Physics Notes

SP1 Motion
Speed : How Fast Something is moving. It’s essentially the rate at which an object
changes ( Size / Magnitude )
Velocity : How fast an object is moving, also in which direction its moving ( Size /
Magnitude and Direction )
Vectors : are the physical quantities that have size or magnitude and direction ( ex:
force, acceleration, weight and displacement)
Scalar: Scalar quantities are the physical quantities that have only size or Magnitude
but NO direction ( ex: speed, mass, Distance, and time)

Distance And Displacement:

Distance Displacement

Is the length of a path between 2 points. Shortest distance between starting point
Distance is a Scalar quantity, it's only size and the end point. Displacement is a
/ Magnitude Vector Quantity

SI Unit of distance is Metre (m) Si unit of displacement is meter

Difference between distance and Displacement :

- Distance is a scalar quantity, which means only size or magnitude. Displacement
is a vector quantity, which means it has size or magnitude and direction

Mass and Weight :

Mass Weight

Mass is a scalar quantity Weight is a Vector Quantity

It contains either Size or magnitude It contains size and direction

Si unit of Mass is Kilograms (kg) Si unit of weight is Newtons (N)

Mass is same everywhere and it doesnt Weight changes depending on the

change gravitational force

Speed and Velocity :

Speed Velocity

Speed is the rate of change of distance of Is a rate of Displacement and it’s a vector
travel. It is a Scalar quantity and only has quantity, which means it has both
size/Magnitude speed/magnitude and direction

Si unit of speed is m/s (m/s^-1) Si unit of velocity is m/s (m/s^-1)

Object moving in a circle : ( circular path)

- A car is moving around a circular race track at constant speed. Even though the
car is moving with constant speed, its direction is constantly changing. This
means its velocity is constantly changing as well.
- There is constant speed but there is also a constant change of direction. This
means velocity constantly increases in change. There is velocity because there is
a change of direction. Acceleration is the rate of Change in Velocity

Average speed Total Distance traveled / Time taken

Average velocity Displacement / time

Sp1b : distance / time graph

Measuring distance and time :

- Distance is an object has traveled can be measured in different ways

- Simple instruments like rulers or tape measure are used to measure distance
Time can be measured using :
- Stop watch
- Time can be measured accurately using light gates. They contain a light source
and a sensor. When an object passes throughout the light gate ; the sensor
cannot detect light from the source, so the time taken for the object to pass
through the lightgate can be measured
Instantaneous speed: The speed of an object at the very instant of being measured

Gradient : Y finial - Y initial / X final - X initial

 - From A to B the object is traveling at a constant speed, it is represented by a
slanting straight line
- From B to C the object is stationary at a speed of 0, It is represented by a
horizontal straight line
- From C to D the object is Traveling at a constant speed, it’s represented by a
slanting straight line

Sp1C : acceleration :

- Acceleration is a change in velocity in a certain time interval

- The rate of Changing Velocity
- Velocity is measured in seconds (s)
- The units of ACCELERATION is meters per second squared (m/s)^2

Acceleration = Final velocity - Initial velocity / Time

A = v-u/t

- Negative acceleration = Deceleration

 - Acceleration can also be calculated from the change in velocity and the distance
traveled

[Final velocity]^2 - [initial velocity]^2 = 2 x acceleration x distance

v^2 - u^2 = 2 x a x X
Acceleration due to gravity :
- Actual value = 9.81 m/s^2
- Round it = 10 m/s^2

SP1d Velocity Time graphs

- The slope ( gradient) of velocity time graph gives the acceleration

Formula = Final velocity - initial velocity / Final time - initial time

Comparison :
 THE AREA UNDER A VELOCITY TIME GRAPH = Distance Traveled

A Velocity time graph, including change of direction

1. The graph shows a life moving up at a constant velocity, which is represented by

section (a)
2. The lift is slowing down, there is deceleration, which is represented by section (b)
3. The lift is at rest / waiting at a floor, the velocity is 0. Which is represented by
section ( c )
4. The lift is acceleration downwards , changing direction, which is represented by (
d)
5. Traveling downwards at a constant velocity / speed (e)

THE DIFFERENCE:
Sp2a Resultant forces

Resultant forces = The net effect of all the forces acting on an object.

- Force is a vector quantity

- Force can be shown by arrows
- And arrow indicates the direction of the force action
- Length of the arrow indicates the size of the force

EXAMPLE:
 HORIZONTAL :
- 70-(50+30)
- 70-80
- -10N (backwards)
VERTICAL :
- 500 - 500
- 0
- No resultant force
IF AN OBJECT IS STATIONARY< THERE ARE NO RESULTANT FORCES
- Object is moving at constant speed, and the resultant force is 0. The car
continues moving
SP2b Newton's First Law

Resultant force - The resultant force is the single force that can replace a number of
forces action on a object

Newton’s first law of motion states that :

. IF the forces of a object are balanced, the object will continue to do what it is already
doing :
- If the object is stationary, it will remain stationary
- If the object is moving, it will continue to move at the same velocity ( at the same
speed and in the same direction )
Newton’s first law is also called - The law of Inertia

● Tendency for an object to resist changes in motion:

- A moving object which keeps moving, is inertia of motion.
- An object which stays at rest, is inertia of rest.

A moving object will keep on moving unless a force (like friction/ air resistance) or a
barrier (wall or smth like that) stops it from moving.

The more mass an object has, the more inertia it has - the more tendency to resist
changes in its state of MOTION

Real life example: ( the double decker bus )

Both the car and the driver are moving at 60mph. The car hits a cement divider, the
driver, who is not wearing a seatbelt, will continue to move at 60mph and will be thrown
out the car. But the car itself will be stopped.
circular motion:

- An object moving in a circle has changing velocity, even though its speed
remains the same
- The resultant force that causes the change in direction is called the
CENTRIPETAL FORCE, and acts towards the center of the circle
- Circular motion as an object being continuously prevented from moving in a
straight line (ex : a washing machine dries clothes by spinning them around fast)
Factors affecting Centripetal force:
- The centripetal force needed increases as speed increases
- The centripetal force needed increases as the radius of the circle increases
- The greater mass, the greater the centripetal force
Centripetal force is provided by the action of other forces
1. One of the forces in circular motion is gravitational force (ex : moon circling the
Earth, And Earth orbiting the Sun)
2. Friction acting on a car in a roundabout friction is acting upon the car.
3. The force provided by the string is Tension. (for a stone wired on a piece of string
around in a circle, the centripetal force is provided by tension within the strong )

SP2c Mass and Weight :

Weight is a measure of pull on gravity on an object and depends on the strength of the
gravity
- Weight is a force =, so it’s measured in Newtons
- Weight can be measured using a force meter or newton meter
- Weight is a Vector quality

Gravitational field strength 10N/kg

Weight Mass x gravitational field strength

W=mxg

Forces on Falling Bodies:

. A sky diver jumps out of an an airplane and falls for 30 seconds before opening his
parachute
1. Identify the forces action on the sky diver
 2. Explain what happens to the sky diver in each stage
3. After opening parachute what will happen?
Ans:
1. When the skydiver jumps out the airplane, the force action on the diver is weight.
The diver is accelerating downwards. The resultant force is acting downwards,
As speed increases, the air resistance increases.
2. Air resistance increases with speed, so just jumping the air resistance is much
smaller than the sky divers weight. She accelerates downwards, due to the
resultant forces. Speed increases, but not as much in Stage 1. The rate of speed
is less. Resultant force acts downwards, and the air resistance increases.
3. As we move down, air resistance increases, so it balance with weight. Moving
down with constant velocity, The terminal velocity of the sky diver. Both forces
are balanced so the resultant force is 0.

SP2d Newton’s second Law ;

- If the resultant force acting on an object is not 0, all the forces are said to be
balanced.
This forms the basis of Newton's Second Law of motion which states:

- If the forces on an object are unbalanced, 2 things about the object can change
in:
- Speed, increase or decrease
- Direction, change the direction
The factors affecting the acceleration of an object:
- The amount of force ( resultant force)
- The mass of an object

The relation between force and Acceleration :

Independent variable = force

Dependent variable = acceleration
Variable = Mass

Acceleration is directly proportional force

You can switch the graphs

The relation between mass and acceleration

Independent variable = Mass

Dependent variable = Acceleration
Variable = Force

Acceleration is inversely proportional

- As mass increase, acceleration decreases

- We can change this curve graph, into a straight line graph, by using the
reciprocal

- Passing through the origin and straight line, direct proportional

- If it is a curve, it is a non linear relationship between 2 quantities ( inversely
proportional relationship)

Inertial Mass Formula:

 Work Done = Force x distance
- Force x distance moved in the direction of force will be taking the vertical
distance:

Work done is = Energy transferred

SP2e Newton’s Third Law :

- For every action there is opposing and reaction

Pairs of forces :
- Objects can interact with each other:
- When they touch
- At a distance
( ex: the gravitational attraction between the earth and the moon)
Action-reaction forces are:
Pairs of forces on interaction objects. Action-reaction forces are always the same size,
in opposite directions, and acting on different objects. They are not the same as
balanced forces ( which act on a single object)
1. Same in size
2. In opposite directions
3. Same type of force
When objects interact forces always occur in pairs
Example:
1. Shooting a gun = The bullet leaves the fun. The gun applies the force on the
bullet, the gun moves back ( recoil of the gun), Because bullet applies the force
Equilibrium : when a situation is not changing because all the things affecting it
balance out

Collisions :
- We can apply the idea of action-reaction forces to what happens when things
collide.
- The action and reaction forces that occur during the collision are the same size,
but they do not necessarily have the same effects on the 2 objects, because the
objects have different masses
Example:
- The ball will bounce off the footballers head, Force from the head to the ball
causes the heads velocity to change. Ball velocity changes, but the balls velocity
is noticeable. But the head's velocity is not noticeable. Action and reaction should
be there
- A ball is thrown at a man’s head, who tries to hit it back with his head, creating a
collision, as both objects excerpt forces on each other

SP2f Momentum :
Momentum = Mass x Velocity
SI unit of Momentum = kgm/s
- Momentum is a vector quantity
- Factors affecting momentum = Mass and Velocity

- A moving object has momentum

Momentum = Is the measure of how difficult to stop an object

Relation between Newton’s second law and momentum :

 P=mxv
V = p/m
m= p/v
The law of conservation of momentum :

- The total momentum before collision, is the same as total momentum after
collision, providing no external force acts on the system
Momentum before collision = conservation of momentum
Momentum after collision = Momentum before

Momentum conservation in explosions :

- A firecracker is an stationary object, will cause the object to explode. Before the
explosion total momentum is 0. Upon explosion, the object will break in a variety
of fragments, and it will be shattered in different directions, because of the
different direction, the total momentum is the same before and after the
explosion.
- Momentum is both 0 after
SP2g Stopping Distances :

Factors affecting a stopping car :

- Thinking distance
- Breaking distance

Breaking forces:
- When a vehicle is traveling at a constant speed, the thrust produced by the
engine is balanced by resistance / resistive forces such as air resistance and
friction with the road
- In order to bring a vehicle to a stop, the breaks must apply extra frictional force,
so that the forces on the vehicle are no longer balanced
- During kinetic energy, it would be transferred to thermal energy
- The greater the speed of the vehicle, greater the braking distance
- When a force is applied to the breaks, there is work done
Work done = force x distance
Kinetic energy = ½ mass x velocity
Work done = f x d = ½ mv^2
Stopping distance, is the sum of breaking distance and thinking distance.
Breaking distance = the distance traveled by the vehicle after applying the breaks

Factors affecting braking distances :

1. Condition of the road ( weather / construction )
2. Condition of the brake and the tire ( vehicle)
3. Speed
4. Mass or load
Thinking Distance =
- How far the vehicle travels whilst the driver is making the decision to stop.
- The faster a vehicle travels, the longer it takes to stop
- Is the distance a vehicle travels in the time it takes for a driver to stop the vehicle

What affects thinking distance?

1. Alcohol
2. Tiredness
3. Drugs and medication
4. Distractions
5. Speed
Poor Visibility = Fog or smoke, will not affect your thinking distance. The fog will not
affect the drivers visibility. It will not affect your stopping distance
Reaction Time =
- The time it takes for someone to recognise and respond to a stimulus, is reaction
time.
- Reaction time varies from person to person. Typical values range from 0.2 sec to
0.9

- Thinking distance is directly proportional to speed. A straight line passing through

origin, the gradient will be constant
The relationship = a non-linear relationship between braking distance and speed
- As speed increases, the braking distance also increases
- If speed doubles, the thinking distance also doubles ( 20mph - 6) ( 40mph - 12)
- If speed doubles, The braking distance will be increased by the factor of 4 (
squared relationship)
Stopping distance = Thinking distance + braking distance
 The total area under the graph is total distance
Thinking distance = Speed x reaction time
Thinking distance = Stopping - braking
Reaction Time :

- Is the time between a person detecting a stimulus ( such as flashing light or

sound) and their response ( such as applying brakes in a car)
- Response times can be measured using computer or electric circuits that
measure the time between a stimulus and a response
Braking Distance:
- When a car is traveling with constant speed, thrust from the engine is balanced
with/by resistive forces, such as air resistance and friction
- During the application of brakes, frictional force is increased, so now the forces
are not balanced, so the car will slow down
- The greater speed of the car, the greater the braking force needed to spot it in a
certain distance
- When a force is applied to the brakes of a vehicle, there is work done by the
friction between the brakes and the wheel.
SP2h Braking Distance and energy :

- The force used to accelerate an object transfers energy to it

- The amount of energy transferred depends on the size of the force and how far
the object moves while the force is pushing it
- The energy transferred by a force acting over a distance called Work done.

Work done = force x distance moves in the direction of the force

Kinetic energy = ½ mass x (velocity)^2
Distance = Work done / force

SP2i Crash Hazards:

SAFETY FEATURES:
1. Safety features increase the time it takes for the person to decelerate.
2. Change in momentum occurs over a Longer time
3. Longer time it will take to deceleration ( longer deceleration)
4. This will reduce the impact force ( smaller force)
The Safety features in a vehicle :
1. Seatbelt
2. Air bags
3. Crumpled zones

SP4a Describing waves:

Wave - i) is a disturbance that carries energy transferring from one place to another
ii) is a process of transferring energy from a region of high energy to a region of
low energy
 1. Amplitude - Greatest distance a particle is displaced from its normal resting
position or equilibrium position.
2. Crest - High pressure region in a transverse wave (high point). It's a high
pressure region because the energy goes there, particles are close together.
3. Trough - Low pressure region in a transverse wave. Particles are far apart.
4. Wavelength - distance between 2 adjacent/successive crests. 2 successive
identical points on a wave
Symbol of wavelength = λ (lambda)
5. Period (T) - time required / taken to complete one wave or Oscillation.
(measured in seconds)
T = 1/f
6. Frequency (f) - Number of waves passing a point in one second.
- Measured in hertz (hz)
- 1 Hz = one wavelength (vibrations) per second

. Displacement time graph you can find the :

- Amplitude (A)
- Frequency (f)
- Time period (T)
- You cannot find the wavelength
. Displacement distance graph you can find the :
- The wavelength
- Amplitude (A)
- Frequency (f)
- Time period (T)

Types of waves:
1. Transverse wave:
 - Oscillations are perpendicular to the wave direction; that type of wave is known
as transverse wave.
- Crest is the high pressure region in the transverse wave
- Trough is the low pressure region in the transverse wave
- EXAMPLES : water waves, waves on a string, lightwave, Em waves
2. Longitudinal Wave:
- Oscillations are parallel to the wave direction, that type of wave is called
longitudinal wave
- High pressure region in the longitudinal wave is compression, where particles are
closer.
- Low pressure region in the longitudinal wave is rarefaction, where particles are
far apart
- Distance between 2 adjacent compressions

Mechanical vs EM waves (non-mechanical waves)

Mechanical waves:
- Mechanical waves are the oscillation of particles in a medium (physical medium)
- Can be either transverse or longitudinal
- EXAMPLES : sound waves, earthquake P and S waves, and water waves.
EM waves :
- Electromagnetic (EM waves) are produced by the acceleration of charged
particles, Can transmit energy through a vacuum.
- They are ALWAYS transverse waves

SP4b Wave Speeds ( pg 50-51)

V = distance / time = (m/s)
V = 2 x d / time = m/s (echo)
V = frequency x wave length
= Frequency x λ (lambda)
Method 1 - Speed of sound in the air :
Apparatus :
- Clapper ( to make sound )
- Measuring tape ( to measure distance)
- Stop watch ( to measure time)
- Flag
2 people are going to measure the speed of sound in air (person A and B). They gave
the flag to A. B has the clapper and timer. They are measuring the distance between
them by using the measuring tape. When B makes a sound, they start the timer. When
A hears the sound she raises the flag, so then they would stop, using the stopwatch.

Ripple tank:
- Ripple tank is a shallow glass tank of water used to demonstrate the basic
properties of waves.
- Ripple tank is usually illuminated from above so that the light shines through the
water
- The ripples on the water show up as shadows on the screen underneath the
tank.

Wave front:
- A wave front is the line joining particles in the same state of motion.
- If the source is pointed we get circular wave fronts and if the object is flat and
long, we get straight wave fronts.
- Wave length is the line joining the particles in the same state of motion
- Wavelength of the distance between 2 successive wave fronts
- Circular wave front means, it is because of objects circular shape, unlike
rectangle blocs.
- Wave front is always perpendicular to the wave direction.
Frequency:
- How many waves passing a point in 10 seconds then divide by 10 to find out the
frequency (instead of 1 second)
Wave speed = f x λ
Pitch and loudness
- Pitch is relating to frequency
1. High pitch - High frequency sounds
2. Low pitch - low frequency sounds
3. Greater amplitude sounds - are louder sounds
4. Smaller amplitude sounds - are softer sound

Sp4d - Waves crossing boundaries:

. When a wave reaches an interface (boundary) between different materials it can be:
- Reflected : The wave ‘bounces’ off
- Refracted : The wave passes into the new material but changes the direction in
which it is traveling
- Transmitted: the wave passes through the material, and it is not absorbed or
reflected
 - Absorbed: The wave disappears as the energy it is carrying is transferred to the
material

Dispersion of light:
- Splitting of white light in 7 colors
- V - Violet, I - Indigo, B - Blue, G - Green, Y - Yellow, O - Orange, R - Red
(VIBGYOR)

Light spectrum:
- Colors are arranged in a particular order.
- Increasing wavelength or frequency
- VIBGYOR = increasing wavelength, and decreasing frequency
- ROYGBIV = Decreasing wavelength, and increasing frequency

Q. Which color has the longest wavelength?

Ans : Red - Deviated ( change in direction). Red is the least deviated color. Least
refracted. More wavelength. Less frequency.
Violet - Shortest wavelength. More frequency. Most refracted. More deviated the most.

Sp4e Ears and hearing

Sp4f Ultrasound

- Sound with frequencies above 20,000 Hz is known as Ultrasound

- Sound with frequencies below 20 Hz is known as infrasound

Bats:
- Echo location (ultrasound)
- Bats produce ultrasound and wait for the time. The ultrasound waves they make are
reflected by the things around them and they listen for the echos.

Sonar:
- Its equipment, carried on ships or submarines, uses ultrasound to find the depth of the
sea to detect fish. A loud speaker on the ship emits a pulse of Ultrasound.
- The ultrasound spreads out and passes through the water. Some of it is reflected by the
sea bed / reflected by the fish.
 - A special microphone on the ship detects the echo. The sonar equipment measures the
time being sent out and the echo returning. By using the equation d=st/2, you find the
sound

Ultrasound scans:
- Ultrasound can also be used to make images of things made inside the body.
- Ultrasound has to be passes on the body, the gel is used to stop the ultrasound from just
reflecting from the skin
- A detector placed near the source of the ultrasound waves is able to detect the reflected
waves. It can measure the time between an ultrasound wave leaving the source and it
reaching the detector. The further away from the boundary, the longer time taken.
- There are reflected pulses because it is absorbed.
- Different types of reflection in different parts of the body
- Seeing inside a body without causing any damage
- Fetus scanning = Prenatal scanning to show the body

Medical imaging:
- Ultrasound is widely used in pre-natal scanning .
- Advantages: . No ionizing radiation ( xtray)
. Produces images of soft tissues/fluid.
. Portability, facilitated by laptop sized ultrasound machines
- Disadvantages: . Poor detail
. Low resolution images (need a well trained photographer to interpret
the images that are produced with ultrasound )
Applications of high frequency ultrasound:
- Kidney stone removal - will vibrate the kidney stones, then it will be in bits and pieces,
and the pieces will pass through liquid. then removed when vibrated
- Plaque removal - High frequency will be sent to the plaque, Will vibrate the plaque, then
will be removed from the teeth.
- Jewelry - High frequency ultrasound will vibrate the object, then remove the dust when
vibrated
- Ultrasound can be used to measure the thickness of material as they are manufactured
Thickness = More time, thickness would be more
= Less time, thickness would be less

How does the machine detect the thickness of the material?

- It emits a pulse of ultrasound, This is transmitted through the material and reflected from
the interface. The machine measures the time it takes for the echo to return
- Ultrasounds can also be used to find faults to manufactured items. ( like a crack)

Sp5a Ray Diagrams

Incident ray :
 - A ray of light from a source that falls on the surface is called an incident ray of
light
Point of incidence:
- The point on the surface where the incident ray strikes the surface called the
point of incidence
Reflected ray:
- The ray of light bounces back from the surface of an object is called the reflected
ray of light

Wave diagram - wave front

- Wave front is always perpendicular to the direction of the waves
- Reflection happens in the same medium, so there is no change in wavelength
- There is no change in frequency, and wavelength does not change, so Speed
doesn't change in the case of reflection.

Different types of reflection:

1. Regular reflection (specular): Reflected rays after regular reflection are
Parallel. Smooth surfaces.
2. Diffused reflection: On a rough surface. Reflected rays after regular reflection
are not parallel.

Refraction:
- The change of direction of light as it passes from one medium to another medium
- The speed of Light in denser medium is slow
- The speed of sound in denser medium is high
- Light ray traveling along the normal - The direction of the light does not
change
- When light rays travel from air - Light reflects towards the normal
- When light ray travels from glass - light reflects away from the normal
- When light travels along the normal to the boundary, it changes its speed but not
its direction

1. When light ray passes from rarer to denser:

 . Speed decreases
. Wavelength decreases
. Frequency remains the same
. Bends towards the normal
2. Light ray travels from Denser to rarer:
. Speed increases
. Wavelength increases
. frequency stays the same
. light reflects / refracts away from the normal

Effect of refraction: (apparent and real depth)

- Real depth is the actual depth or position of the object underwater
- Apparent depth is the depth or position perceived by an observer due to
refraction of light
- The apparent depth is less than the real depth in the effect of refraction

Water waves:
- Water Waves pass/travel from deep water to shallow water:
1. Water wave is refracted, and it bends towards the normal
2. Same frequency
3. Speed decreases
4. Wavelength decreases
- Shallow water to deep water:
1. The wave is refracted away from the normal
2. Same frequency
3. Speed increases
4. Wavelength increases