and angular-shaped ground slag (Fig. 3-6) in the presence of water and an activator, NaOH or
CaOH, both supplied by portland cement, hydrates and sets in a manner similar to portland cement.
However, air-cooled slag does not have the hydraulic properties of water cooled slag.
Mineral Admixtures: Silica Fumes
• Silica fume, also referred to as micro-silica or condensed silica fume, is a byproduct
material that is used as a pozzolan (Fig.).
• This byproduct is a result of the reduction of high-purity quartz with coal in an electric
arc furnace in the manufacture of silicon or ferrosilicon alloy. Silica fume rises as an
oxidized vapor from the 2000°C (3630°F) furnaces. When it cools it condenses and is
collected in huge cloth bags. The condensed silica fume is to remove impurities and to
control particle size.
• Silica Fume: This byproduct is a result of the reduction of high-purity quartz with coal
in an electric arc furnace in the manufacture of silicon or ferrosilicon alloy. Silica fume
rises as an oxidized vapor from the 2000°C (3630°F) furnaces.

Silica Fume Powder

Ground granulated blast-

furnace slag.
Mineral Admixtures: Metakaolin
• It is a special calcined clay, is produced by low temperature calcination of high purity
kaolin clay. The product is ground to an average particle size of about 1 to 2
micrometers.
• It is used in special applications where very low permeability or very high strength is
required. In these applications, metakaolin is used more as an additive to the concrete
rather than a replacement of cement; typical additions are around 10% of the cement
mass.

Ground granulated blast-

furnace slag.
ASTM Specs
Current Admixture Standards

 ASTM C 494  Chemical Admixtures

 ASTM C 260  Air-entraining Admixtures

 ASTM D 98  Calcium Chloride

 ASTM C 869  Foaming Agents

 ASTM C 1141  Admixture for Shotcrete

 ASTM C 1017  Flowing Concrete

 ASTM C 937  Grout Fluidifier

 ASTM C 979  Pigments

Supplementary Cementing Materials
• Used when special performance is needed: Increase in strength, reduction in water
demand, impermeability, low heat of hydration, improved durability, correcting
deficiencies in aggregate gradation (as fillers), etc.
• Result in cost and energy savings: Replacement of cement leads to cost savings; energy
required to process these materials is also much lower than cement
• Environmental damage and pollution is minimized by the use of these by-products
• Usage depends on supply and demand forces, as well as the market potential and
attitudes
 Typical compositions
% by mass PC GGBFS F-FA C-FA SF

SiO2 21 35 50 35 90

Al2O3 5 8 25 20 2

Fe2O3 2 3 10 5 2

CaO 65 40 1 20 -

PC: Portland cement, GGBFS: Ground granulated blast furnace slag, F-FA: Type
F fly ash, C-FA: Type C fly ash, SF: Silica fume