Embankment Dam Downstream Filters

Upper parts of alluvium say it be 7-10 m deep are more compressible (soft) and lower parts
may be relatively dense.
Base filter is the protected filter being eroded while assessing the compatibility of the
zones of the embankment dam. Protective filters function to protect the base material
(embankment or foundation) from migrating into ajacent zones and provide drainage for
control of pore pressures in embankment. Typically protected filters are uniformly graded
materials with several different stages and those protected filters are used in chimney ,
blankets and downstream transition zones. All the filters and drains provide a certain
function. I am talking about the : filter adjacent to the plastic concrete cut off wall right on
the foundation , a chimney , blanket filters and then the downstream transition zone , a
drain stone transitioned in the shell rockfill ; a transition ends up being a protective filter
for the upstream zone adjacent to it which is a stone which is a drain stone.
Drainage filters (0.5m thick and first layer to be laid in Adai Gorge Dam downstream
foundation) function to intercept and carry away seepage from dam and foundation.
Drainage filters are typically uniformly graded : often in two stages with drain material (1
m thick). Drain filters should meet requirements to both prevent particle movement and
provide drainage. Drainage filters and drain materials are connected to the toe drain at
embankment dam toe.
Seepage flows for all the components must be filtered and collected. Part of the
embankment design is to make sure that we have complete filtered exits on any of those
seepage paths that we have.
The photo below describes the way of placement of drain filter by front end loaders which
can place large amount at once. Drain filter (drain rock is half inch stone) of 1.25 cm
aggregate diameter is being placed. Pay attention if there is mud or any contamination
from your adjacent materials.

All dry granular materials tend to segregate during placement. You should have wet them
before placing.
Sand castle test is an inexpensive method for assessing the collapsibility and self-healing
of filter materials and it is applicable in field conditions. Conducting regular in-situ sand
castle tests is recommended to control the quality of filter materials.
Maximum fines (silt+clay) in filters are 5% and in the downstream part of the embankment
dam . Fines (silt+clay) amount in filters can be a little more than 5% like 7%.

Relative density of granular materials

Relative density or Relative firmness of the ground
Relative firmness Dr
0 - 0.15 Very Loose
0.15 - 0.35 Loose
0.35 - 0.65 Medium level firm
0.65 - 0.85 Firm
0.85 - 1.00 Very Firm
Grading is eveluated using the uniformity coefficient cu = D60 /D10 where D60 and D10
are the diameters of particles constituting 60% and 10% respectively of the smaller
particles of the rockfill.
If all the particles of the ground are at same size then your ground’s c u is 1 and this ground
is a uniform ground I mean that this ground is a badly graded ground (soil or filter or
rockfill) and is not desired for engineering purposes.
If in sands cu is greater than 6 that means that the sand is good graded ground.
If in gravels cu is greater than 4 that means that the gravel is good graded ground
There is another aspect as “continuity coefficient” or gradation coefficient of the soil –
rockfill – filter material
cc = cg = (D30)2 / D10 x D60

The rockfill is generally sampled after placement and compaction. D50 is the average
diameter of the rockfill. Sometimes D90 and D50 are used in assessing rockfill.
D10 is the effective aggregate diameter.
Design composition of rockfill material is based on rockfill density requirements and the
location of the rock within the body of the dam.
For any soil or ground or rockfill or filter material to have a continuous gradation
cc = cg = (D30)2 / D10 x D60 should be inbetween 1 and 3
This cc = cg = (D30)2 / D10 x D60 checks whether the soil or ground or rockfill or filter material
is gap graded or a range of aggregate sizes are missing in that soil or ground or rockfill or
filter material.
For example :
Continuous gradation material should be required for the 3A transition zones, with a
maximum grain size not exceeding 150 mm. That word “continuous” is as explained
hereinabove.

The better graded the rockfill , the higher the density of the placed
rockfill ; the same compactive efforts
Results in a less porous , denser fill. Embankments of well graded
material have high moduli of deformation and there is less
settlement , as a result , as well as less crushing of the rock.
Please put piezometers in drain material and filter and at their interface at downstream
foundation. Phreatic surface is water surface in embankment upstream and downstream
part. Discharge capacity of the filter materials are dependant on their hydralic conductivity
characteristics.
Drain (stone) material aggregate diamer is 1.27 cm. For drainage zones, a rock material
that is composed of high-strength and weatherproof medium- to large-sized rubble should
mainly be adopted, with a permeability coefficient of around 1 cm/s, which is the
greatest permeability coefficient of all the zones. The upstream slope protection should
not only prevent reservoir water scouring, but also ensure quick drainage, and the
downstream slope protection should prevent rainwater scouring.
You want to make sure that drains (filter/drain) are designed with adequte discharge
capacity so you can lower the phreatic surface . You never want to have the phreatic
surface go above the blanket. You never want your blanket go above the drain zone. You
have your filter again your sand and you have your stone above that. You want to design
it so that never goes up into your shell. You do not want water in drain stone (1 m thik
drain material at dam downstream foundation) material to go up to shell material. Drain
stone will typically not crack. It is unlikely that the drain stone cracks.
You do not want to saturate your shell.
I put the piezometers right above where that interfaces with that drain stone is. Because I
want to monitor if that ever got overwhelmed (to much water coming through) and find
out kind of what is going around in there. You can even put a piezometer down in the drain
stone as well if you want to monitor even in the filter but you want to have an idea how
much your blanket (1m drain + 0.5 m filter) is effective and how effective your chimney (3
m thick transition filter adjacent to plastic concrete core wall) is or how much 3 m thick
transition or shell rocks is effective. Most of flow is going to be coming through
your foundation. You should not have a lot of flow going into your chimney.
If you do you do have a crack or you have a pervious layer which can happen
for your embankment. For a new dam most of the flow will be coming from
the foundation.
A properly designed filter consists of a granular porous media with pore size
openings small enough to prevent migration of the base soil through which
water is flowing into the filter. At the same time, a properly designed filter
will be sufficiently pervious to offer little resistance to water flow. Filters are
designed for stability (particle retention) as well as permeability (water flow).
Shell rockfill material provides support and stability to the thin plastic concrete cut off core
wall from both upstream and downstream side. The influence of plastic cut off core wall
depends on relative strength of shell materials and nothing else.

Depending on the gradation of your shell material at downstream of the embankment dam
, a blanket filter layer of 0.5 m thick can be laid on the blanket drain (1m thick) underneath
which this blanket drain there exists another blanket filter of 0.5 m thick as in figure above.
Where dams are constructed on weak, compressible foundations , the embankment and
foundation materials should have stress-strain characteristics as nearly similar as possible.
Embankments can be made more plastic and will adjust more readily to settlements if they
are compacted wet of the optimum water content.
Embankment dams maximise the use of local materials available and nearby borrow areas.
Low stress or tensile stress zones are created in vicinity of the abutments.
 After impounding up to the flood water level, the upstream face of the dam is more
affected than the plastic concrete cut off core wall due to low permeability and deflection
of plastic concrete cut off core wall due to applied water load.
To minimize settlement , shells should be filled with strong ,
unweathered , well-graded rock placed in sluiced , compacted layers
(lift thickness 60 cm). Embankment dam design analyses should
include assessments of shell settlement and displacement.

Weathered soft rocks like weathered dolomite cause mechanical

properties deterioration of rockfill in the Shell , but only increase
stress level of corewall upstream face, and destruction zone don't
occur. It is feasible that softrock-contained weathered dolomite
rockfill are utilized in the downstream shell rockfill zone of Adai
Gorge Dam.

The permeability coefficient of 3 m thick transition filter adjacent

to plastic concrete cut off core wall should generally be greater
than 1 × 10–3 cm/s. For shell rockfill zones, the permeability
coefficient should not be less than that of the outermost 3 m thick
transition zone, and should generally be greater than 1 × 10–2 cm/s
so as to ensure quick drawdown of the seepage line.

Cracks in Embankment Dams

Reasons for cracking :

• Unsuitable / poorly compacted fill
• Different compressibility and stress/strain characteristics of fill
material
• Variation in thickness of fill
With weak (soft) rocks lift thickness is 60 cm.
Flaring has been applied at spillway wall or a steep abutment it does not matter.
Cofferdams require the same risk considerations as the new dam. Risk needs to be
determined for overtopping and other failure modes. Consequences need to be
considered as to whether failure release water to the downstream or just flood the work
area.There is usually a cost versus risk tradeoff involved in cofferdam design. Decision
makers should be involved in selecting the level of flood protection. Designer and Owner
is responsible if the cofferdam fails. Because height of cofferdam has been determined as
per 10 years flood level by the designer.
A webcam should be placed (or assign someone taking photo of the flood or a photograph
machine taking photos automatically every 5 seconds or more) as a proof for in case flood
level is above 10 years flood in order to compensate the damage at dam site.
10 year flood level is already available. Matter is to prove that the flood level was above
that 10 year flood.
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When if one decide to construct an upstream clay blanket , one has to lay 20 cm thick
gravel and a 20 cm thick choke filter on gravel and then lay your 90 cm thick clay upstream
blanket. Choke filter functions to protect base material from migrating into more pervious
material or open work foundation. Choke filter is typically a broadly graded material with
no permeability requirement. Choke filter is laid between upstream impervious clay
blanket and 20 cm thick gravel layer laid on foundation as a transition material.
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A frequent cause of cracking in conduits is improperly spaced joints. Thermal cracking can
also result in conduits where joint spacings are too long or are not provided in the conduit
to accommodate for changes of length. While a conduit may be adequately designed to
meet loadings and other overall requirements, poor detailing may result in localized
concentrations of high stresses in otherwise satisfactory concrete. These high stresses may
result in cracking that allows water to access the interior of the concrete.
These are standard measures which have proved themselves.
 APPENDIX
• :
Seismic crack stopper functions to plug which may occur in the core due to seismic
loading or large deformation.It accomodates postulated displacements/cracks.
There is no permeability requirement but sufficiently free of fines so that it is not
capable of sustaining a crack. Seismic crack stopper is the first adjacent filter
material of clay cored rock fill embankment dams.
"Crack stopper capability " i.e. , the filter material should be incapable of sustaining
an open crack within the zone as a downstream extension of a transverse crack
through the more cohesive core .

Recorded dam performance experience and rigorous laboratory test programs have
clearly demonstrated that a clean cohesionless sand is not only capable effectively
filtering even the finest of general range of silt and clay soils found in nature , but it
has the necessary " Crack Stopper Capability" and the necessary resistance to
harmful segregation.

An upper limit of upper size to eliminate concern for harmful segregation within a
filter sand appears to be 18 mm. for with at least 60% finer than the No.4
sieve(5mm.)
Because the presence of fines imparts undesirable cohesion to a filter sand , the
upper limit of fines content in order to have "crack stopper" capability appears to be
2% minus the No.200 sieve(0.075 mm.) , although 0% passing the No.100 sieve
(0.15mm.) is preferable. Result Gradation is :
[ 18 mm. <= [40% ] => 5mm. <= [60% ] => 0.15 mm. ]
• Transverse contraction joints (interblock joints) : Vertical contraction joints are
formed at regular intervals of 6-12 m along the axis of the culvert (conduit). The
joints are made necessary by the shrinkage and thermal characteristics of mass
concrete. They permit minor differential movements between adjacent concrete
bays , and in their absence major transverse cracks will develop. To control seepage
along the plane of the joint a water barrier rubber waterstop is formed.
• Construction joints (interlift joints) : Individual concrete pours within each monolith
must be limited in volume and in height to reduce post-construction shrinkage and
cracking. Concrete pours are therefore restricted by the regular formation of near-
horizontal construction or ‘lift’ joints. Lift height is generally limited to 1.5m.With
50% (of cement weight) addition of fly ash cementitious material lifts in hot
wheather can be 2 m thick. The lift surface is generally constructed with a stepped
formed vertical shear key.
• Large aggregate sizes have higher contact forces and more tendency to fracture.
From laboratory tests Marsal (1973) concluded that for the same c (cohesion), the
shear strength of the rockfill particles decreases as the aggregate size increases.
• In embankment dams , rotations of the principal stress direction and variation in the
load direction occur during impounding and emptying of reservoir.
• The stability of the upstream and downstream slopes of the dam embankment is
analyzed for the most critical or severe loading conditions that may occur during
the life of the dam. These loading conditions typically include:
1) End of Construction — when significant pore pressure development is expected
either in the embankment or foundation during construction of the embankment.
2) Steady-State Seepage — when the long-term phreatic surface within the
embankment has been established.
3) Rapid (or Sudden) Drawdown — when the reservoir is drawn down faster than
the pore pressures can dissipate within the embankment after the establishment
of steady-state seepage conditions.
4) Earthquake — when the embankment is subjected to seismic loading.
For the evaluation of embankment dam stability, the applicable loading conditions
need to be determined.
• The maximum of flood flow governs the size of the headworks and dam to be built
with adequate spillway. The maximum flood routing study will indicate the
necessary modifications to the head, storage, and even height of the dam to obtain
maximum benefit.
Diameter of toe drain cleanouts is 20 cm.