CHAPTER 8

INTRODUCTION TO
SOLUTIONS AND
AQUEOUS REACTIONS
contd……

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8.7 Acid-Base Reactions
Acids
• Acids are molecular compounds that
form H3O+ when dissolved in water.
HCl(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl−(aq)

• Acids are composed of hydrogen,

usually written first in their formulas,
and one or more nonmetals, written
second.
– Examples:
• HCl, H2SO4 , HNO3
• CH3COOH (acetic acid or vinegar)
• Properties of acids:
– Sour taste
– Dissolve many metals such as Zn,
Fe, Mg
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Acid–Base Classification: Arrhenius
Simplest of Acid–Base Classifications
Arrhenius Definitions:
• Acid: Substance that produces H+

HCl(aq) H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)

– Polyprotic acids
• These acids contain more than one ionizable proton (H+) and
release them sequentially.
• For example, sulfuric acid, H2SO4, is a diprotic acid.
• It is strong in its first ionizable proton but weak in its second.

• Base: Substance that produces OH− ions in aqueous solution

NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH–(aq)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Some Common Acids and Bases

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Binary Acids and Oxyacids

Binary Acids:
• Have H+ cation and nonmetal anion
• Example:
– HCl(aq) hydrochloric acid,
HF(aq) hydrofluoric acid

Oxyacids:
• Have H+ cation and
polyatomic anion
• Example:
– HNO3 (nitric acid), H2SO4
(sulfuric acid)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 How to Name a Binary Acid

• Write a hydro- prefix.

• Follow with the nonmetal name.
• Change the ending on the nonmetal name to ic.
• Write the word acid at the end of the name.
• Example:
– What is the name of HI(aq)?
• The H in the formula is hydro.
• The I (nonmetal in the formula) is iodine changed to iodic.
• The name is hydroiodic acid.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 How to Name an Oxyacid

• If a polyatomic ion name ends in

–ate, then change the ending to an
–ic suffix.
– Example:
• NO3− is the nitrate ion, so it would
become nitric.
• If a polyatomic ion name ends in
–ite, then change the ending to a
–ous suffix.
– Example:
• SO32− is the sulfite ion, so it would
become sulfurous.
• Finally, write the word acid at the end
of all names.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Practice Naming Acids

1. H2S

2. HClO3

3. HC2H3O2

4. HCl

5. HClO4

6. H2SO4
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Strong Acids

Strong acid dissociations are not treated as equilibria, rather as

processes that go to completion.

Hydrochloric acid HCl(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Cl–(aq)

Hydrobromic acid HBr(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Br–(aq)

Hydroiodic acid HI(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + I–(aq)

Nitric acid HNO3(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + NO3–(aq)

Chloric acid HClO3(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + ClO3–(aq)

Perchloric acid HClO4(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + ClO4–(aq)

Sulfuric acid H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + HSO4–(aq)

9
Strong Bases
The list of strong bases consists of the hydroxides of alkali metals
and the heaviest alkaline earth metals.

LiOH(aq) Li+(aq) + OH–(aq)

NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH–(aq)

Group 1A hydroxides KOH(aq) K+(aq) + OH–(aq)

RbOH(aq) Rb+(aq) + OH–(aq)

CsOH(aq) Cs+(aq) + OH–(aq)

Ca(OH)2(aq) Ca2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq)

Group 2A hydroxides Sr(OH)2(aq) Sr2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq)

Ba(OH)2(aq) Ba2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq)

10
 Acid–Base Chemical Reactions

Acid–Base Reaction:
– An acid–base reaction is also called a neutralization
reaction.

– An acid reacts with a base, and the two neutralize each

other, producing water and a salt.

In acid–base reactions, as in precipitation reactions,

the reactions occur when the anion from one reactant
combines with the cation of the other.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Acid–Base Reactions
• When an acid and a base react, the reaction is called a
neutralization reaction.
– Example:

2 HNO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2 H2O(l)

• As long as the salt that forms is soluble in water, the net ionic
equation for an acid–base reaction involving a strong acid and
strong base is:
H+(aq) + OH–(aq) → H2O(l)

• A neutralization reaction is completed when the moles of acid

equal the moles of base in the solution.
– Moles of acid = Moles of base

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Acids and Bases in Solution
• Acids ionize in water to form H+ ions; more precisely, the H+ from
the acid molecule is donated to a water molecule to form
hydronium ions, H3O+.
– Most chemists use H+ and H3O+ interchangeably.

• Bases dissociate in water to form OH– ions.

– Bases, such as NH3, that do not contain OH– ions produce OH– by
pulling H+ off water molecules.

• In the reaction of an acid with a base, the H+ from the acid

combines with the OH– from the base to make water.
– The cation from the base combines with the anion from the acid to
make the salt.
– This is called a neutralization reaction.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 REMEMBER!!
• When writing ionic equations, you can only
break down strong electrolytes as they
dissociate completely
• All soluble salts and strong acids and
strong bases are STRONG ELECTROLYTES
• Weak acids and weak bases are WEAK
ELECTROLYTES
• Molecular compounds are NON ELECTROLYTES

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Ex 17
Write a molecular and net ionic equation for
the reaction between aqueous HI and
aqueous Ba(OH)2.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Ex 18
Write a molecular and net ionic equation for
the reaction between aqueous HF and
aqueous Ba(OH)2

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Ex 19
Write a molecular equation, complete ionic
equation, and net ionic equation for the
reaction between aqueous acetic acid
(HC2H3O2) and aqueous potassium
hydroxide (KOH).

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Ex 20
Write the net ionic equation for the reaction
between HNO2 (a weak acid) and NaOH.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Acid–Base Titrations
(Stoichiometry revisited)
• In a titration, a solution of known concentration is
reacted with another solution of unknown
concentration.

• In many cases the known solution (the titrant) is

added slowly to a flask containing the unknown
solution from an instrument called a buret.
– A long, glass tube with precise volume markings that allows
small additions of solution

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Acid–Base Titrations
• In acid–base titrations, because both the reactant and
product solutions are colorless, a chemical is added that
changes color when the solution undergoes large changes
in acidity/alkalinity.
– The chemical is called an indicator.

• The endpoint of a reaction is when the indicator color

changes.

• The indicator is selected so that the endpoint is reached

when the number of moles of H3O+ equals the number of
moles of OH– (i.e., the reactants are in their stoichiometric
ratio).
– This is known as the equivalence point.
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Acid–Base Titration

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Titration

• In this titration, NaOH is added to a dilute HCl solution. When the

NaOH and HCl reach stoichiometric proportions (the equivalence
point), the phenolphthalein indicator changes color to pink.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Ex 21
The titration of a 10.00-mL sample of an HCl
solution of unknown concentration requires 12.54
mL of 0.100 M NaOH solution to reach the
equivalence point. What is the concentration of the
unknown HCl solution in M?

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Ex 22
The titration of a 20.0-mL sample of H2SO4
solution of unknown concentration requires
22.87 mL of a 0.158 M KOH solution to
reach the equivalence point. What is the
concentration of the unknown H2SO4
solution?

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Ex 23
What volume (in mL) of 0.200 M Ba(OH)2 aq
solution do you need to titrate 35.00 mL of 0.140 M
H3PO4 aq. solution to the equivalence point?

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8.8 Gas-Evolution Chemical Reactions

• Gas-evolution reactions:
– In a gas-evolution reaction, a gas forms, resulting
in bubbling.

• In both acid–base and gas-evolution reactions,

as in precipitation reactions, the reactions
occur when the anion from one reactant
combines with the cation of the other.
– Many gas-evolution reactions are also acid–base
reactions.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Example of Gas-Evolution Reactions

• Some reactions form a gas directly from the ion

exchange.
K2S(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + H2S(g)

• Other reactions form a gas by the decomposition

of one of the ion exchange products into a gas
and water.
NaHCO3(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2CO3(aq)
Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2CO3(aq)
H2CO3(aq) → H2O(l) + CO2(g)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Types of Compounds That Undergo
Gas-Evolution Reactions

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Ex 24
Write a molecular equation for the gas-evolution
reaction that occurs when you mix aqueous
hydrochloric acid and solid sodium bicarbonate.

Ex 25
Write a molecular equation for the gas-evolution
reaction that occurs when you mix aqueous
hydrochloric acid and solid calcium carbonate.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Ex 26
Write a molecular equation for the gas-evolution
reaction that occurs when you mix aqueous
hydrochloric acid and aqueous sodium sulfide
solutions.

Ex 27
Write a molecular equation for the gas-evolution
reaction that occurs when you mix aqueous
hydrochloric acid and aqueous sodium sulfite
solutions.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 8.9 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
• The reactions in which electrons are transferred
from one reactant to the other are called
oxidation–reduction reactions.
– These are also called redox reactions.
– Many redox reactions involve the reaction of a
substance with oxygen.
– Examples:
4 Fe(s) + 3 O2(g) 2 Fe2O3(s) (rusting)

2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) 16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g) (combustion)

2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(g)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Oxidation and Reduction (Redox)
• To convert a free element into an ion, the atoms must gain or
lose electrons.
– NOTE: If one atom loses electrons, another must accept them.

• Reactions where electrons are transferred from one atom to

another are redox reactions.

• Atoms that lose electrons are being oxidized.

– The reaction is referred to as oxidation.

• Atoms that gain electrons are being reduced.

– The reaction is referred to as reduction.

Example: 2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2 NaCl(s)

Na → Na+ + 1 e– (oxidation; sodium lost electrons)
Cl2 + 2 e– → 2 Cl– (reduction; chlorine gained electrons)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Identifying Redox Reactions
• Oxidation: An increase in oxidation state
• Reduction: A decrease in oxidation state

– Carbon changes from an oxidation state of 0 to an

oxidation state of +4.
• Carbon loses electrons and is oxidized.
– Sulfur changes from an oxidation state of 0 to an
oxidation state of –2.
• Sulfur gains electrons and is reduced.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Oxidation States
• For reactions that are not metal + nonmetal, or do not
involve O2, a method for determining how the electrons
are transferred is required to determine which element is
being oxidized and which element is being reduced.

• Chemists assign a number to each element in a reaction,

called an oxidation state, that allows them to determine
the electron flow in the reaction.
– Even though they look like them, oxidation states are not
ion charges!
• Oxidation states are imaginary charges assigned based on a
set of rules.
• Ion charges are real, measurable charges.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Rules for Assigning Oxidation States
The following rules are in order of priority:
1. Free elements have an oxidation state = 0.
– Na = 0 and Cl2 = 0 in 2 Na(s) + Cl2(g)
2. Monatomic ions have an oxidation state equal to their
charge.
– Na = +1 and Cl = −1 in NaCl
3. (a) The sum of the oxidation states of all the atoms in a
compound is 0.
– Na = +1 and Cl = −1 in NaCl, (+1) + (−1) = 0
(b) The sum of the oxidation states of all the atoms in a
polyatomic ion equals the charge on the ion.
– N = +5 and O = −2 in NO3–, (+5) + 3(−2) = −1

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Rules for Assigning Oxidation States

4. Oxidation state of oxygen is -2, except in the O22- ion , it is -1

5. Oxidation state of hydrogen is +1, except in metal hydrides it is
-1.
6. Group I metals have an oxidation state of +1 in all their
compounds.
– Na = +1 in NaCl

7. Group II metals have an oxidation state of

+2 in all their compounds.
– Mg = +2 in MgCl2

8. In their compounds, nonmetals have oxidation

states according to the table on the right.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Ex 28
Assign an oxidation state to the nitrogen atom in each of the
compound.
a. HNO3 b. NO2 c. NO3-

Ex 29
Assign an oxidation state to the chlorine atom in each of the
compound.
a. HClO3 b. HCl c. HClO4

Ex 30
Assign an oxidation state to the chromium atom in each of the
compound.
a. H2CrO4 b. K2Cr2O7
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Redox Reactions
• Oxidation and reduction must occur simultaneously.
– If an atom loses electrons, another atom must take them.

• The reactant that reduces an element in another reactant is

called the reducing agent.
– The reducing agent contains the element that is oxidized.

• The reactant that oxidizes an element in another reactant is

called the oxidizing agent.
– The oxidizing agent contains the element that is reduced.

• Example: 2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2 NaCl(s)

Na is oxidized, while Cl is reduced.
Na is the reducing agent, and Cl2 is the
oxidizing agent.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Ex 31
Use oxidation states to identify the element that is oxidized
and the element that is reduced in the redox reaction. Also
identify the oxidizing and the reducing agent
Mg(s) + 2 H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

Ex 32
Determine whether or not each reaction is a redox reaction.
For redox reactions, identify the oxidizing agent and the
reducing agent.
a. 2 Li(s) + Cl2(g) → 2 LiCl(s)
b. 2 Al(s) + 3 Sn2+(aq) → 2 Al3+(aq) + 3 Sn(s)
c. Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2 LiCl(aq) → PbCl2(s) + 2 LiNO3(aq)
d. C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Combination Reactions
a. Metals react with oxygen to give
metallic oxides:
Mg(s) + O2(g) → MgO(s)
b. Metallic oxides react with water to give
hydroxides:
MgO(s) + H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2
c. Metallic oxides react with carbon
dioxide to give carbonates:
MgO(s) + CO2(g) → MgCO3(s)

40
Decomposition reactions
• These reactions are just the opposite of
combination reactions.
a. Hydroxide decompose to give metal
oxide and water:
Mg(OH)2 (aq) → MgO(s) + H2O(l)
b. Metal carbonates decompose into
metal oxide and carbon dioxide
MgCO3(s) → MgO(s) + CO2(g)

41
c. All metal chlorates when heated
decompose into metal chlorides and
oxygen gas :
2KClO3(s) → 2KCl(s) +3O2(g)

42
Single replacement reactions
a. A common reaction: active metal
replaces (displaces) a metal ion
from a solution.

Mg(s) + CuCl2(aq) → Cu(s) + MgCl2(aq)

– The activity series of metals is useful

in order to predict the outcome of the
reaction.

43
44
 Redox and the Activity Series
• An activity series table lists metals in order of decreasing tendency to lose
electrons.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

b. Replacement of hydrogen by an active
metal:
2K(s)+ 2H2O → 2KOH(aq) +H2(g)

c. Replacement of the hydrogen of an

acid by an active metal.
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq)→ ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

46
 Ex 33

Determine whether each redox reaction is spontaneous:

a. Fe(s) + Mg2+(aq) → Fe2+(aq) + Mg(s)
b. Fe(s) + Pb2+(aq) → Fe2+(aq) + Pb(s)
c. Zn(s) + Ni2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Ni(s)
d. Zn(s) + Ca2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Ca(s)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Combustion reactions
– Common example, hydrocarbon fuel
reacts with oxygen to produce carbon
dioxide and water
– Consider:

48
Redox Reactions

• All the reactions which involve a change

in oxidation number of the species
involved are redox reactions.
• Double replacement reactions are not
redox reactions.

49
Chapter Summary: Key Points

Concentration of Solutions Acid-Base Reactions

Molarity Strong Acids and Bases
Dilution Acid-Base Neutralization
Solution Stoichiometry Acid-Base Titrations
Properties of Aqueous Solutions Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes Oxidation Numbers
Strong Electrolytes and Weak Other Types of Redox Reactions
Electrolytes
Precipitation Reactions
Solubility of Ionic Compounds in
Water
Molecular Equations
Ionic Equations
Net Ionic Equations