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 1.
FUNCTIONS

ALGEBRAIC TECHNIQUES
This chapter revises and extends the algebraic techniques that you will need for this course.
These include indices, algebraic expressions, expansion, factorisation, algebraic fractions and surds.

CHAPTER OUTLINE
1.01 Index laws
1.02 Zero and negative indices
1.03 Fractional indices
1.04 Simplifying algebraic expressions
1.05 Expansion
1.06 Binomial products
1.07 Special products
1.08 Factorisation
1.09 Factorisation by grouping in pairs
1.10 Factorising trinomials
1.11 Further trinomials
1.12 Perfect squares
1.13 Difference of two squares
1.14 Mixed factorisation
1.15 Simplifying algebraic fractions
1.16 Operations with algebraic fractions
1.17 Substitution
1.18 Simplifying surds
1.19 Operations with surds
1.20 Rationalising the denominator

BK-CLA-MATHSFOCUS11_ADVANCED-180355-Chp01.indd 2 28/11/18 1:39 PM

 IN THIS CHAPTER YOU WILL:
• identify and use index rules including fractional and negative indices
• simplify algebraic expressions
• remove grouping symbols including perfect squares and the difference of 2 squares
• factorise expressions including binomials and special factors
• simplify algebraic fractions
• use algebra to substitute into formulas
• simplify and use surds including rationalising the denominator

iStock.com/Phongphan

BK-CLA-MATHSFOCUS11_ADVANCED-180355-Chp01.indd 3 28/11/18 1:39 PM

 TERMINOLOGY
binomial: A mathematical expression consisting power: The index or exponent of a number. For
of 2 terms; for example, x + 3 and 3x - 1 example, 23 has a base number of 2 and a power of 3
binomial product: The product of binomial root: A number that when multiplied by itself a
expressions; for example, (x + 3)(2x - 1) given number of times equals another number.
expression: A mathematical statement involving For example, 25 = 5 because 52 = 25
numbers, pronumerals and symbols; for surd: A root that can’t be simplified; for
example, 2x - 3 example, 3
factor: A whole number that divides exactly into term: A part of an expression containing
another number. For example, 4 is a factor of 28 pronumerals and/or numbers separated by an
factorise: To write an expression as a product operation such as +, -, × or ÷. For example,
of its factors; that is, take out the highest in 2x - 3 the terms are 2x and 3
common factor in an expression and place the trinomial: An expression with 3 terms; for
rest in brackets. For example, 2y - 8 = 2(y - 4) example, 3x2 - 2x + 1
index: The power or exponent of a number.
For example, 23 has a base number of 2 and
an index of 3. The plural of index is indices

1.01 Index laws

An index (or power or exponent) of a number shows how many times a number is
multiplied by itself. A root of a number is the inverse of the power.
For example:
Note: In 43 the 4 is called the base number and
• 43 = 4 × 4 × 4 = 64
the 3 is called the index or power.
• 25 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 32
• 36 = 6 since 62 = 36
• 3
8 = 2 since 23 = 8
• 6 64 = 2 since 26 = 64
There are some general laws that simplify calculations with indices. These laws work for any
m and n, including fractions and negative numbers.

Index laws
am × an = am + n
am ÷ an = am - n
  (am)n = amn
   (ab)n = anbn
 a  n an
  = n
°b b

4 MATHS IN FOCUS 11. Mathematics Advanced ISBN 9780170413152

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 EXAMPLE 1

Simplify:

a m9 × m7 ÷ m2 b (2y4)3 c ( y 6 )3 × y −4
y5

Solution

m9 × m7 ÷ m2 = m9 + 7 - 2 (2y4)3 = 23(y4)3 ( y 6 )3 × y −4 y18 × y −4

a b c =
5
14 3 4×3
y y5
     = m =2 y
y18 + ( −4 )
= 8y12 =
y5
y14
=
y5
= y14 −5
= y9

Exercise 1.01 Index laws

1 Evaluate without using a calculator: 3
3 2 4 2  1
a 5 ×2 b 3 +8 c  
3 4
4
d 27 e 16

2 Evaluate correct to 1 decimal place:

a 3.72 b 1.061.5 c 2.3-0.2
3 1
d 19 e 3 34.8 - 1.2 × 43.1 f
3 0.99 + 5.61

3 Simplify:
a a6 × a9 × a2 b y3 × y-8 × y5 c a-1 × a-3
1 1
d w2 × w2 e x6 ÷ x f p3 ÷ p-7
y11
g h (x7)3 i (2x5)2
y5 5
 x2 
j (3y-2)4 k a3 × a5 ÷ a7 l  9
y 
w6 × w7 p 2 × ( p3 ) 4 x6 ÷ x7
m n o
w3 p9 x2

a 2 × ( b 2 )6 ( x 2 )-3 × ( y3 )2
p q
a 4 × b9 x -1 × y 4

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 4 Simplify:
m7
a x5 × x9 b a-1 × a-6 c
m3
2 3
13 6 9 -5 4 -7
d k ×k ÷k e a ×a ×a f x 5 ×x 5
1 1
m5 × n 4 p2 × p2
g h i (3x11)2
m4 × n2 p2
( x 4 )6
j
x3
5 Expand each expression and simplify where possible:
8 3
 a  4a 
a (pq3)5 b   c  4 
b b

(2m7 )3 xy3 × ( xy 2 )4
d (7a5b)2 e f
m4 xy
-3
(2k8 )4 5 7y12  a6 × a 4 
g h (2 y ) × i  11 
(6k3 )3 8  a 
3
 5xy 9 
j  8 3
x ×y 
3
6 Evaluate a3b2 when a = 2 and b = .
4
2 1 x3 y2
7 If x = and y = , find the value of .
3 9 xy5

1 1 1 a 2b 3
8 If a = , b = and c = , evaluate 4 as a fraction.
2 3 4 c
a11 b8
9 a Simplify .
a8 b7
a11 b8 2 5
b Hence evaluate as a fraction when a = and b = .
a8 b7 5 8

p5 q 8 r 4
10 a Simplify .
p 4 q6 r 2

p5 q 8 r 4 7 2 3
b Hence evaluate 4 6 2
as a fraction when p = , q = and r = .
p q r 8 3 4
1
4 3  2 6
11 Evaluate (a ) when a =   .
 3
a3 b 6 1 2
12 Evaluate 4
when a = and b = .
b 2 3

6 MATHS IN FOCUS 11. Mathematics Advanced ISBN 9780170413152

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 x 4 y7 1 2
13 Evaluate 5 5
when x = and y = .
x y 3 9
k -5 1
14 Evaluate -9
when k = .
k 3
a 4 b6 3 1
15 Evaluate 3 2 2
when a = and b = .
a (b ) 4 9
a 6 × b3 1 3
16 Evaluate as a fraction when a = and b = .
a5 × b 2 9 4

1.02 Zero and negative indices

Zero and negative indices WS
0
x =1 Homework
Review of
1 index laws
x-n = n
x

EXAMPLE 2

0
 ab5c 
a Simplify  4
.
° abc 
b Evaluate 2-3.
c Write in index form:
1 3 1 1
i 2
ii 5
  iii   iv
x x 5 x x +1
d Write a−3 without the negative index.

Solution
0
 ab5c  1
a =1 b 2-3 =
 4 23
° abc 
1
      =
8
1 3 1
c i = x-2 ii =3× 5
x2 x5 x
    = 3x-5

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 1 1 1 1 1
iii = × iv =
5x 5 x x + 1 ( x + 1)1
1
= x −1 = (x + 1)-1
5
1
d a-3 =
a3

Exercise 1.02 Zero and negative indices

1 Evaluate as a fraction or whole number:
a 3-3 b 4-1 c 7-3 d 10-4 e 2-8
f 60 g 2-5 h 3-4 i 7-1 j 9-2
k 2-6 l 3-2 m 40 n 6-2 o 5-3
p 10-5 q 2-7 r 20 s 8-2 t 4-3

2 Evaluate:
-4 -1 -2 0
 1  2  5  x + 2y 
a 20 b   c   d   e  3x - y 
2 3 6
-3 -1 -2 -3 -5
 1  3  1  2  1
f   g   h   i   j  
5 4 7 3 2
-1 0 -2 -2 0
 3  8  6  9  6
k   l   m   n   o  
7 9  7 10 11
-2 -3 0

(-1 )
 1  2  3
p  - 
4
q  - 
5
r
( ) 2 -1
-3 7 s  - 
8
t 1 -2
4

3 Change into index form:

1 1 1 1 1
a b c d e
m3 x p7 d9 k5
1 2 3 1 3
f g h i j
x2 x4 y2 2z6 5t 8
2 5 2 1 1
k l m n o
7x 2m 6 3 y7 (3x + 4)2 ( a + b )8
1 1 2 1 5
p q r s t
x-2 (5 p + 1)3 (4 t - 9)5 4( x + 1)11 9( a + 3b )7

8 MATHS IN FOCUS 11. Mathematics Advanced ISBN 9780170413152

BK-CLA-MATHSFOCUS11_ADVANCED-180355-Chp01.indd 8 28/11/18 1:40 PM

 4 Write without negative indices:
a t-5 b x-6 c y-3 d n-8 e w-10
f 2x-1 g 3m-4 h 5x-7 i (2x)-3 j (4n)-1
-5
 1
k (x + 1)-6 l (8y + z)-1 m (k - 3)-2 n (3x + 2y)-9 o  
x
-10 -1 -2 -1 -7
 1  2  1   x+ y  2w - z 
p  y  q  p  r  a + b  s  x - y  t  3x + y 

1.03 Fractional indices

INVESTIGATION WS

FRACTIONAL INDICES Homework

Indices

Consider the following examples.

( ) = x (by index laws)

WS
1 2
( )
2
1 x =x
x2 Homework
Fractional

( ) =(
indices and
1 2
          = x radicals

)
2
So x2 x
           = x
1
∴ x2 = x
Now simplify these expressions.

1 ( )
1
x2 2 2 x 2
3 ( ) 1 3
x3 4 ( )
x3
1
3 5 ( x) 3
3

6
3
x 3
7 ( ) 1 4
x4 8 ( )x4
1
4 9 ( x)
4
4
10
4
x4

Use your results to complete:

1
xn =

ISBN 9780170413152 1. Algebraic techniques 9

BK-CLA-MATHSFOCUS11_ADVANCED-180355-Chp01.indd 9 28/11/18 1:40 PM

 1
Power of
n
1
n
an = a

Proof
n
 1
 a n  = a (by index laws)
 
  ( n a )n = a
1
n
   ∴ a n = a

EXAMPLE 3

a Evaluate:
1 1
i 49 2     ii 27 3
b Write 3x − 2 in index form.
1
c Write ( a + b ) 7 without fractional indices.

Solution
1 1
a i 49 2 = 49 = 7 ii 27 3 = 3 27 = 3
1 1
b 3x − 2 = (3x − 2) 2 c ( a + b )7 = 7 a + b

Further fractional indices 1

− 1
a n =n
a
m

( a)
n m
an = a m or n

Proof
m  1 m m 1
an =a n 
 
a n = am ( ) n

 

( a)
m
= n
= n am

10 MATHS IN FOCUS 11. Mathematics Advanced ISBN 9780170413152

BK-CLA-MATHSFOCUS11_ADVANCED-180355-Chp01.indd 10 28/11/18 1:40 PM

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 −n n
 a  b
°  = 
b ° a

Proof
-n
 a 1
  = n
b  a
 
b
1
=
an
bn
an
= 1÷
bn
bn
= 1×
an
bn
=
an
n
 b
= 
 a

EXAMPLE 4

a Evaluate:
4 1 −3
−  2
i 83 ii 125 3 iii ° 
3
b Write in index form:

i x5 ii 1

( 4 x − 1) 2 2
3

3
−
c Write r 5 without the negative and fractional indices.

ISBN 9780170413152 1. Algebraic techniques 11

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 Solution
4 1 −3 3
( ) 1  2  3
4 −
a i 83 = 3
8 (or 3 84 ) ii 125 3 = iii °  = 
1
3 ° 2
   = 2 4 1253
27
   = 16 1 =
= 3
8
125 3
=38
1
=
5
5 1 1
b i x5 = x 2 ii = 2
3 2 2
(4 x − 1)
(4 x 2 − 1) 3
2
−
= (4 x 2 − 1) 3

3
− 1 1
c r 5 = 3
=
5
r3
r5

DID YOU KNOW?

Fractional indices
Nicole Oresme (1323-82) was the first mathematician to use fractional indices.
John Wallis (1616-1703) was the first person to explain the significance of zero, negative
and fractional indices. He also introduced the symbol ∞ for infinity.
Research these mathematicians and find out more about their work and backgrounds.
You could use keywords such as indices and infinity as well as their names to find this
information.

Exercise 1.03 Fractional indices

1 Evaluate:
1 1 1 1 1
a 812 b 27 3 c 16 2 d 83 e 49 2
1 1 1 1 1
f 1000 3 g 16 4 h 64 2 i 64 3 j 17

1 1 1 1 1
k 814 l 325 m 08 n 1253 o 3433
1 1 2 5 2

p 128 7 q 256 4 r 125 3 s 42 t 83

3 1 1 1 2
- - - -
u 92 v 8 3 w 9 2 x 16 4 y 64 3

12 MATHS IN FOCUS 11. Mathematics Advanced ISBN 9780170413152

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 2 Evaluate correct to 2 decimal places:
1
a 234 b 4
45.8 c 7
1.24 + 4.32

1 3.6 - 1.4 45.9 × 3.7

d e 8 f
5
12.9 1.5 + 3.7 8.79 - 1.4
3 Write without fractional or negative indices:
1 1 1 1 2
a y3 b x6 c a2 d t9 e y3
3 2 4 1 1
- -
f x 4 g b 5 h a7 i x 2 j d 3

1 1 1 3 3
- - - - -
k x 8 l y 3 m a 4 n z 4 o y 5

1 1 1 1 2
- -
p (2x + 5) 2 q (6q + r ) 3 r (a + b)9 s (3x - 1) 2 t ( x + 7) 5

4 Write in index form:

a t b 5 y c x3 d 3 9- x e 4 s +1

1 1 1 1
f (3x + 1)5 g h i j
2t + 3 (5x - y ) 3 3
( x - 2) 2 2 y +7

5 1 3
k l m
3 x+4 3 y -1 2
5 ( x 2 + 2)3
4

5 Write in index form and simplify:

x x x2
a x x b c 3
d 3
e x4 x
x x x
6 Write without fractional or negative indices:
5 2
1 2 4 - -
- - - ( x + y) 4 6(3x + 8) 9
a ( a - 2b ) 3 b ( y - 3) 3 c 4(6 a + 1) 7 d e
3 7

DID YOU KNOW?

The beginnings of algebra

One of the earliest mathematicians to use algebra was Diophantus of Alexandria in
Greece. It is not known when he lived, but it is thought this may have been around
250 ce.
In Persia around 700-800 ce a mathematician named Muhammad ibn Musa
al-Khwarizmi wrote books on algebra and Hindu numerals. One of his books
was named Al-Jabr wa’l Muqabala, and the word algebra comes from the first word
in this title.

ISBN 9780170413152 1. Algebraic techniques 13

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 1.04 Simplifying algebraic expressions

EXAMPLE 5

Simplify:

a   4x2 - 3x2 + 6x2 b   x3 - 3x - 5x + 4 c   3a - 4b - 5a - b

Solution
Only ‘like’ terms can be
a 4x2 - 3x2 + 6x2 = x2 + 6x2 added or subtracted.
         = 7x2

b x3 - 3x - 5x + 4 = x3 - 8x + 4 c 3a - 4b - 5a - b = 3a - 5a - 4b - b
    = -2a - 5b

EXAMPLE 6

Simplify:
5a3b
a   -5x × 3y × 2x b   
15ab 2
Solution

a -5x × 3y × 2x = -30xyx 5a3b 1

b = a3 - 1b1 - 2
2
= -30x2y
     15ab 3
1
     = a2b-1
3
a2
     =
3b

14 MATHS IN FOCUS 11. Mathematics Advanced ISBN 9780170413152

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 Exercise 1.04 Simplifying algebraic expressions
1 Simplify:
a 9a - 6a b 5z - 4z c 4b - b
d 2r - 5r e -4y + 3y f -2x - 3x
g 2a - 2a h -4k + 7k i 3t + 4t + 2t
j 8w - w + 3w k 4m - 3m - 2m l x + 3x - 5x
m 8h - h - 7h n 3b - 5b + 4b + 9b o -5x + 3x - x - 7x
p 6x - 5y - y q 8a + b - 4b - 7a r xy + 2y + 3xy
2 2 2 2
s 2ab - 5ab - 3ab t m - 5m - m + 12 u p2 - 7p + 5p - 6
v ab + 2b - 3ab + 8b w ab + bc - ab - ac + bc
5 3 5 3
x a - 7x + a - 2x + 1 y x3 - 3xy2 + 4x2y - x2y + xy2 + 2y3

2 Simplify:
a 5 × 2b b 2x × 4y c 5p × 2p
d -3z × 2w e -5a × -3b f x × 2y × 7z
g 8ab × 6c h 4d × 3d i 3a × 4a × a
3 2 5
j (-3y) k (2x ) l 2ab3 × 3a
m 5a2b × -2ab n 7pq2 × 3p2q2 o 5ab × a2b2
p 4h3 × -2h7 q k3p × p2 r (-3t3)4
s 7m6 × -2m5 t -2x2 × 3x3y × -4xy2

3 Simplify:
8a 2
a 30x ÷ 5 b 2y ÷ y c
2
8a 2 8a 2 xy
d e f
a 2a 2x
3a 2b 2 20 x
g 12p3 ÷ 4p2 h i
6 ab 15xy
-9 x 7 2ab
j k -15ab ÷ -5b l
3x 4 6 a 2b 3
-8 p 2xy 2 z3
m n 14cd2 ÷ 21c3d3 o
4 pqs 4 x 3 y 2z

42 p5q 4 2( a -5 )2 b 4
p q 5a9b4c-2 ÷ 20a5b-3c-1 r
7 pq3 4 a -9 ( b 2 )-1

s -5x4y7z ÷ 15xy8z-2 t -9(a4b-1)3 ÷ -18a-1b3

ISBN 9780170413152 1. Algebraic techniques 15

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 WS
1.05 Expansion
Homework
When we remove grouping symbols we say that we are expanding an expression.
Expanding
algebraic
expressions

Expanding expressions
To expand an expression, use the distributive law:
a(b + c) = ab + ac

EXAMPLE 7

Expand and simplify:

a 5a2(4 + 3ab - c) b 5 - 2(y + 3) c 2(b - 5) - (b + 1)

Solution

a 5a2(4 + 3ab - c) = 5a2 × 4 + 5a2 × 3ab - 5a2 × c

= 20a2 + 15a3b - 5a2c

b 5 - 2(y + 3) = 5 - 2 × y - 2 × 3
= 5 - 2y - 6
= -2y - 1

c 2(b - 5) - (b + 1) = 2 × b + 2 × -5 - 1 × b - 1 × 1
= 2b - 10 - b - 1
= b - 11

Exercise 1.05 Expansion

Expand and simplify each expression.
1 2(x - 4)   2 3(2h + 3)   3 -5(a - 2)
4 x(2y + 3)   5 x(x - 2)   6 2a(3a - 8b)
8 5n(n - 4)   9 3x2y(xy + 2y2)
  7 ab(2a + b)  
10 3 + 4(k + 1) 11 2(t - 7) - 3 12 y(4y + 3) + 8y
13 9 - 5(b + 3) 14 3 - (2x - 5) 15 5(3 - 2m) + 7(m - 2)
16 2(h + 4) + 3(2h - 9) 17 3(2d - 3) - (5d - 3) 18 a(2a + 1) - (a2 + 3a - 4)
19 x(3x - 4) - 5(x + 1) 20 2ab(3 - a) - b(4a - 1) 21 5x - (x - 2) - 3
22 8 - 4(2y + 1) + y 23 (a + b) - (a - b) 24 2(3t - 4) - (t + 1) + 3

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 1.06 Binomial products
A binomial expression consists of 2 terms; for example, x + 3.
Expanding
binomial
A set of 2 binomial expressions multiplied together is called a binomial product; for products

example, (x + 3)(x - 2).

Each term in the first bracket is multiplied by each term in the second bracket.

Binomial product
(x + a)(x + b) = x2 + bx + ax + ab

EXAMPLE 8

Expand and simplify:

a (p + 3)(q - 4) b (a + 5)2 c (x + 4)(2x - 3y - 1)

Solution

a (p + 3)(q - 4) = pq - 4p + 3q - 12 b   (a + 5)2 = (a + 5)(a + 5)

= a2 + 5a + 5a + 25
= a2 + 10a + 25

c (x + 4)(2x - 3y - 1) = 2x2 - 3xy - x + 8x - 12y - 4

= 2x2 - 3xy + 7x - 12y - 4

Exercise 1.06 Binomial products

Expand and simplify:
1 (a + 5)(a + 2)   2 (x + 3)(x - 1)   3 (2y - 3)(y + 5)  4 (m - 4)(m - 2)
5 (x + 4)(x + 3)   6 (y + 2)(y - 5)  7 (2x - 3)(x + 2)   8 (h - 7)(h - 3)
9 (x + 5)(x - 5) 10 (5a - 4)(3a - 1) 11 (2y + 3)(4y - 3) 12 (x - 4)(y + 7)
13 (x2 + 3)(x - 2) 14 (n + 2)(n - 2) 15 (2x + 3)(2x - 3) 16 (4 - 7y)(4 + 7y)
17 (a + 2b)(a - 2b) 18 (3x - 4y)(3x + 4y) 19 (x + 3)(x - 3) 20 (y - 6)(y + 6)
21 (3a + 1)(3a - 1) 22 (2z - 7)(2z + 7) 23 (x + 9)(x - 2y + 2)
24 (b - 3)(2a + 2b - 1) 25 (x + 2)(x2 - 2x + 4) 26 (a - 3)(a2 + 3a + 9)
27 (a + 9)2 28 (k - 4)2 29 (x + 2)2 30 (y - 7)2
31 (2x + 3)2 32 (2t - 1)2 33 (3a + 4b)2 34 (x - 5y)2

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 35 (2a + b)2 36 (a - b)(a + b) 37 (a + b)2 38 (a - b)2
39 (a + b)(a2 - ab + b2) 40 (a - b)(a2 + ab + b2)

WS
1.07 Special products
Homework
Some binomial products have special results and can be simplified quickly using their special
Expanding
expressions properties. Did you notice some of these in Exercise 1.06?

Difference of two squares

(a + b)(a - b) = a2 - b2
Special
binomial
products

Perfect squares
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
(a - b)2 = a2 - 2ab + b2

EXAMPLE 9

Expand and simplify:

a (2x - 3)2 b (3y - 4)(3y + 4)

Solution

a (2x - 3)2 = (2x)2 - 2(2x)3 + 32 b (3y - 4)(3y + 4) = (3y)2 - 42

  = 4x2 - 12x + 9 = 9y2 - 16

Exercise 1.07 Special products

Expand and simplify:
1 (t + 4)2 2 (z - 6)2 3 (x - 1)2

4 (y + 8)2 5 (q + 3)2 6 (k - 7)2

7 (n + 1)2 8 (2b + 5)2 9 (3 - x)2

10 (3y - 1)2 11 (x + y)2 12 (3a - b)2

13 (4d + 5e)2 14 (t + 4)(t - 4) 15 (x - 3)(x + 3)

16 (p + 1)(p - 1) 17 (r + 6)(r - 6) 18 (x - 10)(x + 10)

19 (2a + 3)(2a - 3) 20 (x - 5y)(x + 5y) 21 (4a + 1)(4a - 1)

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 22 (7 - 3x)(7 + 3x) 23 (x2 + 2)(x2 - 2) 24 (x2 + 5)2
2
 2  1  1
25 (3ab - 4c)(3ab + 4c) 26  x +  27  a -   a + 
x  a  a
28 [x + (y - 2)][x - (y - 2)] 29 [(a + b) + c]2 30 [(x + 1) - y]2

31 (a + 3)2 - (a - 3)2 32 16 - (z - 4)(z + 4) 33 2x + (3x + 1)2 - 4

34 (x + y)2 - x(2 - y) 35 (4n - 3)(4n + 3) - 2n2 + 5 36 (x - 4)3

2 2
 1  1
37  x -  -   + 2 38 (x2 + y2)2 - 4x2y2 39 (2a + 5)3
 x  x

1.08 Factorisation WS

Factors divide exactly into an equal or larger number or term, without leaving a remainder.
Homework
Factorising
algebraic
expressions

Factorising
To factorise an expression, we use the distributive law in the opposite way from when we
expand brackets.
ax + bx = x(a + b)

EXAMPLE 10

Factorise:

a 3x + 12 b y2 - 2y c x3 - 2x2
d 5(x + 3) + 2y(x + 3) e 8a3b2 - 2ab3

Solution

a The highest common factor is 3. 3x + 12 = 3(x + 4)

b The highest common factor is y. y2 - 2y = y(y - 2)

c x and x2 are both common factors. x3 - 2x2 = x2(x - 2)

Take out the highest common factor,
which is x2.

d The highest common factor is x + 3. 5(x + 3) + 2y(x + 3) = (x + 3)(5 + 2y)

e The highest common factor is 2ab2. 8a3b2 - 2ab3 = 2ab2(4a2 - b)

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 Exercise 1.08 Factorisation
Factorise:
1 2y + 6 2 5x - 10 3 3m - 9

4 8x + 2 5 24 - 18y 6 x2 + 2x

7 m2 - 3m 8 2y2 + 4y 9 15a - 3a2

10 ab2 + ab 11 4x2y - 2xy 12 3mn3 + 9mn

13 8x2z - 2xz2 14 6ab + 3a - 2a2 15 5x2 - 2x + xy

16 3q5 - 2q2 17 5b3 + 15b2 18 6a2b3 - 3a3b2

19 x(m + 5) + 7(m + 5) 20 2(y - 1) - y(y - 1) 21 4(7 + y) - 3x(7 + y)

22 6x(a - 2) + 5(a - 2) 23 x(2t + 1) - y(2t + 1)

24 a(3x - 2) + 2b(3x - 2) - 3c(3x - 2) 25 6x3 + 9x2

26 3pq5 - 6q3 27 15a4b3 + 3ab 28 4x3 - 24x2

29 35m3n4 - 25m2n 30 24a2b5 + 16ab2 31 2πr2 + 2πrh

32 (x - 3)2 + 5(x - 3) 33 y2(x + 4) + 2(x + 4) 34 a(a + 1) - (a + 1)2

1.09 Factorisation by grouping in pairs

Factorising by grouping in pairs
If an expression has 4 terms, it can sometimes be factorised in pairs.
ax + bx + ay + by = x(a + b) + y(a + b)
= (a + b)(x + y)

EXAMPLE 11

Factorise:

a x2 - 2x + 3x - 6 b 2x - 4 + 6y - 3xy

Solution

a x2 - 2x + 3x - 6 = x(x - 2) + 3(x - 2) b 2x - 4 + 6y - 3xy = 2(x - 2) + 3y(2 - x)

= (x - 2)(x + 3) = 2(x - 2) - 3y(x - 2)
= (x - 2)(2 - 3y)

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 Exercise 1.09 Factorisation by grouping in pairs
Factorise:
1 2x + 8 + bx + 4b 2 ay - 3a + by - 3b 3 x2 + 5x + 2x + 10

4 m2 - 2m + 3m - 6 5 ad - ac + bd - bc 6 x3 + x2 + 3x + 3

7 5ab - 3b + 10a - 6 8 2xy - x2 + 2y2 - xy 9 ay + a + y + 1

10 x2 + 5x - x - 5 11 y + 3 + ay + 3a 12 m - 2 + 4y - 2my

13 2x2 + 10xy - 3xy - 15y2 14 a2b + ab3 - 4a - 4b2 15 5x - x2 - 3x + 15

16 x4 + 7x3 - 4x - 28 17 7x - 21 - xy + 3y 18 4d + 12 - de - 3e

19 3x - 12 + xy - 4y 20 2a + 6 - ab - 3b 21 x3 - 3x2 + 6x - 18

22 pq - 3p + q2 - 3q 23 3x3 - 6x2 - 5x + 10 24 4a - 12b + ac - 3bc

25 xy + 7x - 4y - 28 26 x4 - 4x3 - 5x + 20 27 4x3 - 6x2 + 8x - 12

28 3a2 + 9a + 6ab + 18b 29 5y - 15 + 10xy - 30x 30 πr2 + 2πr - 3r - 6

1.10 Factorising trinomials

A trinomial is an expression with 3 terms; for example, x2 - 4x + 3. Factorising a trinomial
Factorising
usually gives a binomial product. quadratic
expressions

We know that: (x + a)(x + b) = x2 + bx + ax + ab

= x2 + (a + b)x + ab

Factorising trinomials
x2 + (a + b)x + ab = (x + a)(x + b)
Find values for a and b so that the sum a + b is the middle term and the product ab is the
last term.

EXAMPLE 12

Factorise:

a m2 - 5m + 6
b y2 + y - 2

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 d. Public roads.[2258]
e. Other portions of the public domain specifically designated as
exempt from distribution, including the Campanian lands, which are
leased out by the censors.[2259]
f. Certain pasture lands let out to any who wish to feed their live
stock thereon, who pay a tax (scriptura) for the privilege.[2260]
(6) The distribution of the lands shall be effected by a standing
magistracy elected annually by the tribes[2261]—the triumviri agris
dandis adsignandis.[2262]
(7) As all available public land is to be utilized in the various ways
described above, and as the holders of lands once public are to be
guaranteed in their possession, further occupation of land is thereby
precluded.[2263]
Afterward as Tiberius found it impossible to reconcile the
optimates to his measure, he withdrew the second article and
proposed to eject illegal holders without compensation.[2264] When
the nobles induced Octavius, a colleague in the tribunate, to veto the
bill, Tiberius had him deposed by a vote of the tribes, and then
passed the agrarian law without further opposition, unauthorized
however by the senate.[2265] The triumviri elected to take charge of
the work of distribution were the author of the law, his brother Gaius,
and his father-in-law Appius Claudius Pulcher.[2266] As the election
of these persons was a violation of the Licinian and Aebutian
plebiscites,[2267] a dispensation was probably granted by vote of the
people.[2268] When the commission found itself hampered by legal
inability to distinguish between public and private land, Tiberius
carried a second agrarian law which invested the triumviri with the
necessary judicial power for determining what land was public and
what private.[2269] It was by virtue of this second enactment that the
word iudicandis was introduced into the phrase descriptive of their
functions—“iudicandis adsignandis” or “dandis adsignandis
iudicandis.”[2270] In the year 129, probably at the time of the election
to this office, Publius Scipio Aemilianus brought about the transfer of
the judicial function to the consuls. Appian,[2271] our sole authority
for the latter act, speaks only of its discussion in the senate, implying
that this body rather than the people passed the resolution. In that
case the senate must have annulled the second agrarian law on the
ground that it was illegally passed; for in no other way could it set
aside a comitial statute.[2272] Some land, already delimited, may still
have been subject to distribution; but as the consuls avoided the
disagreeable function received from the commissioners, the work of
assignment came speedily to an end. The agrarian law of Ti.
Gracchus fell thus into disuse till it was revived by his brother.[2273]
The deposition of Octavius[2274] requires especial consideration.
In 136 the proconsular imperium had been abrogated, probably by a
popular vote[2275]; but no instance of the abrogation of an actual
magistracy had thus far occurred. Most scholars consider the act
unconstitutional.[2276] It did indeed involve a sweeping departure
from long-established custom; but in favor of its legality may be
urged the fact that nearly all the powers ever possessed by the
assembly are known to have been acquired in the way in which
Tiberius was attempting to establish for it the right to remove from
office—by precedent rather than by law. A statute of the Twelve
Tables declared that whatever the people voted last should be law
and valid[2277]; and through the ages preceding the Gracchi they had
often applied this principle to the extension of their power at the
expense of the senate and magistrates. They were sovereign; and if
they chose to introduce the custom of deposing a magistrate whom
they regarded as the betrayer of their dearest interests, they had the
legal right. The wisdom of the proceeding may be questioned, but he
who has followed the history of the assemblies thus far must regard
the measure as merely one of the many steps by which the people
advanced toward the realization of their sovereignty.
Tiberius attempted to apply the same principle to securing his
election to the tribunate. His motive was not a purely selfish desire to
save his life; it required no superhuman wisdom to discover that his
downfall would mean the collapse of the great reform on which he
had set his heart. The continued ascendancy of a popular champion
necessarily involved the overthrow of the senatorial government.
This idea, which he now clearly grasped, found expression in his
new political platform, (1) to shorten the period of military service, (2)
by means of a law of appeal to vest the supreme jurisdiction solely in
the people, so as to deprive the senate of its extra-constitutional
judicial power,[2278] (3) to give the equites equal representation with
the senators in the juries, or possibly as Dio Cassius states, to
transfer the courts from the senate to the knights.[2279] When the
day of election came, his peasant supporters were busy with their
harvests, and his platform did not strongly appeal to the city plebs,
on whom he had chiefly to rely for votes. Had the people insisted, as
they twice did in favor of Scipio,[2280] they would have prevailed
either with or without an act of dispensation passed by the senate or
by themselves[2281]; but the weakness of his supporters rather than
any illegality in the proceeding proved his ruin. To free the future
reformer from this limitation, however, a rogation of C. Papirius
Carbo, tribune of the plebs in 131, proposed that a tribune should be
eligible to reëlection as many times as he chose to offer himself as a
candidate. This rogation failed[2282]; but before the tribunate of C.
Gracchus, 123, “a certain law had already been enacted,” as
Appian[2283] obscurely informs us, “that if a tribune should be
wanting on the announcement (of the votes), the people might elect
one from the whole body of citizens.” The statute, which Appian has
evidently failed to understand clearly, seems to have provided that if
the returns showed the election of only nine tribunes from the
candidates proposed, the people could proceed to elect a tenth from
the whole body of citizens, including the existing tribunician college;
or equivalently, if for the tenth place the tribes cast a majority of
votes for one who was not a candidate, he would be considered
legally elected.[2284] The object was to enable the people to continue
in office an especially popular tribune, and was therefore a notable
stride in the direction of monarchy.
Papirius was more successful with his lex tabellaria, which
extended the ballot to legislation, 131.[2285] Trials of perduellio alone
retained the oral vote. Doubtless this improvement greatly
strengthened the rising popular party. A plebiscite passed about 129,
requiring a knight on entering the senate to sell his public horse,
deprived the senators of their votes in the eighteen centuries, and
completed the separation of the governing aristocracy from the
commercial class begun by the Claudian statute of 219.[2286]
At some unknown time before the tribunate of C. Gracchus a
plebiscite of M. Junius modified the lex Calpurnia concerning
extortion,[2287] in what way we are not informed. The act is with a
high degree of probability attributed to M. Junius Pennus, tribune of
the plebs in 126.[2288] If the Junian lex repetundarum was indeed his
work, it could have been dictated by no sympathy with the
unprivileged classes, for it was this Junius whose plebiscite ordered
the expulsion of all aliens from Rome—a measure which Cicero
condemns as inhuman.[2289] The act last mentioned was the
response of the senate and rabble to the effort of the more
enlightened Romans to grant the citizenship to the Latins and
Italians. The new idea was embodied in a rogation of M. Fulvius
Flaccus, consul in 125, which offered the citizenship, or as an
alternative the right of appeal, to the Italians, with the purpose of
buying off their opposition to the Sempronian agrarian law; but the
measure was so vehemently opposed in the senate that the author
withdrew it.[2290] The idea however lived in the minds of the
reformers till it was finally realized.
Ten years after the tribunate of Ti. Gracchus his brother Gaius
entered upon the same office. Since the beginning of the decennium
the leaders of the popular party had made various proposals but had
accomplished little. The agrarian law was still nominally in force,
though its execution was effectually blocked. The plan of extending
the franchise had found its most bitter opponents in the men of the
street, on whom the tribunes had chiefly to depend. The ballot in
legislation, the possibility of continuous reëlection to the tribunate,
and the increase of discontent with the plutocracy were the only
gains. Extraordinary progress was now to be made under the
leadership of a great creative statesman. The chronological
succession of his comitial enactments cannot be determined with
absolute certainty. We do not in every instance know whether a
given proposal was carried in his first or second year. This much,
however, is clear, that most of his measures belong to 123 and to the
early part of 122. The execution of the laws, including the seventy
days’ journey to Carthage,[2291] consumed much of the second year,
and after his defeat for the third term—about July, 122—he carried
no more plebiscites.[2292] Among his first thoughts was that of
strengthening the legality of the deposition of Octavius[2293] by a
rogation which provided that a person so deposed should thereby be
debarred forever from office. He probably meant it more as an
enunciation of a principle than as a legislative project. The measure
was never offered to vote, but was withdrawn, we are told, at the
request of his mother.[2294] Far more serious, and of lasting
importance, was his lex de provocatione, which, carrying into effect
the idea of his brother,[2295] forbade the establishment of a special
court or the placing of the state under martial law without an act of
the people.[2296] Further judicial legislation was postponed in the
interest of more pressing matters.
While colonization and the assignment of land individually to
citizens, which Gaius planned on an extensive scale, as will soon be
noticed, were to provide for the agricultural population at the
expense of the state, and while the nobles and knights continued to
reap an unfailing harvest of wealth in the administration of the
provinces, the democratic reformer could think it only just and
expedient to subsidize the populace of the capital. The artificial
growth of Rome as a political centre, with no sound economic basis
but with a most unfavorable geographical situation, rendered the
problem of living difficult for the masses even in time of prosperity;
and recently circumstances had so diminished the grain supply that
relief from the government seemed the only resource against
threatening famine.[2297] Before the time of the Gracchi on
occasions of especial scarcity or of especial plenty the state had sold
grain at a reduced rate; and the aediles, we know not how often, had
made similar reductions at their own expense.[2298] There can be no
doubt, too, that individual nobles in a private capacity often
distributed free or cheap grain among the poor to secure their
support in elections. Attached by such means to the nobles and the
senate, the rabble had been in the main conservative. There was a
certain degree of justice in giving the populace a share in the profits
of empire and some wisdom in substituting system for the existing
irregularity. A political result, we may also say aim, of the
frumentarian plebiscite of Gaius was to disattach the city populace
from its conservative moorings and to enlist it in the service of
reform. His measure, the first frumentarian law in Roman history,
provided for the monthly sale to every citizen who applied for it—
practically to those only who resided in or near Rome—of a fixed
number of modii of wheat at six and a third asses a modius,[2299]
which was probably about half the average market price. The law
won for him the good will of the populace,[2300] but his opponents
complained that it depleted the treasury and excited the mob to
seditions.[2301] It set an example for further reductions at the
expense of the state. Hence notwithstanding some good features the
effect of the law was pernicious, as it tended to increase the number
of idlers, to make the populace improvident, and to encourage
demagogism. It must be said, on the other hand, that had Gaius
lived to carry out his wide scheme of colonization, he would have so
relieved the capital of its semi-pauper population as to render
frumentations unnecessary, whereupon the law would naturally have
been repealed.[2302]
After providing in the frumentarian act an expedient which, we may
believe, he looked upon as temporary, he resumed the work of
construction[2303] by reviving his brother’s agrarian law.[2304] The
continuance of the assignations as long as there remained any
public land that could be distributed was a most essential element of
his plan. Among the articles retained were those which subjected the
holders of assigned lots to a tax[2305] and exempted from distribution
the Campanian territory not set apart for his colony at Capua,[2306]
as well as various other lands excepted both by the agrarian law of
Tiberius and by that of 111.[2307] Doubtless it also reinvested the
three commissioners with judicial power, without which they could
accomplish nothing. Through this agrarian law, or possibly through a
subsequent lex viaria, the triumviri were empowered to build roads
for the accommodation of the new peasantry.[2308] Though
introducing no new principle,[2309] his lex agraria was not a simple
reaffirmation of his brother’s law with amendments and additions; but
“a comprehensive statute, so completely covering the ground of the
earlier Sempronian law that later legislation cites the law of Gaius,
not that of Tiberius Gracchus, as the authority for the regulations
which had revolutionized the tenure of the public land.”[2310]
These measures were passed before the tribunician elections of
the year,[2311] which took place as usual in midsummer.[2312] It was
his frumentarian law, together with the hope aroused by the long
array of promulgated measures, which secured his reëlection. Soon
afterward, though still in 123, he brought before the comitia a
rogation concerning the qualification of iudices. As the quaestiones
extraordinariae from the earliest times were made up of senators, it
was natural that the standing courts also from the time of their
institution should be similarly composed.[2313] Under such conditions
the judicial authority afforded no efficient check upon
maladministration; and this immunity from the law, together with the
temptations to the misuse of power especially in provincial
commands, tended in the course of generations to make of the
senate, with individual exceptions, a class of grand criminals. To
remedy this evil and at the same time to remove from the senate the
strongest foundation of its political power,[2314] Ti. Sempronius
Gracchus had proposed his rogatio iudiciaria either for transferring
the courts entirely to the knights, or more probably for making up the
juries of an equal number of senators and knights.[2315] It failed to
become a law; but Gaius now took up the matter, and after
experimenting unsuccessfully with one or two projects,[2316] he
finally, 122, carried a plebiscite which substituted knights for
senators in the alba iudicum,[2317] from which not only standing
courts but also special commissions were to be filled.[2318] It is
uncertain whether mention was made of equites or whether the
result was reached merely by exclusion and definition. There can be
no doubt that the qualifications were identical with those described in
the extant lex repetundarum,[2319] attributed by scholars to M’.
Acilius Glabrio, a colleague of Gaius, and adopted accordingly soon
after the Sempronian judiciary law. The terms of the Acilian statute
excluded tribunes of the plebs, quaestors, tresviri capitales, military
tribunes of the first four legions, tresviri for assigning lands, persons
who had fought in the arena for pay or had been condemned by a
quaestio or by the people. It excluded further all under thirty or over
sixty years of age, and all who had their domicile more than a mile
from Rome, the fathers, brothers, and sons of those who held the
offices above enumerated, senators, and their fathers, brothers and
sons, as well as persons living beyond the sea. A part of the statute
missing from the inscription may have contained a minimal property
qualification, which could have been no other than four hundred
thousand sesterces; or it may have restricted jury service to those
who “possess a public horse.”[2320] According to Plutarch Gaius was
allowed the privilege of selecting the jurors. Had he remained in
power and continued in this function, he doubtless could have
compelled the courts of his choosing to do justice. But the privilege
seems to have been restricted to the first list; thereafter, as provided
by the lex repetundarum of Acilius the praetor qui inter peregrinos
ius dicit was to attend to the matter.[2321] The relation between the
Sempronian lex iudiciaria and the lex Acilia repetundarum has not
been precisely determined.[2322] If the Sempronian statute preceded
the Acilian,[2323] as is not unlikely, it was the intention of Gaius to
pass a general law regarding the qualifications and mode of
appointment of jurors, to be superseded in large part by a
succession of laws, which dealing with individual courts, should
regulate the qualification and appointment of their several juries as
well as the procedure and the penalties. This policy indicates a
conviction that he could give the reformed judicial system greater
stability by making the separate laws here referred to entirely
independent of his original lex iudiciaria.[2324]
The lex Acilia, described above as a plebiscite of M’. Acilius
Glabrio, colleague of C. Gracchus in 122,[2325] took the place of the
lex Iunia of 126,[2326] and is to be identified with a lex repetundarum
extensive fragments of which are preserved in an inscription.[2327]
Whereas earlier laws on the subject rendered governors of
provinces, and perhaps administrative officers in Italy, alone liable to
punishment, the Acilian statute includes magistrates and senators
and the sons of both as well as the holders of promagisterial
imperium.[2328] The crime consists in taking in any one year from
those whom the law is designed to protect—from the allies, Latins,
provincials, and exterior nations under the sway or in the friendship
of the Roman people[2329]—by gift, seizure, compulsion, or other
illegal means money or property exceeding a specified sum, which a
lacuna in the inscription leaves unknown, but which is supposed to
be four thousand sesterces.[2330] Holders of magistracies and
imperia cannot be brought to trial for the crime till after the expiration
of their terms,[2331] on the general principle which exempts from
prosecution those who are engaged in the service of the state.[2332]
The praetor qui inter peregrinos ius dicit within ten days after the
passage of the statute, and in future within ten days after entering
upon his office, is to choose for this court four hundred and fifty
persons with the qualifications for jury service described above in
connection with the Sempronian judiciary law. From this group the
accused is to reject under oath his kinsmen within a specified degree
and his sodales. The accuser is to draw from the remainder a
hundred persons, taking oath that he has chosen no kinsman within
a specified degree or sodalis. The accused rejects fifty of the
hundred, and the remaining fifty constitute the jury for trying the
case.[2333] The rules of procedure in the trial and the amount of
liability of the accused in the event of conviction are given. The
accuser, if an alien, is granted as a reward for a successful
prosecution the Roman citizenship for himself and his born sons and
grandsons. If he is a Latin and does not want the citizenship, he is
given instead the right of appeal.[2334] Probably the law contained
provisions for the punishment of corruption in the patrons of the
accusers and in the praetor and jurors.[2335]
 It is certain that Gaius carried a law also for reconstituting the
quaestio inter sicarios et veneficos,[2336] which had originally been
established shortly before 141.[2337] The Sempronian law on this
subject contained a provision for the punishment of bribery or
conspiracy committed in trials of the kind. The article referred to
included the words “Ne quis iudicio circumveniretur,”[2338] a principle
repeated as “Qui coisset, quo quis condemnaretur”[2339] in the
corresponding article of the Cornelian law which superseded the
Sempronian. There was no quaestio for dealing especially with
judicial corruption and conspiracy, but the accused was brought to
trial before the very court in relation to which his crime was alleged
to have been committed.[2340] The provision was directed against
the accuser, against magistrates and senators who presided over
such courts, and presumably against equestrian jurors who accepted
bribes.[2341]
We have in an inscription the concluding articles of a criminal
law[2342] of this period. It is on a bronze tablet found on the site of
the ancient Italian city Bantia, and is called the Latin Lex Bantina to
distinguish it from another lex in Oscan on the opposite face.[2343] A
reference to the triumviri agris dandis adsignandis, who seem to
have been those elected under the Sempronian agrarian law, places
the document between 133 and 118. It is concerned with a quaestio.
[2344] An attempt has been made to identify it with the lex Iunia

repetundarum and to assign it accordingly to 126.[2345] The

circumstance, however, that it was passed without the authorization
of the senate, and that its whole spirit is anti-senatorial, would lead
us rather to the conclusion that it was the work of C. Gracchus at the
time of his most bitter struggle with the optimates yet before he had
lost control of the comitia. The fragment contains no more than the
sanctio—provisions for enforcement of the statute. The beginning of
the first extant article is lost, but it must have described the class of
offenders to which the article applies, and the nature of the offence.
It speaks merely of disabilities imposed on the offender, among
which are the following: he must not address the senate or vote in a
public trial (poplico ioudicio) or in comitia or receive or give testimony
in court or wear the praetexta and soleae in public or be chosen into
the senate or remain in it if already a member. The second article
provides that if a tribune of the plebs, a quaestor, a triumvir capitalis,
a triumvir for assigning lands, or a index appointed under the law
itself, or a senator shall with knowledge and malice prepense violate
the law or hinder its operation, he shall be liable to a fine, the amount
of which a lacuna in the text leaves unknown. The third article
provides that a consul, praetor, aedile, tribune of the plebs, quaestor,
triumvir capitalis, or triumvir for the assignment of lands now in office
shall, within the next five days after ascertaining that the law has
been enacted, swear in the manner described below: also that the
dictator, consul, praetor, master of horse, censor, aedile, and other
officials as above enumerated, and the index appointed under this
law shall in future take the oath within five days after entering upon
their magistracies or imperia. They shall give oath to the urban
quaestor publicly in front of the temple of Castor, swearing by Jupiter
and the di Penates that they will do as the law requires and will not
with knowledge and malice prepense violate the law or by
intercession or otherwise hinder its administration. He who fails to
swear shall not be candidate for a magistracy or imperium, or
manage or retain either, or address the senate or be chosen into it;
and the quaestor shall keep a list of those who have taken the oath.
The fourth article provides that whoever is or shall be a senator, or
shall have the right of addressing the senate after this law has been
passed, shall within the next ten days after ascertaining the fact of its
enactment take an oath like that described in article 3. The penalty
for failure to swear is not mentioned in the extant fragment, but must
at the mildest have been expulsion from the senate.
Closely connected with the transfer of the iudicia from the senators
to the knights is the statute of Gaius concerning the taxation of Asia.
It ordered the censors to let out the taxes of this province to the
highest bidders; and it limited the right of the senate to lessen the
sum agreed upon.[2346] Under such an arrangement, however, no
sufficient guarantee could be provided for the security of the
provincials from publican exactions.[2347] The political result of this
legislation in favor of the knights was to invest them not only with an
important share in the administration, but through the courts with a
superiority even over the senate.[2348] The opposition of the poorer
class to the aristocracy could never be otherwise than uncertain and
fitful; but the knights with their immense wealth and their efficient
organization were to be henceforth an ever present rival of the
senate. The author of the law had given the state a double head,
[2349] which was to prove the source of civil discord; or nearly in his
own words, he had thrust into the body of the senate a sword which
nothing could withdraw.[2350] For a few months their benefactor may
have cherished the delusion that he could depend upon their grateful
support; he lived to discover that they cared not for him or his
reforms but only for their immediate interests. In his work of
construction the statesman found them slightly more serviceable
than the proletariate.
The right which the senate had hitherto possessed of assigning
the provinces to the magistrates and promagistrates according to its
pleasure gave a great opportunity for favoritism and partisanship; it
could thwart the will of the people by assigning a popular consul to
an insignificant province. To deprive the senate of a power which
could be so easily perverted to wrong use, C. Gracchus proposed
and carried an act which ordered the senate before the election to
name the provinces that were to be consular.[2351] An article forbade
tribunician intercession against such action of the senate.[2352] Far
from improving the administration, however, this statute tended to
foster that routine which was one of the most marked defects of
oligarchic rule.[2353]
As under the government of the nobility military affairs were in the
hands of the magistrates and senate, this field was closed to comitial
legislation.[2354] One of the most notable indications of growing
democracy was the project of Ti. Gracchus, 133, for shortening the
period of service. It was not brought to vote;[2355] but his brother
Gaius succeeded in passing a plebiscite, 123, which ordered that the
state should bear the cost of clothing soldiers, and forbade the
enlistment of boys before the close of their seventeenth year.[2356]
The pay of the soldiers, which since the war with Hannibal had
remained five and a third asses a day, had under new conditions
become wholly inadequate; and certainly insistence on the legal age
limitation was prudent as well as humane. There is no ground, then,
for imagining with Diodorus[2357] that in this salutary measure Gaius
was catering for the support of the soldiers by inciting them to
disobedience and lawlessness.
His greatest constructive work he aimed to achieve through
colonization and through the extension of the franchise. His colonial
law, 123, proposed to establish many settlements in Italy,[2358] two of
which at least should be made up of men of the best character, not
the neediest but traders and workmen of moderate means.[2359] The
two actually founded were Scolacium and Neptunia,[2360] both in
situations favorable for commerce. Several other settlements in Italy
are attributed to his colonial or agrarian statute.[2361] As his colonies
were exclusively citizen,[2362] if any aliens took part, they must by
virtue of the colonial law have obtained the Roman rights. The
statute of his colleague Rubrius the same year (123) provided for the
founding of Junonia on the site of Carthage.[2363] But the most
liberal and statesmanlike measure was reserved for his second
tribunate, 122. It was a proposal to grant full citizenship to the Latins
and the ius Latii to the remaining allies.[2364] The rejection of the bill
by a popular vote proved the leader far too liberal and too
progressive for his supporters. Deceived by the spurious proposals
of M. Livius Drusus,[2365] a colleague of Gaius, for the founding of
twelve colonies, the members of which were to hold their lots by fee
simple and consequently exempt from rents, and for depriving the
Roman magistrates of the right to inflict corporal punishment on
Latins even when in military service under their commands,[2366] the
populace, readily accepting the new proposals,[2367] turned against
their true champion, and defeated him in the election for the
tribunate for the ensuing year.[2368] It was probably the same
measure of Gaius for extending the citizenship which alienated from
him the equites, who in every crisis pursued their own selfish ends.
[2369] In the ensuing struggle between the senate and Gaius they
took the side of the former.[2370]
In the tribunate of Gaius Gracchus the life of the comitia reached
the highest point of intensity. The two years of his administration
afford evidence of what the assembly could accomplish when
directed by the personality of a great statesman.[2371] The sum total
of the measures adopted should be estimated not as a completed
work, but as a foundation to be strengthened at defective points and
to be built upon till the whole structure of the state and empire should
be reconstituted and freshly vitalized. These results might have been
achieved, had Gaius lived out his natural life and retained the
support of the populace and the knights.[2372] His failure proved the
comitia a weak, unsafe instrument for constructive statesmanship.

II. The Aristocratic Reaction and the Popular Recovery

122-103

The optimates waited only for the expiration of the tribunate of

Gaius Gracchus to begin undoing his work, and they found the
comitia ready to aid in the demolition. In 121 a plebiscite of M.
Minucius Rufus repealed the Rubrian law for the colonization of
Junonia (Carthage).[2373] Soon afterward, certainly not later than
118, a plebiscite, whose author is unknown, permitted the
beneficiaries of the Sempronian agrarian laws to sell the lots they
had received.[2374] This enactment was followed in 118 by a
plebiscite which Appian[2375] assigns to Spurius Borius (?), a name
not otherwise known.[2376] It put an end to the distributions, and
must therefore have abolished the agrarian triumvirate. The same
law confirmed all holders of the ager publicus in their possession,
without converting any of this land into private property, and it
continued the imposition of rents. We may assume that the lands
here referred to included those recently distributed in small lots as
well as those retained by the occupiers. Lastly it enacted that the
revenues accruing from the rents should be used for distributions—
probably of cheap grain.[2377] In 111 another tribune, whom
Cicero[2378] names Sp. Thorius, through a law which has partially
survived in an inscription, aimed to settle definitely and for all time in
the interest of the nobles the questions raised by the Sempronian
agrarian legislation.
I. This epigraphic lex agraria converts into private property the
following classes of lands.[2379]
(1) Land assigned to a colony or in any way made public, and
afterward restored to the original owners (domneis). It is to be private
optuma lege.[2380]
(2) Land assigned to a colony and afterward restored to its former
occupier (veteri possessori).[2381]
(3) Land within the legal limit (of five hundred iugera) left to the
occupier by the three commissioners.[2382]
(4) Land assigned after 133 to colonies of Roman citizens.[2383]
(5) Land given and assigned by the three commissioners after
133.[2384]
(6) Land which has been occupied after 133 (not assigned by the
commissioners) to the extent of not more than thirty iugera to the
occupier.[2385]
(7) Land which by the provision of this law is to be sold, granted,
or restored.[2386]
All the lands above enumerated are declared private and free from
vectigal and scriptura.[2387]
II. The lands which the law declares public are those reserved
from distribution by the law of Ti. Gracchus.[2388] It retains further as
public all lands along public roads which have been granted by the
commissioners on condition that the recipients (viasieis vicaneis) in
return for the use of the land undertake the duty of keeping the roads
in repair. Though heritable and alienable, they remain subject to the
burden here described.[2389]
 III. In the regulation of the agrarian conditions of Africa the statute
deals with three kinds of land, (1) private ex iure quiritium,[2390] (2)
private ex iure peregrino,[2391] (3) public domain of the Roman
people of various sub-classes.[2392] Lastly the statute aims to settle
the status of the lands of Corinth.[2393] As regards the Latins and
aliens, whatever has already been permitted them by treaty or law is
allowed them by this statute, provided the same thing is allowed a
Roman citizen; but it is forbidden them if forbidden a citizen. Rights
granted the citizens which up to this time are not enjoyed by aliens
are not by this law communicated to aliens.[2394]
Through this series of reactionary laws, from the Minucian (121) to
the Thorian (111), the optimates succeeded in nullifying the good
results of the Sempronian agrarian reforms. It was while the
Minucian rogation[2395] was under discussion that the senate took
advantage of a disturbance in the concilium to arm the consul
Opimius with absolute power for putting down C. Gracchus and his
followers.[2396] The failure of an attempt in the following year (120) to
call Opimius to account for these proceedings established the right
of the senate to the appointment of special commissions and to the
decretum ultimum[2397]—a right on which the optimates continued to
insist to the end of the republic. Through the plebiscite of L.
Calpurnius Bestia (also 120)[2398] they put the stamp of legitimacy
upon the murder of the followers of Ti. Gracchus by recalling from
exile P. Popillius Laenas, who as consul in 132 and head of a special
court was chiefly responsible for that judicial crime.[2399] An attempt
was made by Q. Servilius Caepio, consul in 106, to restore the
courts to the senate,[2400] or possibly to compromise by providing for
an album composed of both senators and equites.[2401] The sources
imply that the measure was accepted by the comitia; but if so, it must
have been immediately annulled, as it was not carried into effect.
[2402] Within this period of reaction, and perhaps as a part of it, falls
the lex de libertinorum suffragiis of the consul M. Aemilius Scaurus,
115. Although nothing certain is known of it, we may suppose that it
attempted again[2403] to restrict the libertini to the four city tribes.
[2404] About this time, too, several acts seem to have been passed
for diminishing the pay of soldiers, probably undoing the Sempronian
law on the subject.[2405]
A glance at these reactionary measures alone would leave the
impression that the senate was recovering its entire supremacy. This
result might have been reached had it not been on the one hand for
the lasting inspiration of the Gracchan spirit in the plebs and their
leaders, and on the other the new position of the equites. In 119 C.
Marius, at once a representative of the knights[2406] and of the
peasants, opposed as tribune of the plebs the senatorial aristocracy,
which now had to depend for immediate support upon the populace.
[2407] The optimates had greatly impaired the value of the secret
ballot through the custodes tabellarum, who stood on the pontes as
well as by the boxes (cistae) to keep watch over the voting. They
were often influential men[2408]—in elections selected by the
candidates[2409]—who used their influence with the voters,
especially of the principium or of the prerogative century,[2410]
thereby maintaining for the aristocrats a high degree of control over
the comitia in spite of the ballot laws.[2411] For this reason C. Marius
when tribune of the plebs carried an act for making the pontes
narrower that there might be room on them for the voters only.[2412]
The politicians, however, soon found means of circumventing this
law as well as the use of the ballot.[2413] The populares could expect
little therefore from the plebiscite of C. Caelius, 107, which by
extending the ballot to trials of perduellio, completed the abolition of
oral voting in the comitia.[2414]
We find another sign of popular recovery in the assembly’s
resumption of the appointment of special judiciary commissions.
[2415] One of the most remarkable courts of the kind was that created
in 113 for the trial of three Vestal virgins on a charge of incest. The
pontifex maximus, who possessed absolute authority over the
Vestals, had already pronounced judgment, condemning one and
acquitting the other two, when a plebiscite of Sex. Peducaeus, taking
the case out of his hands, transferred it to a quaestio extraordinaria.
[2416] To such an extent did the tribune apply the theory of popular
sovereignty.[2417] The plebiscite of C. Mamilius, 109, ordered the
appointment of a court for the detection and punishment of those
who had accepted money from Jugurtha for aid rendered him
against the decrees of the senate and the interests of Rome. As it
was a blow aimed at the nobility, the people in the hatred they then
cherished against the governing class voted it with great spirit.[2418]
In 105 the tribal comitia abrogated the proconsular imperium of Q.
Servilius Caepio,[2419] and in the following year, they not only
appointed a special court to try him for embezzlement of the gold
found at Tolosa,[2420] but through the plebiscite of L. Cassius
Longinus, they disqualified for membership of the senate any person
whom the people had judicially condemned or whose imperium they
had abrogated.[2421] These acts confirmed and applied the principles
underlying the deposition of Octavius and the rogation of C.
Gracchus concerning persons deposed from office (abacti). In theory
the people indirectly chose the senators through their function of
electing magistrates; and they were only claiming this right when
they insisted that he should be prohibited from membership whom
they had condemned in either of the two ways described by the
statute. It must have seemed to the people, on the other hand, that
the tribunes, who were once more their true representatives, had as
good a right as any other magistrates to seats in the senate. This
feeling found expression in the Atinian plebiscite, enacted between
122 and 102,[2422] which gave the tribunes the ius sententiae
dicendae in the senate with the same right to censorial enrolment as
that enjoyed by the curule magistrates.[2423]
The growing strength of the people and at the same time the
increasing dependence of the optimates on religion for the control of
politics are indicated by a law of 103 concerning the election of
sacerdotes. More than a hundred years earlier[2424] was instituted
the custom of electing the supreme pontiff and the chief curio in
comitia of seventeen tribes designated by lot. Toward the end of the
plutocratic régime C. Licinius Crassus in the interest of the people
attempted in vain to pass a law for extending the principle to all the
members of the more important sacerdotal colleges.[2425] The
proposal was defeated by the eloquence of C. Laelius,[2426] but at
length it was passed as the lex de sacerdotiis of Cn. Domitius,
tribune of the plebs in 103. The statute affected the pontifical and
augural colleges, the decemviri sacris faciundis, and the epulones.
[2427] According to the new arrangement when a place became
vacant in any one of these colleges, the members of the college
drew up a list of eligible candidates from whom the comitia
sacerdotum, composed as above described, made a choice.[2428] In
spite of this law religion remained a political tool of the optimates.
Meantime the popular party succeeded in enacting economic laws.
A Porcian statute concerning interest, which may well have aimed to
benefit the poor, seems to be the work of M. Porcius Cato, consul in
118. The author had to defend the act against several attempts to
repeal it.[2429] In 109 under the stress of the Cimbric war the consul
M. Junius Silanus passed an act for repealing several earlier laws
which had diminished the pay of soldiers. We may reasonably
believe that it restored the Sempronian law on the subject.[2430] His
immediate object was to encourage enlistments.[2431] An agrarian
rogation was offered by L. Marcius Philipus, tribune of the plebs in
104. As the author was at heart a democrat, his measure was
doubtless inspired with the spirit of the Gracchi. Perhaps it aimed to
restore their law; but lacking determination, the proposer readily
allowed it to be voted down.[2432] The monetary lex Clodia, which
probably belongs to the same year, has no political significance.
[2433]

III. The Appuleian Legislation and the Rule of the Moderate

Optimates
103-88

Through the legislative acts above described we can trace the

speedy restoration of the democracy and of comitial legislative
power after the overthrow of C. Sempronius Gracchus. We are now
approaching a second crisis in which the aristocracy had to struggle
for existence. Against it was formed a combination of three powerful
men, C. Marius, supported by the knights and the municipes,[2434] C.
Servilius Glaucia, and L. Appuleius Saturninus. It is almost certain
that this Servilius is to be identified with the author of the lex
repetundarum of 111 or thereabout, probably a plebiscite, which
repealed the Acilian law on the same subject.[2435] In important
respects his statute was an improvement on earlier regulations of the
crime. “Glaucia’s alteration in procedure was thorough and
permanent. He introduced the system of the ‘second hearing’—an
obligatory renewal of the trial, which rendered it possible for counsel
to discuss evidence which had already been given, and for jurors to
get a grasp of the mass of scattered data which had been presented
to their notice[2436]—and he also made it possible to recover
damages, not only from the chief malefactor, but from all who had
dishonestly shared his spoils.”[2437] These principles were taken up
into the Cornelian law which superseded it in 81.[2438] The
circumstance that the man whom the optimates regarded as merely
a vulgar demagogue was the author of so statesmanlike a measure
ought to militate against their opinion, not only of him, but also of his
associates. He, too, represented the knights,[2439] whereas
Appuleius was a champion of the rural plebs against the senate and
the populace. As tribune of the plebs in 103 the latter proposed a law
for the assignment of lands in the province of Africa to the retiring
veterans of Marius in lots of a hundred iugera each. When Baebius,
a colleague, interceded, the people pelted him with stones and drove
him from the assembly. Thus the law was violently carried, but we
hear nothing more of it. Probably it was not enforced.[2440] This act
marks an epoch in the history of Roman colonization; through it the
government first expressed its intention to provide discharged
soldiers with farms, a departure made necessary by the Marian
policy of filling the army with capite censi.[2441] Either to this
tribunate or more probably to his second belongs the lex de
maiestate (minuta),[2442] the first of the kind in Roman history. It
defined the crime and made general provisions for the prosecution of
those who were accused of it.[2443] The same statute provided for