AE 8002

AIRCRAFT GENERAL ENGINEERING

ANDMAINTENANCE PRACTICES
Unit – 5
AIRCRAFT HARDWARE, MATERIALS, SYSTEM
PROCESSES

Prepared by
J Karthikeyan
Assistant Professor
Department of Aeronautical Engineering
Nehru Institute of Engineering and Technology
HARDWARE
Aircraft hardware is the term used to describe the various types of fasteners and miscellaneous
small items used in the manufacture and repair of aircraft. The importance of aircraft hardware is often
overlooked because of its small size; however, the safe and efficient operation of any aircraft is greatly
dependent upon the correct selection and use of aircraft hardware.
HAMMERS AND MALLETS
A hammer is a tool that delivers an impact to an object. The most common uses for hammers are
to drive nails, fit parts, forge metal, and break apart objects. Hammers often serve a specific purpose,
and vary in shape and structure. Metal head hammers are usually sized according to the weight of the
head without the handle.
Occasionally it is necessary to use a soft-faced hammer, which has a striking surface made of
wood, brass, lead, rawhide, hard rubber, or plastic. These hammers are intended for use in forming soft
metals and striking surfaces that are easily damaged. Soft-faced hammers should not be used for striking
punch heads, bolts, or nails, as using one in this fashion will quickly ruin this type of hammer.
Mallet is type of soft hammer. It is generally made of wooden or plastics. It consists of head and
handle. Head is generally 60 mm to 70 mm. in diameter and 150 mm to 300 mm in length. It is generally
used to strike finished or delicate jobs or machine parts during repair or assembling.
When using a hammer or mallet, choose the one best suited for the job. Ensure that the handle is
tight. When striking a blow with the hammer, use the forearm as an extension of the handle. Swing the
hammer by bending the elbow, not the wrist. Always strike the work squarely with the full face of the
hammer. When striking a metal tool with a metal hammer, the use of safety glasses or goggles is
strongly encouraged.
Always keep the faces of hammers and mallets smooth and free from dents, chips, or gouges to
prevent marring the work.
There are two types of hammers
1. Hard face hammers
2. Soft face hammers
Hard face hammers are further divided in four types:-
1. Ball peen hammer
2. Cross peen hammer
3. Straight peen hammer
4. Sledge hammer
1. Ball peen hammer
This type of hammer is widely used for general purpose, lay outing, riveting, chipping and forming.
Ball peen hammer consist of peen, face, eye hole and handle. It’s peen is ball shaped thus it is called ball
peen hammer. In eye hole a wooden handle is fixed. The peen and face are hardened, whereas the
middle portion is not hardened so it can absorb the shock during striking the job. Its sizes vary from 0.12
kg to 1.00 kg.
2. Cross peen hammer
It is generally used in smithy shop for heavy work and spreading the hot material. Cross peen
hammer consist of peen, face, eye hole and handle. Peen of ball peen hammer is like a wedge and is
perpendicular to the shaft or handle.
3. Straight peen hammer
Straight peen hammer is generally used in smithy shop for swaging and riveting process. Straight
peen hammer consist of peen, face, eye hole and handle. In straight peen hammer peen is parallel to the
handle.
4. Sledge hammer
Sledge hammer is used for heavier works and on flat surface in smithy shop. It’s size varies from
2.00 kg to 10.00 kg

Soft hammers are further divided in five types

1. Raw hide hammer
2. Mallet hammer
3. Brass hammer
4. Plastic hammer
5. Hard Rubber hammer
Hammer Safety
a) Make sure you are focused on your work and are not distracted
b) The handle of the hammer should be solid and not split
c) The head of the hammer should be tightly affixed to the handle
d) Make sure the hammer is clean
 Do not strike hammers together or damage the head of your hammer by pounding metal or concrete.
Hand tools will last longer if they are only used for their intended purpose.
PLIERS
Pliers are shaped like scissors and are a type of adjustable
wrench. The jaws usually have teeth to help grip, and the jaws can be
adjusted to grip various widths. The most common use is to hold metal
or wire objects during assembly. Pliers are one of the most commonly
used tools. They allow you to grip objects tightly. Notice there are two or
three width settings available allowing you to grip larger objects.
Squeeze the handles together to tighten your grip.
NEEDLE NOSE PLIERS
Needle nose pliers allow you to reach into tight places and handle smaller objects. They come in
many sizes and are also used to bend metal.
VISE GRIPS
Vise Grips are locking pliers that can hold objects very tightly. A knob on the handle controls the
width and tension in the jaws. Although you still squeeze the handles to tighten, a lever is supplied to
remove the pliers.
CHANNEL LOCK
A channel lock is most useful to grab round objects and is often used in plumbing projects. Its
advantage is that it has a wider variety of jaw width settings. Channel locks come in various lengths and
you get more mechanical advantage to hold objects as you use larger sizes. Remember the upper jaw
always goes on top of the object to be held, and you need to turn in the direction that causes the object
held to turn "into" the channel locks

NEEDLE NOSE PLIERS CHANNEL LOCK VISE GRIPS

SCREWDRIVERS
Screwdrivers are used to tighten (insert) or loosen (remove) screws. They are named by the type of
screw and need to match the type of screw for safe and efficient operation. Screwdrivers which are too
large, too small or of the wrong type will only destroy the screw head making it difficult to tighten or
loosen in the future.
(a) Slotted or flat screwdrivers are the most common but are being replaced by designs that "strip"
less easily as we begin to use power drivers more often.
(b) A Phillip's head screwdriver - The head of a Phillips-type screw has a four-way slot into which
the screwdriver fits. This prevents the screwdriver from slipping. Three standard-sized Phillips
screwdrivers handle a wide range of screw sizes. Their ability to hold helps to prevent damaging the
slots or the work surrounding the screw. It is a poor practice to try to use a standard screwdriver on a
Phillips screw, because both the tool and screw slot will be damaged.
 (c) Reed and Prince Screwdriver - The Phillips screwdriver has about 30-degree flukes and a blunt
end, while the Reed and Prince has 45-degree flukes and a sharper, pointed end. The Phillips screw
has bevelled walls between the slots; the Reed and Prince has straight and pointed walls. In addition,
the Phillips screw slot is not as deep as the Reed and Prince slot.
(d) Torx are star shaped (d) and uses often in the automotive, appliance and computer industry as
they are often inserted by robotic assembly.
(e) Hex screws and drivers allow you to use either a screwdriver or a hex wrench.
(f) Robertson are square drive (f) and allow for high torque uses such as a power screwdriver or
combination drill/driver. These screws are made to be inserted flush or beneath the surface of the
wood.
Pig nose (g & h) or snake eye (i) screws are often used in public facilities to prevent vandalism.

Using a screwdriver each screwdriver has 3 parts:

The handle, the shank and the blade. They come in a
wide variety of sizes. To safely use a screwdriver, you
need to choose one of the right size and type of blade.
Always position the shank perpendicular to the work.
Clockwise tightens a screw and counter clockwise
loosens (right is tight, left is loose or "righty tightly, lefty
loosely"). The screw also has both a shank and a head.
Notice the wide variety. Some are meant to be sunk into
the wood and others tighten flush with the wood or metal
surface. Choose the right screw for the job, taking into factor the material, the length and diameter of the
screw and the amount of force needed to hold the two pieces (or more) of material together

SCREWDRIVER SAFETY
Many accidents happen when the screwdriver blade slips out of the screw's slot. Keep your
nonworking hand out of the way. Keep the screwdriver blade clean, and do not force the screw.
Excessive force often damages the screw, making the work more difficult.

WRENCHES
A large variety of wrenches are made for different uses such as turning capscrews, bolts, and
nuts.
The adjustable wrench, commonly called a crescent wrench is a general purpose tool and will not
suit every job, especially those requiring work in close quarters. The wrench should be rotated toward
the movable jaw and should fit the nut or bolt tightly. The size of the wrench is determined by its overall
length in inches.
Open end wrenches are best suited to square-headed bolts, and usually fit two sizes, one on each
end. The ends of this type of wrench are angled so they can be used in close quarters.
 Box wrenches are also double ended and offset to clear the user’s hand. The box completely
surrounds the nut or bolt and usually has 12 points so that the wrench can be reset after rotating only a
partial turn. Mostly used on hex-headed bolts, these wrenches have the advantage of precise fit.
Combination and open end wrenches are made with a box at one end and an open end at the
other.
Socket wrenches are similar to box wrenches in that t hey also surround the bolt or nut and
usually are made with 12 points contacting the six-sided nut. Sockets are made to be detached from
various types of drive handles.
Pipe wrenches as the name implies, are used for holding and turning pipe. These wrenches have
sharp serrated teeth and will damage any finished part on which they are used.
Strap wrenches are used for extremely large parts or to avoid marring the surface of tubular parts such
as tubing, pipes, small fittings, and round or irregularly shaped components.
Spanner wrenches come in several basic types, including face and hook. Face types are
sometimes called pin spanners. Spanners are made in fixed sizes or adjustable types.
Socket head wrenches are six-sided bars having a 90-degree bend near one end. They are used
with socket head capscrews and socket setscrews.
Torque wrenches are widely used by machinists and mechanics to provide the correct amount of
tightening torque on a screw or nut. A dial reads in English measure (inch-pounds and foot-pounds) or in
metric measure (kilogram-centimeters and newton-meters).
The hand tap wrench is used for medium sized and large taps.
The T-handle tap wrench is used for small taps in. and under, as its more sensitive ―feel‖ results
in less tap breakage.

Open End Wrench

Crescent Wrench Box wrench

Combination wrench
Socket wrench set

Strap wrench.
Dial and click–type torque wrench
 Hand tap wrench
T-handle tap wrench

METAL CUTTING TOOLS

SNIPS
Snips is used for cutting sheet metal and steel of various thickness and shapes. Normally, the
heavier or thicker materials are cut by shears. One of the handiest tools for cutting light (up to 1/16-inch
thick) sheet metal is the hand snip (tip snips).
The straight hand snips have blades that are straight and cutting edges that are sharpened to an
85-degree angle. Snips like this can be obtained in different sizes, ranging from the small, 6-inch, to the
large, 14-inch, snip. Tin snips will also work on slightly heavier gauges of soft metals, such as
aluminium alloys.
Snips will not remove any metal when a cut is made. There is danger, though, of causing minute
metal fractures along the edges of the metal during the shearing process. For this reason, it is better to
cut just outside the layout line. This procedure will allow you to dress the cutting edge while keeping the
material within required dimensions.
Cutting extremely heavy gauge metal always presents the possibility of springing the blades.
Once the blades are sprung, hand snips are useless. When cutting heavy material, use the rear portion of
the blades. This procedure not only avoids the possibility
of springing the blades but also gives you greater cutting
leverage.
Many snips have small serrations (notches) on the
cutting edges of the blades. These serrations tend to
prevent the snips from slipping backwards when a cut is
being made. Although this feature does make the actual
cutting easier, it mars the edges of the metal slightly. You
can remove these small cutting marks if you allow proper
clearance for dressing the metal to size. There are many
other types of hand snips used for special jobs, but the
snips discussed
HACKSAWS
Hacksaws are used to cut metal that is too heavy for snips or bolt cutters. Thus, metal bar stock
can be cut readily with hacksaws.
There are two parts to a hacksaw: the frame and the blade. Common hacksaws have either an
adjustable or a solid frame. Most hacksaws found in the Navy are of the adjustable-frame type.
Adjustable frames can be made to hold blades from 8 to 16 inches long, while those with solid frames
take only the length blade for which they are made. This length is the distance between the two pins that
hold the blade in place.
Hacksaw blades are made of high-grade tool steel, hardened and tempered. There are two types,
the all-hard and the flexible. All-hard blades are hardened throughout, whereas only the teeth of the
flexible blades are hardened. Hacksaw blades are about 1/2-inch wide, have from 14 to 32 teeth per inch,
and are from 8 to 16 inches long. The blades have a hole at each end, which hooks to a pin in the frame.
All hacksaw frames, which hold the blades either parallel or at right angles to the frame, are provided
with a wing nut or screw to permit tightening or removing the blade.
 The SET in a saw refers to how much the teeth are pushed out in opposite directions from the
sides of the blade. The four different kinds of set are the ALTERNATE set, DOUBLE ALTERNATE
set, RAKER set, and WAVE set.
The teeth in the alternate set are staggered, one to the left and one to the right throughout the length of
the blade. On the double alternate set blade, two adjoining teeth are staggered to the right, two to the
left, and so on. On the raker set blade, every third tooth remains straight and the other two are set
alternately. On the wave (undulated) set blade, short sections of teeth are bent in opposite direction.

ADJUSTABLE & SOLID

CHISELS
Chisels are tools that can be used for chipping or cutting
metal. They are made from a good grade of tool steel and have a
hardened cutting edge and bevelled head. Chisels are classified
according to the shape of their points, and the width of the
cutting edge denotes their size. The most common shapes of
chisels are the flat (cold chisel), cape, round nose, and diamond
point
The type of chisel most commonly used is the flat cold
chisel, which serves to cut rivets, split nuts, chip castings, and cut
thin metal sheets. The cape chisel is used for special jobs like
cutting keyways, narrow grooves, and square corners. Round-nose
chisels make circular grooves and chip inside corners. Finally, the
diamond-point is used for cutting V-grooves and sharp corners.
As with other tools, there is a correct technique for using a
chisel. Select a chisel that is large enough for the job. Be sure to
use a hammer that matches the chisel; that is, the larger the chisel,
the heavier the hammer. A heavy chisel will absorb the blows of a
light hammer and will do virtually no cutting.
When using a chisel for chipping, always wear goggles to
protect your eyes. If others are working close by, see that they are
protected from flying chips by erecting a screen or shield to
contain the chips.
FILES
There are a number of different types of files in common use, and each type may range in length
from 3 to 18 inches.
GRADES
Files are graded according to the degree of fineness and whether they have single- or double-cut
teeth. Single-cut files have rows of teeth cut parallel to each other. These teeth are set at an angle of
about 65 degrees with the center line. You will use single-cut files for sharpening tools, finish filing, and
draw filing. They are also the best tools for smoothing the edges of sheet metal.
Files with crisscrossed rows of teeth are double-cut files. The double cut forms teeth that are
diamond-shaped and fast cutting. You will use double-cut files for quick removal of metal and for rough
work. Files are also graded according to the spacing and size of their teeth, or their coarseness and
fineness. Some of these grades are pictured in view B. In addition to the three grades shown, you may
use some DEAD SMOOTH files, which have very fine teeth, and some ROUGH files, with very coarse
teeth. The fineness or coarseness of file teeth is also influenced by the length of the file.
SHAPES
Files come in different shapes. Therefore, in selecting a file for a job, consider the shape of the finished
work.
TRIANGULAR files are tapered on all three sides. They are used to file acute internal angles
and to clear out square corners. Special triangular files are used to file saw teeth.
MILL files are tapered in both width and thickness. One edge has no teeth and is known as a
SAFE EDGE. Mill files are used for smoothing lathe work, draw filing, and other fine, precision work.
Mill files are always single-cut.
FLAT files are general-purpose files and may be either single- or double-cut. They are tapered in
width and thickness.
HARD files are somewhat thicker than flat files. They taper slightly in thickness, but their edges
are parallel. The flat or hard files most often used are the double-cut for rough work and the single-cut
smooth file for finish work.
SQUARE files are tapered on all four sides and are used to enlarge rectangular-shaped holes and
slots.
ROUND files serve the same purpose for round openings. Small round files are often called
rattail files.
HALF ROUND file is a general-purpose tool. The rounded side is used for curved surfaces, and
the flat face on flat surfaces. When you file an inside curve, use a round or half-round file whose curve
most nearly matches the curve of the work.
Kits of small files, often called "swiss pattern" or "jewelers'" files, are used to fit parts of delicate
mechanisms and for filing work on instruments. Handle these small files carefully because they break
easily.

FLAT FILE MILLFILE

SQUARE FILE
HALF ROUND FILE

ROUND FILE

SWISS PATTERN FILES

REAMERS
Reamers are used to smooth and enlarge holes to exact size. Hand reamers have square end
shanks so that they can be turned with a tap wrench or similar handle. A hole that is to be reamed to
exact size must be drilled about 0.003 to 0.007 inch undersize. A cut that removes more than 0.007 inch
places too much load on the reamer and should not be attempted.
Reamers are made of either carbon tool steel or high speed steel. The cutting blades of a high
speed steel reamer lose their original keenness sooner than those of a carbon steel reamer; however, after
the first super keenness is gone, they are still serviceable. The high speed reamer usually lasts much
longer than the carbon steel type.
Reamer blades are hardened to the point of being brittle and must be handled carefully to avoid
chipping them. When reaming a hole, rotate the reamer in the cutting direction only. Do not back a
reamer out of a hole by
rotating it opposite the
cutting direction. Turn the
reamer steadily and evenly to
prevent chattering or marking
and scoring of the hole walls.
Reamers are available in any
standard size.
The straight fluted
reamer is less expensive than
the spiral fluted reamer, but
the spiral type has fewer
tendencies to chatter. Both
types are tapered for a short
distance back of the end to
aid in starting. Bottoming
reamers have no taper and are
used to complete the reaming
of blind holes.
For general use, an
expansion reamer is the most
practical. This type is
furnished in standard sizes
from 1⁄4 inch to 1 inch,
increasing in diameter by
1⁄32-inch increments. Taper
reamers, both hand and machine operated, are used to smooth and true taper holes and recesses.

COUNTERSINK
A countersink is a tool that cuts a cone shaped depression around the hole to allow a rivet or
screw to set flush with the surface of the material. Countersinks are made with various angles to
correspond to the various angles of the countersunk rivet and screw heads. The angle of the standard
countersink is 100°.
Special stop countersinks are available. Stop countersinks are adjustable to any desired depth,
and the cutters are interchangeable so that holes of various countersunk angles may be made. Some stop
countersinks have a micrometer set arrangement (in increments of 0.001 inch) for adjusting the cutting
depths. When using a countersink, care must be taken not to remove an excessive amount of material,
since this reduces the strength of flush joints.
 Countersink

DRILLS
There are generally four types of portable drills used in aviation for holding and turning twist
drills. Holes 1⁄4 inch in diameter and under can be drilled using a hand drill. This drill is commonly
called an ―egg beater.‖ The breast drill is designed to hold larger size twist drills than the hand drill. In
addition, a breastplate is affixed at the upper end of the drill to permit the use of body weight to increase
the cutting power of the drill.
Electric and pneumatic power drills are available in various shapes and sizes to satisfy almost
any requirement.
Pneumatic drills are preferred for use around flammable materials, since sparks from an electric drill are
a fire or explosion hazard.
TWIST DRILLS
The most common tool for making holes in metal is the twist drill. It consists of a cylindrical
piece of steel with spiral grooves. One end of the cylinder is pointed, while the other end is shaped so
that it may be attached to a drilling machine. The grooves, usually called Flutes, may be cut into the
steel cylinder, or the flutes may be formed by twisting a flat piece of steel into a cylindrical shape.
The principal parts of a twist drill are the body, the shank and the point. The dead center of a drill
is the sharp edge at the extreme tip end of the drill. It is formed by the intersection of the cone-shaped
surfaces of the point and should always be the exact center of the axis of the drill.
The point of the drill should not be confused with the dead center. The point is the entire cone-
shaped surface at the end of the drill. The lip or cutting edge of a drill is that part of the point that
actually cuts away the metal when drilling a hole. It is ordinarily as sharp as the edge of a knife. There is
a cutting edge for each flute of the drill. The shank is the part of the drill that fits into the socket, spindle, or
chuck of the drill press. Several types exist
TAPS AND DIES
A tap is used to cut threads on the inside of a hole, while a die is for cutting external threads on
round stock. They are made of hard tempered steel and ground to an exact size. There are four types of
threads that can be cut with standard taps and dies. They are
a) National Coarse
b) National Fine
c) National Extra Fin
d) National Pipe
Hand taps are usually provided in sets of three taps for each diameter and thread series. Each set
contains a taper tap, a plug tap, and a bottoming tap. The taps in a set are identical in diameter and cross
section; the only difference is the amount of taper.
The taper tap is used to begin the tapping process, because it is tapered back for 6 to 7 threads.
This tap cuts a complete thread when it is cutting above the taper. It is the only tap needed when
tapping holes that extend through thin sections. The plug tap supplements the taper tap for tapping holes
in thick stock.
 The bottoming tap is not tapered. It is used to cut full threads to the bottom of a blind hole.
Dies may be classified as adjustable round split die and plain round split die. The adjustable split
die has an adjusting screw that can be tightened so that the die is spread slightly. By adjusting the die,
the diameter and fit of the thread can be controlled. Solid dies are not adjustable; therefore, a variety of
thread fits cannot be obtained with this type. There are many types of wrenches for turning taps, as well
as turning dies. The T-handle, the adjustable tap wrench and the diestock for round split dies.

TAPS DIES

PRECISION TOOLS
Layout and measuring devices are precision tools. They are carefully machined, accurately marked and,
in many cases, are made up of very delicate parts. When using these tools, be careful not to drop, bend,
or scratch them. The finished product will be no more accurate than the measurements or the layout;
therefore, it is very important to understand how to read, use, and care for these tools.
RULES
Rules are made of steel and are either rigid or flexible. The flexible steel rule will bend, but it
should not be bent intentionally as it may be broken rather easily. In aircraft work, the unit of measure
most commonly used is the inch. The inch may be divided into smaller parts by means of either common
or decimal fraction divisions.
The fractional divisions for an inch ar e found by dividing the inch into equal parts: halves (1⁄2),
quarters (1⁄4) , eighths (1⁄8), sixteenths (1⁄16), thirty-seconds (1⁄32), and sixty-fourths (1⁄64).
The fractions of an inch may be expressed in decimals, called decimal equivalents of an inch; for
example, 1⁄8 inch is expressed as 0.0125 (one hundred twenty-five ten-thousandths of an inch).

Rules are manufactured in two basic styles – those divided or marked in common fractions and
those divided or marked in decimals or divisions of one hundredth of an inch. A rule may be used either
as a measuring tool or as a straightedge.
COMBINATION SETS
The combination set can be adapted to
perform a wide variety of layout operations. A
complete combination set consists of a hardened
blade (a No. 4 graduated rule), a square head, a
center head, and a bevel protractor. The blade fits
all three heads.
The square head has a standard 90° edge
and a 45° edge. This makes it possible for the tool
to be used as both a standard square and a miter
square. By projecting the graduated blade a given
distance below the edge, the tool can also be used
as a depth gage.
The spirit level built into one edge of the
square head allows the tool to be used as a simple level. The center head has two extending edges
forming a 90° angle. With the rule properly inserted, the center head can be used to quickly locate the
center of round stock. The protractor head can be rotated through 180° and is graduated accordingly.
The head can be locked to the blade with a locking nut, making it possible to accurately measure
or lay out angles. The head also has a built-in spirit level, allowing the tool to be used to set up work
requiring angular cutting.
SCRIBER
Accurate layout work requires fine lines to be scribed or scratched into the metal. A scriber is
commonly used to produce these lines. The point of this tool is made of hardened steel. it is kept needle-
sharp by frequent honing on a fine oilstone. Many types of scribers are available.
 Accurate layout work requires fine lines to be scribed or scratched into the metal. A scriber is
commonly used to produce these lines. The point of this tool is made of hardened steel. it is kept needle-
sharp by frequent honing on a fine oilstone. Many types of scribers are available.
Always use a scriber with caution and handle it with care. Never carry an open scriber in your
pocket. It can cause severe puncture wounds.
DIVIDER
Scribers are designed to draw straight and slightly curved lines. Circles
and arcs are made with the divider. Dividers have two pointed legs and a stem
for turning the tool. It is essential that both legs of the tool be equal in length
and kept pointed. Dividers are commonly used to layout and measure
distances. To set the tool to the correct dimension, place one point on an inch
mark or metric division on a steel rule, and open the divider until the other leg
is set to the right distance.
TRAMMEL
A trammel is used to draw circles and arcs too large to be made with a divider. A trammel
consists of two sliding heads with scriber points mounted on a long, thin rod called a beam. One of the
heads is fitted with an adjusting screw. Extension rods can be added to the beam to increase the capacity
of the tool.

CALIPERS
Calipers are used for measuring diameters and distances or for comparing distances and sizes.
The three common types of calipers are inside, outside, and hermaphrodite calipers, such as gear tool
calipers. Outside calipers are used for measuring outside dimensions — for example, the diameter of a
piece of round stock. Inside calipers have outward curved legs for measuring inside diameters, such as
diameters of holes, the distance between two surfaces, the width of slots, and other similar jobs. A
hermaphrodite caliper is generally used as a marking gauge in
layout work. It should not be used for precision measurement.

MICROMETERS
A micrometer sometimes known as a micrometer screw
gauge is a device incorporating a calibrated screw widely used
for precise measurement of components. They are more reliable
and more exact than calipers. Standard micrometers can measure
distance to the nearest one-thousandth of an inch. Some
micrometers have a vernier scale. These micrometers can
measure distance to the nearest ten thousandth of an inch. The
measurement is usually written as a decimal.
TYPES OF MICROMETERS
Three types of micrometers are commonly used
a) The outside micrometer
b) The inside micrometer
c) The depth micrometer.
OUTSIDE MICROMETERS
Outside micrometers can measure an outside distance to an
accuracy of 0.001 of an inch. Some have a vernier scale. They
can measure to the nearest 0.0001 inch. The outside micrometer
is sometimes called a micrometer caliper.
INSIDE MICROMETERS
Inside micrometers measure an inside distance to the nearest 0.001 of an inch. The inside micrometer is
just a micrometer head; it uses a set of extension rods to measure a range of sizes. This range is usually
from 2 to 10 inches.
DEPTH MICROMETERS
Depth micrometers are used to measure depths to the nearest 1/1000 of an inch. A depth
micrometer has a flat base attached to the barrel of a micrometer head. The size of the flat base ranges
from 2 to 6 inches. Like the inside micrometer, the depth micrometer uses extension rods in a range of
sizes. The hollow micrometer screw itself has a range of either 1/2 or one inch.

Outside micrometers Inside micrometers Depth micrometers

PARTS OF A MICROMETER
a) FRAME
The C-shaped body that holds the anvil and barrel in constant relation to each other. It is thick
because it needs to minimize flexion, expansion, and contraction, which would distort the
measurement.
The frame is heavy and consequently has a high thermal mass, to prevent substantial heating up
by the holding hand/fingers. It is often covered by insulating plastic plates which further reduce heat
transference.
b) ANVIL
The shiny part that the spindle moves toward, and that the sample rests against.
c) SLEEVE / BARREL / STOCK
The stationary round component with the linear scale on it. Sometimes vernier markings.
d) LOCK NUT / LOCK-RING / THIMBLE LOCK
The knurled component (or lever) that one can tighten to hold the spindle stationary, such as
when momentarily holding a measurement.
e) SCREW
It is inside the barrel.
f) SPINDLE
The shiny cylindrical component that the
thimble causes to move toward the anvil.
g) THIMBLE
The component that one's thumb turns.
Graduated markings.
h) RATCHET STOP
Device on end of handle that limits applied
pressure by slipping at a calibrated torque.

GEARS
Gears are toothed members which transmit power / motion between two shafts by meshing
without any slip. Hence, gear drives are also called positive drives. In any pair of gears, the smaller one
is called pinion and the larger one is called gear immaterial of which is driving the other. .
When pinion is the driver, it results in step down drive in which the output speed decreases and
the torque increases. On the other hand, when the gear is the driver, it results in step up drive in which
the output speed increases and the torque decreases.

CLASSIFICATION OF GEAR
Gears are classified according to the shape of the tooth pair and disposition into spur, helical,
double helical, straight bevel, spiral bevel and hypoid bevel, worm and spiral gears
(a) SPUR GEAR
Spur gears have their teeth parallel to the axis and are used for transmitting power between two
parallel shafts. They are simple in construction, easy to manufacture and cost less. They have highest
efficiency and excellent precision rating.
 (b) HELICAL GEAR
Helical gears are used for parallel shaft drives. They have teeth inclined to the axis. Hence for
the same width, their teeth are longer than spur gears and have higher load carrying capacity. Their
contact ratio is higher than spur gears and they operate smoother and quieter than spur gears. Their
precision rating is good. They are recommended for very high speeds and loads. Their efficiency is
slightly lower than spur gears. The helix angle also introduces axial thrust on the shaft.

(c) DOUBLE HELICAL GEAR OR HERRINGBONE GEAR

Double helical or Herringbone gears used for transmitting power between two parallel shafts.
They have opposing helical teeth with or without a gap depending on the manufacturing method
adopted. Two axial thrusts oppose each other and nullify. Hence the shaft is free from any axial force.
Though their load capacity is very high, manufacturing difficulty makes them costlier than single helical
gear
(d) INTERNAL GEAR
Internal gears are used for transmitting power between two parallel shafts. In these gears, annular
wheels are having teeth on the inner periphery. This makes the drive very compact. In these drives, the
meshing pinion and annular gear are running in the same direction. Their precision rating is fair. They
are useful for high load and high speed application with high reduction ratio.
(e) RACK AND PINION
Rack is a segment of a gear of in finite diameter. The tooth can be spur or helical. This type of
gearing is used for converting rotary motion into translatory motion or vise versa.
(f) STRAIGHT BEVEL GEAR
Straight bevel gears are used for transmitting power between intersecting shafts. They can
operate under high speeds and high loads. Their precision rating is fair to good. They are suitable for 1:1
and higher velocity ratios and for right-angle meshes to any other angles. Their good choice is for right
angle drive of particularly low ratios.
(g) SPIRAL GEAR
Spiral gears are also known as crossed helical gears. They have high helix angle and transmit
power between two non-intersecting non-parallel shafts. They have initially point contact under the
conditions of considerable sliding velocities finally gears will have line contact. Hence, they are used for
light load and low speed application such as instruments, sewing machine etc. Their precision rating is
poor.
(h) HYPOID BEVEL GEAR
These gears are also used for right angle drive in which the axes do not intersect. The non –
intersection introduces a considerable amount of sliding and the drive requires good lubrication to
reduce the friction and wear. Their efficiency is lower than other two types of bevel gears.
 (a) Spur Gear
(b) Helical Gear
(c) Double Helical Gear
(d) Internal Gear
(e) Rack and Pinion
(f) Straight Bevel Gear
(g) Spiral Gear
(h) Hypoid Bevel Gear

BEARINGS
A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative motion and reduces friction between
moving parts to only the desired motion.
Type Description Friction Stiffness Speed Life Notes
Widely used,
Depends on relatively high
Rubbing materials and Good, friction, suffers
surfaces, usually construction, provided from stiction in
with lubricant; PTFE has wear is Low to very high some
Plain some bearings coefficient of low, but Low to - depends upon applications.
bearing use pumped friction ~0.05- some very high application and Depending upon
lubrication and 0.35, slack is lubrication the application,
behave similarly depending normally lifetime can be
to fluid bearings. upon fillers present higher or lower
added than rolling
element bearings.
Rolling
coefficient of
Ball or rollers friction with Good, Moderate Moderate to high Used for higher
Rolling are used to steel can be but some to high (depends on moment loads
element prevent or ~0.005 (adding slack is (often lubrication, often than plain
bearing minimise resistance due usually requires requires bearings with
rubbing to seals, packed present cooling) maintenance) lower friction
grease, preload
and
 misalignment
can increase
friction to as
much as 0.125)
Mainly used in
low-load, high
Off-center Adequate precision work
Jewel Low due
bearing rolls in Low Low (requires such as clocks.
bearing to flexing
seating maintenance) Jewel bearings
may be very
small.
Can fail quickly
Very high Virtually infinite
due to grit or dust
(usually in some
or other
Fluid is forced limited to applications, may
contaminants.
Fluid between two Zero friction at Very a few wear at
Maintenance free
bearing faces and held in zero speed, low high hundred startup/shutdown
in continuous
by edge seal feet per in some cases.
use. Can handle
second Often negligible
very large loads
at/by seal) maintenance.
with low friction.
Zero friction at
zero speed, but
constant power
Active magnetic
for levitation,
bearings (AMB)
Faces of bearing eddy currents
Indefinite. need considerable
are kept separate are often No
Magnetic Maintenance free. power.
by magnets induced when Low practical
bearings (with Electrodynamic
(electromagnets movement limit
electromagnets) bearings (EDB)
or eddy currents) occurs, but
do not require
may be
external power.
negligible if
magnetic field
is quasi-static
Very high or low
depending on Limited range of
Material flexes
materials and movement, no
Flexure to give and Very
Very low Low strain in backlash,
bearing constrain high.
application. extremely smooth
movement
Usually motion
maintenance free.
BEARING AND IT TYPES
A bearing is a device that is used to enable rotational or linear movement, while reducing friction
and handling stress. Resembling wheels, bearings literally enable devices to roll, which reduces the
friction between the surface of the bearing and the surface it’s rolling over. It’s significantly easier to
move, both in a rotary or linear fashion, when friction is reduced – this also enhances speed and
efficiency.
In order to serve all these functions, bearings make use of a relatively simple structure: a ball
with internal and external smooth metal surfaces, to aid in rolling. The ball itself carries the weight of
the load—the force of the load’s weight is what drives the bearing’s rotation. However, not all loads put
force on a bearing in the same manner. There are two different kinds of loading: radial and thrust.
A radial load, as in a pulley, simply puts weight on the bearing in a manner that causes the
bearing to roll or rotate as a result of tension. A thrust load is significantly different, and puts stress on
the bearing in an entirely different way. If a bearing (think of a tire) is flipped on its side (think now of a
tire swing) and subject to complete force at that angle (think of three children sitting on the tire swing),
this is called thrust load. A bearing that is used to support a bar stool is an example of a bearing that is
subject only to thrust load.
Many bearings are prone to experiencing both radial and thrust loads. Car tires, for example,
carry a radial load when driving in a straight line: the tires roll forward in a rotational manner as a result
of tension and the weight they are supporting. However, when a car goes around a corner, it is subject to
thrust load because the tires are no longer moving solely in a radial fashion and cornering force weighs
on the side of the bearing.
Common motions permitted by bearings are:
axial rotation e.g. shaft rotation
linear motion e.g. drawer
spherical rotation e.g. ball and socket joint
hinge motion e.g. door, elbow, knee

TYPES OF BEARINGS

There are numerous different kinds of bearings that are designed to handle radial load, thrust load, or
some combination of the two. Because different applications require bearings that are designed to handle
a specific kind of load and different amounts of weight, the differences between types of bearings
concern load type and ability to handle weight.
BALL BEARINGS
Ball bearings are extremely common because they can handle both radial and thrust loads, but can
only handle a small amount of weight. They are found in a wide array of applications, such as roller
blades and even hard drives, but are prone to deforming if they are overloaded.
ROLLER BEARINGS
Roller bearings are designed to carry heavy loads—the primary roller is a cylinder, which means the
load is distributed over a larger area, enabling the bearing to handle larger amounts of weight. This
structure, however, means the bearing can handle primarily radial loads, but is not suited to thrust loads.
For applications where space is an issue, a needle bearing can be used. Needle bearings work with small
diameter cylinders, so they are easier to fit in smaller applications.
BALL THRUST BEARINGS
These kinds of bearings are designed to handle almost exclusively thrust loads in low-speed low-
weight applications. Bar stools, for example, make use of ball thrust bearings to support the seat.
ROLLER THRUST BEARINGS
Roller thrust bearings, much like ball thrust bearings, handle thrust loads. The difference, however,
lies in the amount of weight the bearing can handle: roller thrust bearings can support significantly
larger amounts of thrust load, and are therefore found in car transmissions, where they are used to
support helical gears. Gear support in general is a common application for roller thrust bearings.
TAPERED ROLLER BEARINGS
This style of bearing is designed to handle large radial and thrust loads—as a result of their load
versatility, they are found in car hubs due to the extreme amount of both radial and thrust loads that car
wheels are expected to carry.
SPECIALIZED BEARINGS
There are, of course, several kinds of bearings that are manufactured for specific applications, such
as magnetic bearings and giant roller bearings.
MAGNETIC BEARINGS are found in high-speed devices because it has no moving parts—this
stability enables it to support devices that move unconscionably fast.
GIANT ROLLER BEARINGS are used to move extremely large and heavy loads, such as buildings
and large structural components.

AIRCRAFT BOLTS
Aircraft bolts are fabricated from cadmium- or zinc plated corrosion resistant steel, un-plated
corrosion resistant steel or anodized aluminum alloys. Most bolts used in aircraft structures are general
purpose or AN bolts, or NAS internal wrenching or close tolerance bolts, or MS bolts.
In certain cases, aircraft manufacturers make bolts of different dimensions or greater strength
than the standard types.
AN bolts come in three head styles—hex head, clevis and eyebolt. NAS bolts are available in
hex head, internal wrenching, and countersunk head styles. MS bolts come in hex head and internal
wrenching styles.
GENERAL PURPOSE BOLTS
The hex head aircraft bolt (AN-3 through AN-20) is an all-purpose structural bolt used for
general applications involving tension or shear loads where a light drive fit is permissible (0.006-inch
clearance for a 5⁄8-inch hole, and other sizes in proportion).
Alloy steel bolts smaller than No. 10-32 and aluminum alloy bolts smaller than 1⁄4 inch in
diameter are not used in primary structures. Aluminum alloy bolts and nuts are not used where they will
be repeatedly removed for purposes of maintenance and inspection. Aluminum alloy nuts may be used
with cadmium-plated steel bolts loaded in shear on land airplanes, but are not used on seaplanes due to
the increased possibility of dissimilar metal corrosion.
The AN-73 drilled head bolt is similar to the standard hex bolt, but has a deeper head which is
drilled to receive wire for safetying. The AN-3 and the AN-73 series bolts are interchangeable, for all
practical purposes, from the standpoint of tension and shear strengths.
CLOSE TOLERANCE BOLTS
This type of bolt is machined more accurately than the general purpose bolt. Close tolerance
bolts may be hex headed (AN-173 through AN-186) or have a 100° countersunk head (NAS-80 through
NAS-86). They are used in applications where a tight drive fit is required. (The bolt will move into
position only when struck with a 12- to 14-ounce hammer.)
INTERNAL WRENCHING BOLTS
These bolts, (MS-20004 through MS-20024 or NAS- 495) are fabricated from high-strength steel
and are suitable for use in both tension and shear applications. When they are used in steel parts, the bolt
hole must be slightly countersunk to seat the large corner radius of the shank at the head. In Dural
material, a special heat-treated washer must be used to provide an adequate bearing surface for the head.
The head of the internal wrenching bolt is recessed to allow the insertion of an internal wrench
when installing or removing the bolt. Special high-strength nuts are used on these bolts. Replace an
internal wrenching bolt with another internal wrenching bolt. Standard AN hex head bolts and washers
cannot be substituted for them as they do not have the required strength.
SPECIAL-PURPOSE BOLTS
Bolts designed for a particular application or use are classified as special-purpose bolts. Clevis
bolts, eyebolts, Jo-bolts, and lockbolts are special-purpose bolts.
CLEVIS BOLTS
The head of a clevis bolt is round and is either slotted to receive a common screwdriver or
recessed to receive a cross point screwdriver. This type of bolt is used only where shear loads occur and
never in tension. It is often inserted as a mechanical pin in a control system.
EYEBOLT
This type of special purpose bolt is used where external tension loads are to be applied. The
eyebolt is designed for the attachment of such devices as the fork of a turnbuckle, a clevis, or a cable
shackle. The threaded end may or may not be drilled for safetying.
JO-BOLT
Jo-bolt is a trade name for an internally threaded three piece rivet. The Jo-bolt consists of three
parts – a threaded steel alloy bolt, a threaded steel nut, and an expandable stainless steel sleeve. The
parts are factory preassembled. As the Jo-bolt is installed, the bolt is turned while the nut is held. This
causes the sleeve to expand over the end of the nut, forming the blind head and clamping against the
work. When driving is complete, a portion of the bolt breaks off.
The high shear and tensile strength of the Jo-bolt makes it suitable for use in cases of high
stresses where some of the other blind fasteners would not be practical.
Jo-bolts are often a part of the permanent structure of late model aircraft. They are used in areas
which are not often subjected to replacement or servicing. (Because it is a three-part fastener, it should
not be used where any part, in becoming loose, could be drawn into the engine air intake.) Other
advantages of using Jo-bolts are their excellent resistance to vibration, weight saving, and fast
installation by one person. Jo-bolts are available in three head styles which are: F (flush), P (hex head),
and FA (flush millable).

LOCKBOLTS
Lockbolts are used to attach two materials permanently. They are lightweight and are equal in
strength to standard bolts. Lockbolts are manufactured by several companies and conform to Military
Standards. Military Standards specify the size of a lockbolts head in relation to the shank diameter, plus
the alloy used in its construction. The only drawback to lockbolt installations is that they are not easily
removable compared to nuts and bolts.
 The lockbolt combines the features of a high-strength bolt and rivet, but it has advantages over
both. The lockbolt is generally used in wing splice fittings, landing gear fittings, fuel cell fittings,
longerons, beams, skin splice plates, and other major structural attachments. It is more easily and
quickly installed than the conventional rivet or bolt and eliminates the use of lockwashers, cotter pins,
and special nuts.
Like the rivet, the lockbolt requires a pneumatic hammer or ―pull gun‖ for installation; when
installed, it is rigidly and permanently locked in place. Three types of lockbolts are commonly used: the
pull type, the stump type, and the blind type.

AIRCRAFT NUTS
Aircraft nuts are made in a variety of shapes and sizes. They are made of cadmium plated carbon
steel, stainless steel, or anodized 2024T aluminum alloy, and may be obtained with either right- or left-
hand threads. No identifying marking or lettering appears on nuts. They can be identified only by the
characteristic metallic luster or color of the aluminum, brass, or the insert when the nut is of the self-
locking type. They can be further identified by their construction.
Aircraft nuts can be divided into two general groups: non-self-locking and self-locking nuts.
Non-self-locking nuts are those that must be safetied by external locking devices, such as cotter pins,
safety wire, or locknuts. Self-locking nuts contain the locking feature
as an integral part.
Non-Self-Locking Nuts
Most of the familiar types of nuts, including the plain nut, the castle nut, the castellated shear
nut, the plain hex nut, the light hex nut, and the plain checknut are the non-self-locking type.
a) The castle nut, AN310, is used with drilled shank AN hex head bolts, clevis bolts,
eyebolts, drilled head bolts, or studs. It is fairly rugged and can withstand large tensional
loads. Slots in the nut are designed to accommodate a cotter pin or lockwire for safety.
b) The castellated shear nut, AN320, is designed for use with devices (such as drilled clevis
bolts and threaded taper pins) which are normally subjected to shearing stress only. Like
the castle nut, it is castellated for safetying.
c) The plain hex nut, AN315 and AN335 (fine and coarse thread), is of rugged construction.
This makes it suitable for carrying large tensional loads. However, since it requires an
auxiliary locking device, such as a checknut or lockwashers, its use on aircraft structures
is somewhat limited.
d) The light hex nut, AN340 and AN345 (fine and coarse thread), is a much lighter nut than
the plain hex nut and must be locked by an auxiliary device. It is used for miscellaneous
light tension requirements.
e) The plain checknut, AN316, is employed as a locking device for plain nuts, set screws,
threaded rod ends, and other devices.
f) The wing nut, AN350, is intended for use where the desired tightness can be obtained
with the fingers and where the assembly is frequently removed.
Self-Locking Nuts
As their name implies, self-locking nuts need no auxiliary means of safetying but have a
safetying feature included as an integral part of their construction. Many types of self-locking nuts have
been designed and their use has become quite widespread.
Common applications are:
(1) Attachment of antifriction bearings and control pulleys
(2) Attachment of accessories, anchor nuts around inspection holes and small tank installation
openings
(3) Attachment of rocker box covers and exhaust stacks. Self-locking nuts are acceptable for use on
certificated aircraft subject to the restrictions of the manufacturer
Self-locking nuts are used on aircraft to provide tight connections which will not shake loose under
severe vibration. Do not use self-locking nuts at joints which subject either the nut or bolt to rotation.
They may be used with antifriction bearings and control pulleys, provided the inner race of the bearing
is clamped to the supporting structure by the nut and bolt. Plates must be attached to the structure in a
positive manner to eliminate rotation or misalignment when tightening the bolts or screws.
Three kinds of self-locking nuts are the Boots self-locking and the stainless steel self-locking
nuts, representing the all-metal types and the elastic stop nut, representing the fiber insert type.

BOOTS SELF-LOCKING NUT

The Boots self-locking nut is of one piece, all-metal construction, designed to hold tight in spite
of severe vibration. It has two sections and is essentially two nuts in one, a locking nut and a load-
carrying nut. The two sections are connected with a spring which is an integral part of the nut.
The spring keeps the locking and load-carrying sections such a distance apart that the two sets of
threads are out of phase; that is, so spaced that a bolt which has been screwed through the load carrying
section must push the locking section outward against the force of the spring to engage the threads of the
locking section properly.
Thus, the spring, through the medium of the locking section, exerts a constant locking force on
the bolt in the same direction as a force that would tighten the nut. In this nut, the load-carrying section
has the thread strength of a standard nut of comparable size, while the locking section presses against the
threads of the bolt and locks the nut firmly in position. Only a wrench applied to the nut will loosen it.
The nut can be removed and reused without impairing its efficiency.
STAINLESS STEEL SELF-LOCKING NUT
The stainless steel self-locking nut may be spun on and off with the fingers, as its locking action
takes place only when the nut is seated against a solid surface and tightened. The nut consists of two
parts: a case with a beveled locking shoulder and key, and a threaded insert with a locking shoulder and
slotted keyway. Until the nut is tightened, it spins on the bolt easily because the threaded insert is the
proper size for the bolt. However, when the nut is seated against a solid surface and tightened, the
locking shoulder of the insert is pulled downward and wedged against the locking shoulder of the case.
This action compresses the threaded insert and causes it to clench the bolt tightly.

ELASTIC STOP NUT

The elastic stop nut is a standard nut with the height increased to
accommodate a fiber locking collar. This fiber collar is very tough and
durable and is unaffected by immersion in hot or cold water or ordinary
solvents, such as ether, carbon tetrachloride, oils, and gasoline. It will not
damage bolt threads or plating.
The fiber locking collar is not threaded and its inside diameter is
smaller than the largest diameter of the threaded portion or the outside
diameter of a corresponding bolt. When the nut is screwed onto a bolt, it acts
as an ordinary nut until the bolt reaches the fiber collar. When the bolt is
screwed into the fiber collar, however, friction (or drag) causes the fiber to be
pushed upward. This creates a heavy downward pressure on the load carrying
part and automatically throws the load carrying sides of the nut and bolt
threads into positive contact. After the bolt has been forced all the way
through the fiber collar, the downward pressure remains constant. This
pressure locks and holds the nut securely in place even under severe
vibration.
AIRCRAFT WASHERS
Aircraft washers used in airframe repair are plain, lock, or special type washers.
PLAIN WASHERS
Plain washers both the AN960 and AN970 are used under hex nuts. They provide a smooth
bearing surface and act as a shim in obtaining correct grip length for a bolt and nut assembly. They are
used to adjust the position of castellated nuts in respect to drilled cotter pin holes in bolts. Use plain
washers under lockwashers to prevent damage to the surface material.
Aluminum and aluminum alloy washers may be used under bolt heads or nuts on aluminum alloy
or magnesium structures where corrosion caused by dissimilar metals is a factor. When used in this
manner, any electric current flow will be between the washer and the steel bolt. However, it is common
practice to use cadmium plated steel washer under a nut bearing directly against a structure as this
washer will resist the cutting action of a nut better than an aluminum alloy washer.
The AN970 steel washer provides a greater bearing area than the AN960 washer and is used on
wooden structures under both the head and the nut of a bolt to prevent crushing the surface.
LOCKWASHERS
Lockwashers, both the AN935 and AN936, are used with machine screws or bolts where the
self-locking or castellated-type nut is not appropriate. The spring action of the washer (AN935) provides
enough friction to prevent loosening of the nut from vibration.
Lockwashers should never be used under the following conditions:
a. With fasteners to primary or secondary structures
b. With fasteners on any part of the aircraft where failure might result in damage or danger
to the aircraft or personnel
c. Where failure would permit the opening of a joint to the airflow
d. Where the screw is subject to frequent removal
e. Where the washers are exposed to the airflow
f. Where the washers are subject to corrosive conditions
g. Where the washer is against soft material without a plain washer underneath to prevent
gouging the surface
SHAKEPROOF LOCKWASHERS
Shakeproof lockwashers are round washers designed with tabs or lips that are bent upward across
the sides of a hex nut or bolt to lock the nut in place. There are various methods of securing the
lockwashers to prevent it from turning, such as an external tab bent downward 90° into a small hole in
the face of the unit, or an internal tab which fits a keyed bolt.
Shakeproof lockwashers can withstand higher heat than other methods of safetying and can be
used under high vibration conditions safely. They should be used only once because the tabs tend to
break when bent a second time.
SPECIAL WASHERS
The ball socket and seat washers, AC950 and AC955, are special washers used where a bolt is
installed at an angle to a surface, or where perfect alignment with a surface is required. These washers
are used together.
The NAS143 and MS20002 washers are used for internal wrenching bolts of the NAS144
through NAS158 series. This washer is either plain or countersunk. The countersunk washer (designated
as NAS143C and MS20002C) is used to seat the bolt head shank radius, and the plain washer is used
under the nut.
RIVET
A Rivet is a short cylindrical rod having a head and a tapered tail. The main body of the rivet is
called shank. The second head formed either by hand or by pneumatic equipment is called a ―shop
head.‖ The shop head functions in the same manner as a nut on a bolt.
Two of the major types of rivets used in aircraft are the common solid shank type, which must be
driven using a bucking bar and the blind rivets, which may be installed where it is impossible to use a
bucking bar.
SOLID RIVETS
Solid rivets are one of the oldest and most reliable types of
fasteners. Solid rivets consist simply of a shaft and head that are
deformed with a hammer or rivet gun. A rivet compression or
crimping tool can also deform this type of rivet. Solid rivets come with
rounded (universal) or 100° countersunk heads.
BLIND RIVETS
 Blind rivets are tubular and
are supplied with a mandrel through
the center. The rivet assembly is
inserted into a hole drilled through the
parts to be joined and a specially
designed tool is used to draw the
mandrel into the rivet. This expands
the blind end of the rivet and then the
mandrel snaps off. These types of
blind rivets have non-locking mandrels and are sometimes avoided for critical structural joints because
the mandrels may fall out, due to vibration or other reasons, leaving a hollow rivet that has a lower load-
carrying capability than solid rivets. Unlike solid rivets, blind rivets can be inserted and fully installed in
a joint from only one side of a part or structure
They are available in flat head, countersunk head, and modified flush head with standard
diameters of 1/8, 5/32 and 3/16 inch. Blind rivets are made from soft aluminum alloy, steel (including
stainless steel), copper, and Monel.

SELF-PLUGGING MECHANICAL LOCK

Self-Plugging Mechanical Lock Rivet is a blind rivet that uses a mechanical lock between the
head of the rivet and the pull stem. This lock holds the shank firmly in place from the head side.
The self-plugging rivet is made of 5056- H14 aluminum alloy and includes the conical recess
and locking collar in the rivet head. The stem is made of 2024- T36 aluminum alloy. Pull grooves that fit
in to the jaws of the rivet gun are provided on the stem end that protrudes above the rivet head. The
blind end portion of the stem incorporates a head and a land (the raised portion of the grooved surface)
with an extruding angle that expands the rivet shank. Applied loads for self-plugging rivets are
comparable to those for solid shank rivets of the same shear strength, regardless of sheet thickness.

SELF-PLUGGING FRICTION LOCK

Self-plugging friction lock rivets are available in universal and flush head styles and are
manufactured from 2117 and 5056 aluminum alloy and Monel. Self-plugging friction lock rivets cannot
be substituted for solid rivets, nor can they be used in critical applications, such as control surface hinge
brackets, wing attachment fittings, landing gear fittings, and fluid-tight joints.
HI-SHEAR RIVETS
Hi-shear (pin) rivets are essentially thread-less bolts. The pin is headed at one end and is grooved
about the circumference at the other. A metal collar is swaged onto the grooved end. They are available
in two head styles – the flat protruding head and the flush 100-degree countersunk head. Hi-Shear rivets
are made in a variety of materials and are used only in shear applications. Because the shear strength of
the rivet is greater than either the shear or bearing strength of sheet aluminum alloys, they are used
primarily to rivet thick-gauge sheets together. They are never used with a grip length that is less than the
shank diameter.