FRICTIONAL FLOW IN CONDUITS

Bernoulli Equation (With Frictional Heating)

𝐏 𝐠 𝛖𝟐 −𝐝𝐖𝐬
∆( + 𝐳 + ) = − ∑ 𝐅𝐡 (Bernoulli Equation with frictional heating)
𝛒 𝐠𝐜 𝟐 𝐝𝐦
Determination of Frictional Heating (𝑭𝒉 𝒐𝒓 𝒉𝒇 ):

A. FRICTIONAL HEATING IN LAMINAR FLOW

For a fluid in laminar flow in a horizontal circular conduit:

Previously derived equation:

(𝐏𝟎 − 𝐏𝐋 )𝑹𝟐 𝐫 𝟐
𝛖𝐙 = [𝟏 − ( ) ] (𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒃𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)
𝟒𝛍𝐋 𝐑

(𝐏𝟎 − 𝐏𝐋 )𝑹𝟐
𝝊𝒁 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = (𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚)
𝟒𝛍𝐋

(𝐏𝟎 − 𝐏𝐋 )𝑹𝟐 𝟏
𝝊𝒁 𝒂𝒗𝒆 = = (𝝊𝒁 𝒎𝒂𝒙 ) (𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒓 𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚)
𝟖𝛍𝐋 𝟐

𝝅(𝐏𝟎 − 𝐏𝐋 )𝑹𝟒 𝝆
𝒎̇ = ((𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆)
𝟖𝛍𝐋

Volumetric flow rate :

𝒒 = ∫ 𝝊𝒁 𝒅𝑺
(𝐏𝟎 − 𝐏𝐋 )𝛑𝐃𝟒
𝒒= (𝐇𝐚𝐠𝐞𝐧– 𝐏𝐨𝐢𝐬𝐞𝐮𝐢𝐥𝐥𝐞 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧)
𝟏𝟐𝟖 𝛍𝐋

 Hagen-Poiseuille Equation gives the pressure drop in an incompressible and Newtonian

fluid in a laminar flow flowing through a long cylindrical pipe of constant cross
section.
 The assumptions of the equation are that the fluid is incompressible and Newtonian;
the flow is laminar through a pipe of constant circular cross-section that is substantially
longer than its diameter; and there is no acceleration of fluid in the pipe.
 𝐏 𝐠 𝛖𝟐 −𝐝𝐖𝐬
∆( + 𝐳+ ) = − 𝐅𝐡
𝛒 𝐠𝐜 𝟐 𝐝𝐦
𝐠
∆z = 0 (No change in Z)
𝐠𝐜
∆𝛖𝟐
= 0 (No change in Kinetic energy)
𝟐
−𝐝𝐖𝐬
= 𝟎 (𝐍𝐨 𝐬𝐡𝐚𝐟𝐭 𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐤)
𝐝𝐦
∆𝐏 𝐏𝐋 − 𝐏𝟎 𝐏𝐨 − 𝐏𝐋
𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐞, ( ) = −𝐅𝐡 = 𝐨𝐫 𝐅𝐡 =
𝛒 𝛒 𝛒

(𝐏𝟎 − 𝐏𝐋 )𝛑𝐃𝟒
𝐔𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐇𝐚𝐠𝐞𝐧– 𝐏𝐨𝐢𝐬𝐞𝐮𝐢𝐥𝐥𝐞 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: 𝐪= → (𝐏𝟎 − 𝐏𝐋 )
𝟏𝟐𝟖 𝛍𝐋
(𝟏𝟐𝟖 𝛍𝐋)𝐪
=
𝛑𝐃𝟒

−∆𝐏 𝐏𝐨 − 𝐏𝐋
𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐞, 𝐅𝐡 = =
𝛒 𝛒
(𝟏𝟐𝟖 𝛍 𝐋) 𝐪
= (𝐟𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐝 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐬𝐦𝐨𝐨𝐭𝐡 𝐩𝐢𝐩𝐞)
𝛑𝐃𝟒 𝛒

B. FRICTIONAL HEATING IN TURBULENT FLOW

For a fluid in turbulent flow in a horizontal circular conduit:

“Darcy-Weisbach” equation for head loss of a fluid in turbulent flow in circular pipes

 This equation is equivalent to the Hagen-Poiseuille equation for laminar flow with the
exception of the empirical friction factor (f) introduced.

 In turbulent flow, the fluid has a chaotic flow pattern. Due to such nature, the approach of
determining frictional heating relies on the scaling factor or dimensionless group approach.

𝑳𝝊𝟐
𝒉𝒇 𝒐𝒓 𝑭𝒉 ~
𝑫

Let: 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟=fanning factor

𝟐𝒇𝑳𝝊𝟐
𝒉𝒇 𝒐𝒓 𝑭𝒉 =
𝑫
𝑫𝝊𝝆
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒎𝒐𝒐𝒕𝒉 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆: 𝒇 = 𝚯( ) = 𝚯(𝑹𝒆)
𝝁
Choice of friction factor (𝒇)
 The value of friction factor (𝑓) must be chosen with care or else the head loss will not be correct.
 The following are the following relationships to consider:
o 𝐹ℎ 𝛼 𝐿
o 𝐹ℎ 𝛼 𝜐 2
1
o 𝐹ℎ 𝛼 𝑑
o Fh depends on the surface roughness (ε) of the pipes
o Fh depends on fluid density and viscosity
o Fh independent of pressure

The value of friction factor (𝑓 ) for Laminar flow:

𝐅𝐨𝐫 𝐋𝐚𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐫 𝐟𝐥𝐨𝐰 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐧𝐨𝐧 − 𝐬𝐦𝐨𝐨𝐭𝐡 𝐩𝐢𝐩𝐞,

(𝟏𝟐𝟖 𝝁 𝑳) 𝒒 𝟐𝒇𝑳𝝊𝟐 𝝅𝑫𝟐
𝑭𝒉 𝒐𝒓 𝒉𝒇 = = 𝒃𝒖𝒕: 𝒒 = 𝝊𝑺 = 𝝊( )
𝝅𝑫𝟒 𝝆 𝑫 𝟒
𝝅𝑫𝟐
𝟏𝟐𝟖 𝝁 𝑳 [𝝊 ( )] 𝟐𝒇𝑳𝝊𝟐
𝟒
𝑭𝒉 = =
𝝅𝑫𝟒 𝝆 𝑫
𝟐
𝟑𝟐 𝝊 𝝁 𝟐𝒇𝝊
𝑭𝒉𝒑 = 𝟐
=
𝑫 𝝆 𝑫
𝟏𝟔𝝁 𝟏𝟔
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝒇 = = (fanning factor)
𝑫𝝊𝝆 𝑹𝒆

 Many folks calculate 4 times greater head loss (or 4 times less) than the actual friction loss. This
comes from confusion between Moody (𝒇𝑴 ) and Fanning ( f ) friction factors.
 Some friction factor (𝑓) graphs are for Moody Friction factor (𝒇𝑴 ) , which is 4 times Fanning
𝟔𝟒 𝟏𝟔
friction factor (𝒇). That is, 𝒇𝑴 = 𝑹𝒆 is Moody and 𝒇 = 𝑹𝒆 is Fanning.

For Turbulent Flow:

 For smooth pipe:

Blasius (1913) equation was the first to give accurate empirical expression for friction factor ( f )
for turbulent flow in smooth pipes, that is:
𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟗
𝒇=
𝑹𝒆𝟎.𝟐𝟓

*Fairly accurate, giving head losses +/- 5% of actual values for Re =4000 to 1x105 .

From McCabe and Smith:

0.046
For Re = 50,000 to 1x106 → f=
Re0.20
0.125
For Re = 3000 to 3x106 → f = 0.0014 +
Re0.32
  For non-smooth pipe:

From ChE HB (8th Edition p. 6-11)

Colebrook Equation:
𝟏 𝜺⁄𝑫 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝟔
= −𝟒 𝒍𝒐𝒈 ( + ) 𝑹𝒆 > 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
√𝒇 𝟑. 𝟕 𝑹𝒆√𝒇

Churchill Equation : ( Explicit form of the Colebrook-White Equation)

𝟏 𝜺 𝟕 𝟎.𝟗𝟎
= −𝟒 𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝟎. 𝟐𝟕 ( ) + ( ) ] 𝑹𝒆 > 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
√𝒇 𝑫 𝑹𝒆

Using Colebrook-White Equation (𝐌𝐨𝐨𝐝𝐲 ′ 𝐬 𝐅𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐅𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 (𝒇𝑴 ):

 Did a large number of experiments on commercial pipes and they also brought
together some important theoretical work by von Karman and Prandtl.
 It is applicable to the whole of the turbulent region for commercial pipes and uses
an effective roughness value (𝜀 ⁄𝐷 ) obtained experimentally for all commercial
pipes.

𝟏 𝜺⁄𝑫 𝟐. 𝟓𝟏
= −𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 ( + ) 𝑹𝒆 > 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
√𝒇𝑴 𝟑. 𝟕𝟏 𝑹𝒆√𝒇𝑴

*𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 < 𝑹𝒆 < 𝟏𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝜺⁄𝑫) < 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏

Barr (1975) equation presented an alternative explicit equation for friction factor (f )
𝟏 𝜺⁄𝑫 𝟓. 𝟏𝟐𝟖𝟔
= −𝟒 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 ( + )
√𝒇 𝟑. 𝟕𝟏 𝑹𝒆𝟎.𝟖𝟗
Or
𝟏
𝒇= 𝟐
𝜺⁄𝑫 𝟓. 𝟏𝟐𝟖𝟔
[−𝟒 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 (𝟑. 𝟕𝟏 + )]
𝑹𝒆𝟎.𝟖𝟗

*𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑹𝒆 > 𝟏𝟎𝟓

Typical Values of Absolute surface roughness, (𝜺):

(ft) (mm)
Draw Tubing 0.000005 0.0015
Commercial Steel and Wrought Iron 0.00015 0.046
Mild steel 0.00016 -0.0016 0.05 – 0.50
Asphalted Cast-iron 0.0004 0.12
Galvanized Iron 0.0005 0.15
Cast Iron 0.00085 0.26
Wood Stave 0.0006-0.003 0.18 - 0.90
Concrete 0.001-0.01 0.3 - 3.0
Rivetted Steel 0.003-0.03 0.9 - 9.0
 Various types of tube roughness

EFFECT OF TUBE ROUGHNESS -THE OVERALL FRICTION FACTOR CORRELATION

 In laminar flow, the fluid will flow in a tube wherein the streamlines would conform in such a way as to
minimize the effect of tube roughness on frictional heating.
𝑫𝝊𝝆 𝟏𝟔
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒍𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘: 𝒇 = ∅( ) = ∅(𝑹𝒆) =
𝝁 𝑹𝒆
 In turbulent flow, the fluid’s vortices and eddies will have a perceptible/ significant effect of the tube
roughness on the friction factor.
𝑫𝝊𝝆 𝜺
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘: 𝒇 = ∅( , ) = ∅(𝑹𝒆, 𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔)
𝝁 𝑫

Roughness parameters for pipes and tubes. (From L. F. Moody, Trans. ASME, (1944).) Values of 𝜀 are given in feet.
Friction Factor Chart for Newtonian Fluids Only
A. Fanning Friction Factor (f ) Chart

𝐅𝐚𝐧𝐧𝐢𝐧𝐠, 𝒇

*It should also be noted out that another overall f correlation exists that differs from above chart “Friction Factor
64
Chart for Newtonian Fluids”. In this other case, f is so defined that in laminar flow as 𝑓 ′ = = 4 𝑓
𝑅𝑒
 Modified Fanning friction factor plot (Reproduced with permission from reference 8. Copyright
1997, American Chemical Society):

Fanning factor, f

B. MOODY ‘s friction factor (f ‘) CHART:

 The Moody chart for the friction factor (f ’) for fully developed flow in circular pipes for use
𝑳 𝝊𝟐 𝒈
in the head loss relation , 𝒉𝑳 = 𝒇′ .
𝑫 𝟐 𝒈𝒄
Moody Friction factor, f for fully developed laminar flow in pipes of various cross sections :
(Moody’s) *

Moody′ s Friction Factor

∗ Note: Fanning ′ s Friction Factor (𝑓) = 4

Mass Velocity, (G ) :

 Sometimes known as “mass flux” or “mass current density”

 Can be calculated by dividing the mass flow rate by the cross sectional area of the channel.
 Independent of temperature and pressure when flow is steady (i.e. 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐦̇ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑺).
 Useful term for compressible fluids when velocity and density vary with temperature and
pressure.
𝒎̇ 𝐾𝑔
𝑮=𝝊 ̅𝝆= , 𝒊𝒏 2
𝑺 𝑚 ∙ 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑫𝝊𝝆 𝑫𝑮
𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒐, 𝑹𝒆 = 𝝁
= 𝝁
Example:
Crude oil, specific gravity = 0.888, flows through the piping shown below. Pipe A is 50 mm Schedule 40,
pipe B is 75 mm Schedule 40 and each of pipe C is 38 mm Schedule 40. An equal quantity of liquid flows
𝑚3
through each of the pipe C. The flow through pipe A is 6.82 ℎ𝑟
.

38mm
m

50mm
m 75mm
m

Calculate
a. mass flow rate in each pipe
b. Average linear velocity in each pipe
c. Mass velocity in each pipe

Solution:
a. mass flow rate in each pipe
𝑘𝑔 𝑚3
𝜌 = 887 3 𝑞 = 6.82 = 𝑞𝐴 = 𝑞𝐵
𝑚 ℎ𝑟
3
𝑚
𝑞 6.82 ℎ𝑟 𝑚3
𝑞𝐶 = = = 3.41
2 2 ℎ𝑟
𝑘𝑔 𝑚3 𝑘𝑔
𝒎̇𝑨 = 𝒎̇𝑩 = 𝝆 (𝒒) = 887 3 (6.82 ) = 6,049.34
𝑚 ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟
𝑘𝑔
6.049.34
𝒎̇𝑪𝟏 = 𝒎̇𝑪𝟐 = ℎ𝑟 = 3,024.67 𝑘𝑔
2 ℎ𝑟

b. Average linear velocity in each pipe

𝜋𝐷2 𝜋(0.05𝑚)2 𝜋𝐷2 𝜋(0.075𝑚)2 𝜋𝐷2 𝜋(0.038𝑚)2
𝑆𝐴 = = = 0.001963𝑚2 ; 𝑆𝐵 = = = 0.004418𝑚2 ; 𝑆𝐶 = = = 0.001134𝑚2
4 4 4 4 4 4

𝑚3
𝑞𝐴 6.82
𝜐𝐴 = = ℎ𝑟 = 3,474.274 𝑚 (0.965 𝑚 )
𝑆𝐴 0.001963𝑚2 ℎ𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑚3
𝑞𝐵 6.82
𝜐𝐵 = = ℎ𝑟 = 1,543.685 𝑚 (0.429 𝑚 )
𝑆𝐵 0.004418𝑚2 ℎ𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑚3
𝑞𝐶 3.41
𝜐𝐶 = = ℎ𝑟 = 3,007.055 𝑚 (0.835 𝑚 )
𝑆𝐶 0.001134𝑚2 ℎ𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐
c. Mass velocity in each pipe

𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇ 6,049.34
𝐺𝐴 = 𝜐̅ 𝜌 = = ℎ𝑟 = 3.0817𝑥106 𝑘𝑔 (856.022 𝑘𝑔
)
𝑆 0.001963𝑚 2 2
𝑚 ∙ ℎ𝑟 2
𝑚 ∙ 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇ 6,049.34
𝐺𝐵 = 𝜐̅ 𝜌 = = ℎ𝑟 = 1.369𝑥106 𝑘𝑔 (380.278 𝑘𝑔
)
𝑆 0.004418𝑚 2 2
𝑚 ∙ ℎ𝑟 2
𝑚 ∙ 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇ 3,024.67
𝐺𝐶 = 𝜐̅ 𝜌 = = ℎ𝑟 = 2.667𝑥106 𝑘𝑔 (740.833 𝑘𝑔
)
𝑆 0.001134𝑚 2 2
𝑚 ∙ ℎ𝑟 2
𝑚 ∙ 𝑠𝑒𝑐

EFFECT OF FLOW THROUGH FITTINGS -THE OVERALL FRICTION FACTOR

CORRELATION
 The flow through these fittings will give rise to frictional heating that cannot directly be
handled using above chart “Friction Factor Chart for Newtonian Fluids”
 In turbulent flow, a length of a pipe of a certain, diameter will give the same frictional loss as a
particular fitting. There is a length-to-diameter ratio that is characteristic of the fitting.
 If a pipeline has a tube diameter of 0.025 meters, a globe valve (wide open) will have the same
effect as (340) (0.025) or 8.5 m of straight pipe. Two such valves would have an equivalent
length (𝐿𝑒 ) of 17.0 m.

𝐅𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐝𝐮𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐅𝐢𝐭𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐬:

 In terms of Pipe length and equivalent length:

𝟐𝒇𝐋𝐓 𝛖𝟐
𝐅𝐡𝐩 = pipe length
𝐃
𝟐𝒇[𝐋𝐩𝐢𝐩𝐞 + 𝐋𝐞 ]𝛖𝟐 equivalent length
𝐅𝐡𝐩 =
𝐃
𝐋
𝟐𝒇 [𝐋𝐩𝐢𝐩𝐞 + (𝐭𝐮𝐛𝐞 𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫) ∑(𝐍𝐨. 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐢𝐭𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠) (𝐃 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐟𝐢𝐭𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐭𝐲𝐩𝐞)] 𝛖𝟐
𝐅𝐡𝐩 =
𝐃

∗∗∗∗ 𝐋𝐓 = 𝐋𝐩𝐢𝐩𝐞 + 𝐋𝐞 ∗∗∗∗∗

Where:
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 (𝐋𝐓 ) = 𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐩𝐢𝐩𝐞 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 + 𝐄𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐯. 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐝𝐮𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐟𝐢𝐭𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐬 = 𝐋𝐩𝐢𝐩𝐞 + 𝐋𝐞
Lpipe = original or actual pipe total linear length
L
Le = (tube diameter) ∑(No. of fittings) ( of the fitting type)
D

 In terms of Pipe length and no. of velocity heads:

𝟐𝒇𝐋𝐩𝐢𝐩𝐞 𝛖𝟐 𝝊𝟐
𝐅𝐡𝐩 = ]
+ ∑[𝑲𝟏 + 𝑲𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑲𝒏 ( )
𝐃 𝟐
EFFECT OF FLOW THROUGH EXPANSION AND CONTRACTIONS -THE OVERALL
FRICTION FACTOR CORRELATION
 Contractions or expansions that cause frictional heating.
 Generally, expansion and contraction losses are important mainly for short pipe lengths.
𝝊𝟏 𝟐
𝑭𝒉𝒄 = 𝑲
𝟐
Where:
K = resistance coefficient
𝜐1 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒
 Sudden expansion and contraction resistances

𝟐
𝑫𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝟐
*** 𝐅𝐨𝐫 𝐬𝐮𝐝𝐝𝐞𝐧 𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐫 𝐞𝐧𝐥𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭, 𝐊 = [𝟏 − 𝟐 ]
𝑫𝑩𝒊𝒈

Also, there will be boundary layer effect of fluid on the walls of the tube due to contraction:
For laminar flow,
𝐿𝑒
= 0.05 𝑅𝑒 ~ (Transition length Equation)
𝐷
For turbulent flow,
𝐿𝑒 ≈ 50 𝐷 ~ (Transition length Equation)
 To minimize the boundary layer effect, the above equations lead to the concept of an entrance length 𝐿𝑒
,needed for the full development of the velocity profile.
 If, for example, the smaller pipe were 0.05 m in diameter, the entrance length for turbulent flow should be
2.5 m; while for laminar flow with an Re of 1200, 𝐿𝑒 should be 3m.

C. FRICTIONAL HEATING IN NON-CIRCULAR CONDUIT

For horizontal system previously derived,

𝑃𝑜 − 𝑃𝐿
𝐹ℎ =
𝜌
Also, similar analysis as done for circular tube, volumetric flow rate of non-circular will be
𝑃𝑜 − 𝑃𝐿 1 1
𝑞= 𝑤ℎ
𝐿 𝜇 12
Re-arranging the volumetric flow rate equation and dividing it with density(𝜌) ,
𝑃𝑜 − 𝑃𝐿 𝑞𝐿𝜇
= 12
𝜌 𝑤ℎ𝜌
Therefore,
𝑃𝑜 − 𝑃𝐿 𝑞𝐿𝜇
𝐹ℎ = = 12
𝜌 𝑤ℎ𝜌
For any complex cross section,

 Consider the parameter known as hydraulic radius, 𝑅ℎ

Where:
𝜋𝐷 2
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐷
𝑅ℎ = = 4 =
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝜋𝐷 4

Therefore,
𝑯𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒖𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝑫𝒆𝒒 = 𝑫𝒉 = 𝟒𝑹𝒉

General Concept:
“For any cross section of circular or non-circular, there is an equivalent or hydraulic diameter”

𝑷𝒐 − 𝑷𝑳 𝟐 𝒇 𝝆𝝊𝟐
=
𝑳 𝑫𝒆𝒒

𝑷𝒐 − 𝑷𝑳 𝟐 𝒇 𝑳 𝝊𝟐
𝑭𝒉 = =
𝝆 𝑫𝒆𝒒
Pressure Drop and Friction Factor in Flow of Gases
 The equations and methods discussed for turbulent flow in pipes hold for incompressible
liquids. They also hold for a gas if the density (or the pressure) changes less than 10%.
𝑘𝑔
 Then an average density, 𝜌𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚3 , should be used and the errors involved will be less
than the uncertainty limits in the friction factor,𝑓.

For incompressible fluids,

𝑷𝒐 − 𝑷𝑳 𝟐 𝒇 𝑳 𝝊𝟐
𝑭𝒉 = =
𝝆 𝑫

In terms of G, for gases, where density (or the pressure) changes less than 10%
𝑚̇ 𝐾𝑔
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐺 = 𝜐̅ 𝜌 = , 𝑖𝑛 2
𝑆 𝑚 ∙ 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝟐 𝒇 𝑳 𝝊𝟐 𝝆𝟐 𝟐 𝒇 𝑳 𝑮𝟐
(𝐏𝐨 − 𝐏𝐋 ) = =
𝑫𝝆 𝑫𝝆𝒂𝒗𝒆

P +P
( 0 2 L) M
Also for gases, ρave =
RT

𝟒 𝒇 𝑳 𝑮𝟐 𝑹𝑻
𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐞, (𝑷𝑶 𝟐 − 𝑷𝑳 𝟐 ) = (𝑺𝑰 𝒆𝒒. )
𝑫𝑴
Where:
𝑘𝑔
𝐺 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑖𝑛 𝑚2 ∙𝑠𝑒𝑐,
~𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠

Sample problem

Nitrogen gas at 25°C is flowing in a smooth tube having an inside diameter of 0.010 m at the rate of
𝑘𝑔
9.0 𝑠𝑒𝑐∙𝑚2 . The tube is 200 m long and the flow can be assumed to be isothermal. The pressure at the
entrance to the tube is 2.0265 𝑥105 𝑃𝑎. Calculate the outlet pressure.

Given:
𝑘𝑔
𝐷 = 0.010 m ; G = 9.0 ; 𝜇 @ 25℃ = 1.77𝑥10−5 𝑃𝑎 ∙ 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑠𝑒𝑐 ∙ 𝑚2
𝐽
𝑃0 = 𝑃1 = 2.0265 𝑥105 𝑃𝑎 𝑀 = 28.02 𝐿 = 200 𝑚 𝑅 = 8314.3
𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝐾

Required: 𝑃𝐿 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ?

Solution:
𝑘𝑔
𝐷𝐺 0.010 𝑚 (9.0 )
𝑠𝑒𝑐∙𝑚2
𝑅𝑒 = = 𝑘𝑔 = 5,085 (𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡)
𝜇 1.77𝑥10 −5
𝑚∙𝑠𝑒𝑐
For smooth tube,
Blasius (1913) equation was the first to give accurate empirical expression for friction factor ( f )
for turbulent flow in smooth pipes, that is:
𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟗
𝒇=
𝑹𝒆𝟎.𝟐𝟓

*Fairly accurate, giving head losses +/- 5% of actual values for Re =4000 to 1x105 .
0.079
𝑓= = 0.00936
(5085)0.25

𝟒 𝒇 𝑳 𝑮𝟐 𝑹𝑻
(𝑷𝑶 𝟐 − 𝑷𝑳 𝟐 ) = (𝑺𝑰 𝒆𝒒. )
𝑫𝑴

𝑘𝑔 𝟐 𝐽
𝟒 (𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟑𝟔)(𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒎)(9.0 ) (8314.3 )(𝟐𝟓+𝟐𝟕𝟑.𝟏𝟓)𝑲
5 𝟐 𝟐 𝑠𝑒𝑐∙𝑚2 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙∙𝐾
[(2.0265 𝑥10 𝑃𝑎) − 𝑷𝑳 ] = 𝒌𝒈 (𝑺𝑰 𝒆𝒒. )
(𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝒎)(𝟐𝟖.𝟎𝟐 )
𝒌𝒈𝒎𝒐𝒍

𝑷𝑳 = 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟗𝟓 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑷𝒂

∗ 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑 𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝟔. 𝟓% 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒔 𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏 𝟏𝟎%, 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝒆 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅.

Sample Problems:
Air is flowing through a horizontal tube of 2.54-cm diameter. What is the maximum average velocity at which
laminar flow will be stable? What is the pressure drop at this velocity?

Given:
𝐷 = 2.54 𝑐𝑚 ≈ 0.0254𝑚

For laminar flow, maximum Re = 2100

𝐷𝜐𝜌
𝑅𝑒 = = 2100
𝜇
𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 @ 25°𝐶 = 1.2 3
𝑚
𝑘𝑔
𝜇𝑎𝑖𝑟 @ 25°𝐶 = 1.8 𝑥 10−5
𝑚 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐷 = 0.025𝑚 (𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛)
−5 𝑘𝑔
2100𝜇 (2100) (1.8 𝑥 10 𝑚 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ) 𝑚
𝜐= = = 1.22
𝐷𝜌 𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑒𝑐
0.0254 𝑚 (1.2 3 )
𝑚

For a fluid in laminar flow in a horizontal circular conduit:

Previously derived equation:

(𝑷𝟎 − 𝑷𝑳 ) 𝒓 𝟐
𝝊𝒁 = [𝟏 − ( ) ]
𝟒𝝁𝑳 𝑹
Volumetric flow rate :
𝒒 = ∫ 𝝊𝒁 𝒅𝑺
 (𝑷𝟎 − 𝑷𝑳 )𝝅𝑫𝟒
𝒒=
𝟏𝟐𝟖 𝝁𝑳

𝜋𝐷 2
(𝑃0 − 𝑃𝐿 ) 128𝑞𝜇 128(𝜐) ( 4 ) 𝜇 𝜐𝜇32
= = = 2
𝐿 𝜋𝐷 4 𝜋𝐷 4 𝐷

𝑚 −5 𝑘𝑔 𝑁⁄
∆𝑃 𝜐𝜇32 1.22 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (1.8 𝑥 10 𝑚 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ) (32) 𝑚2
= 2 = 2
= 1.041
𝐿 𝐷 (0.0254𝑚) 𝑚
(*Note that this is a very low pressure drop, which is to be expected for air and gaseous
substance at a moderate Reynolds number.)

Sample Problem:
98% sulphuric acid is pumped at 1.25 kg/s through a 25 mm diameter steel pipe, 30 m long, to a reservoir 12 m
higher than the feed point. Calculate the pressure drop in the pipeline.
N ∙ sec kg
Viscosity of acid = 2.5 x10−2 2
and Density of acid = 1840 3
m m
Given:
𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇ = 1.25 𝑠𝑒𝑐
D = 0.025 m
L = 30 m
𝑍1 = 0 𝑍2 = 12 𝑚
𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 = 1840
𝑚3
𝑘𝑔
𝜇𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 = 2.5 𝑥 10−2
𝑚 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Required: (∆𝑃) = ?
Solution:

Test for the flow,

𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝑔 𝑚̇ 1.25 𝑚3
𝑚̇ = 1.25 → 𝑞= = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 6.793 𝑥10−4
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜌 𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑒𝑐
1840 3
𝑚
3
−4 𝑚
𝑞 6.793 𝑥10 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑚
𝑞 = 𝜐𝑆 → 𝜐= = 2 = 1.384
𝑆 𝜋(0.025𝑚) 𝑠𝑒𝑐
[ ]
4

𝑚 𝑘𝑔
𝐷𝜐𝜌 (0.025𝑚) (1.384 𝑠𝑒𝑐) (1840 𝑚3 )
𝑅𝑒 = = = 2546.56 (𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟)
𝜇 𝑘𝑔
2.5 𝑥 10−2 𝑚 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Mild steel is suitable for conveying acid, where: 𝜀 = 0.05 𝑡𝑜 0.5 𝑚𝑚

ε 0.05 to 0.5 mm
Relative Roughness ( ) = = 0.002 to 0.02
D 25 mm
Value of friction factor (𝑓):

For laminar considering relative roughness,

𝟏𝟔𝝁 𝟏𝟔 𝟏𝟔
𝒇= = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟑
𝑫𝝊𝝆 𝑹𝒆 2546.56
𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑖 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔,

𝑷 𝒈 𝝊𝟐 −𝒅𝑾𝒔
∆( + 𝒛 + ) = − ∑ 𝑭𝒉
𝝆 𝒈𝒄 𝟐 𝒅𝒎
−𝒅𝑾𝒔
=𝟎
𝒅𝒎

g g m m2
∆z = (Z2 − Z1 ) = (9.81 )(12 − 0)m = 117.72
gc gc sec 2 sec 2
𝑚 2
Δυ2 (1.384 𝑠𝑒𝑐) 𝑚2
( )= = 0.9577
2 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2

𝑚 2
𝟐𝒇𝑳𝝊𝟐 𝟐(𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟑)(𝟑𝟎 𝒎) (1.384 𝑠𝑒𝑐) 𝒎𝟐
∑ 𝑭𝒉 = 𝑭𝒉 𝒐𝒓𝒉𝒇 = = = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟗𝟔𝟏𝟕
𝑫 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝒎 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐

𝐏 𝐠 𝛖𝟐 −𝐝𝐖𝐬
∆( + 𝐳 + ) = − ∑ 𝐅𝐡
𝛒 𝐠𝐜 𝟐 𝐝𝐦
𝚫𝑷 m2 𝑚2 𝒎𝟐
+ 117.72 + 0.9577 = 0 − 𝟐𝟖. 𝟗𝟔𝟏𝟕
𝝆 sec 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐

𝚫𝑷 𝒎𝟐
= 𝟏𝟒𝟕. 𝟔𝟑𝟗
𝝆 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐

𝒎𝟐 𝑘𝑔 𝑁 𝑘𝑁
𝚫𝑷 = 𝟏𝟒𝟕. 𝟔𝟑𝟗 𝟐
(1840 3 ) = 271,656.49 2 (2.71 𝑥105 2 )
𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚

Sample Problem:
How many gallons of water per minute at 20°C can be delivered through a 400-m length of smooth pipe (0.15-m
𝑁
diameter) with a pressure difference of 1720 2 ?
𝑚

Given:

Water
20℃
400 m ( 0.15 − 𝑚 ∅)
𝑁
∆𝑃 = 1720 2
𝑚
Required: 𝑞 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒
Solution:

𝐏 𝐠 𝛖𝟐 −𝐝𝐖𝐬
∆( + 𝐳+ ) = − 𝐅𝐡 (Bernoulli Equation with frictional heating)
𝛒 𝐠𝐜 𝟐 𝐝𝐦
𝒈 𝝊𝟐
∆( 𝒛 + ) = 𝟎
𝒈𝒄 𝟐
−𝒅𝑾𝒔
=𝟎
𝒅𝒎
1
∆𝑷 2𝑓𝐿𝜐 2 ∆𝑃𝐷 2
( ) = −𝑭𝒉 = → 𝜐=( )
𝝆 𝐷 2𝑓𝜌𝐿

Method 1:
𝜋𝐷2
Volumetric Flow Rate (𝑞) = 𝜐𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝜐 ( )
4
1
∆PD 2
υ=( )
2fρL
𝟏 smooth => automatic turbulent
∆𝑷𝑫 𝟐
𝑫( ) 𝝆
𝑫𝝊𝝆 𝟐𝒇𝝆𝑳 SMOOTH AND TURBULENT
𝑹𝒆 = =
𝝁 𝝁

𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟗
𝐔𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐁𝐥𝐚𝐬𝐢𝐮𝐬 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 ∶ 𝐟 =
𝐑𝐞𝟎.𝟐𝟓
(Fairly accurate, giving head losses +/- 5% of actual values for Re= 4000 to 1x105 .)
𝟏
∆𝐏𝐃 𝟐
𝐃𝛒 ( )
𝟐𝛒𝐋 transpose to the left side of the equation
𝐑 𝐞 √𝐟 =
𝛍
𝟏 𝟏 shift-solve
∆𝐏𝐃 𝟐 𝐤𝐠 𝐍 𝟐
𝐃𝛒 (
𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟗 𝟐𝛒𝐋 ) (𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝐦) (𝟗𝟗𝟖 )
𝐦𝟑 (𝟏𝟕𝟐𝟎 𝐦𝟐 ) (𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝐦)
𝐑 𝐞 √( )= = [ ] = 𝟐𝟔𝟗𝟏. 𝟎𝟓
𝐑𝐞𝟎.𝟐𝟓 𝛍 𝐤𝐠 𝐤𝐠
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏 𝟐 (𝟗𝟗𝟖 𝟑 ) (𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝐦)
𝐦 − 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝐦

𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟏𝑹𝒆𝟎.𝟖𝟕𝟓 = 𝟐𝟔𝟗𝟏. 𝟎𝟓

𝑹𝒆 = 𝟑𝟓, 𝟒𝟕𝟖. 𝟎𝟖

𝒌𝒈
𝑹𝒆 𝝁 𝟑𝟓, 𝟒𝟕𝟖. 𝟎𝟖 (𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏 𝒎 − 𝒔𝒆𝒄) 𝒎
𝝊= = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟕
𝑫𝝆 𝒌𝒈 𝒔𝒆𝒄
(𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝒎) (𝟗𝟗𝟖 𝟑 )
𝒎

𝝅𝑫𝟐 𝒎 𝝅(𝟎. 𝟏𝟓)𝟐 𝒎𝟑 𝒈𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒔

𝒒 = 𝝊( ) = (𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟕 )[ ] = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟐 𝒐𝒓 𝟔𝟕
𝟒 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝟒 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒎𝒊𝒏
Method 2:
By Trial and Error,
𝜋𝐷2
Volumetric Flow Rate (𝑞) = 𝜐𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝜐 ( )
4
1
∆𝑃𝐷 2
𝜐=( )
2𝑓𝜌𝐿

a. Assume a volumetric flow rate, q

𝑄
b. Compute 𝜐 using 𝜐 = 𝜋𝐷2
4
𝐷𝜐𝜌
c. Compute 𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
d. Get the f from
a. “Friction Factor Chart” using the “smooth pipe line”
𝟎.𝟎𝟕𝟗
b. Blasius Equation [𝒇 = 𝟎.𝟐𝟓] 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∶ Re up to 1x105
𝑹𝒆
𝟎.𝟏𝟐𝟓
c. McCabe & Smith Eq’n. [𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟒 + ] 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑅𝑒 = 3000 𝑡𝑜 3𝑥106
𝑹𝒆𝟎.𝟑𝟐

∆𝑷 2𝑓𝐿𝜐2 𝜌(2𝑓𝐿𝜐2 )
e. Compute pressure drop using (
𝝆
) = 𝐷
→ (∆𝑃) = 𝐷
f. Assumed q is correct if :
(∆𝑃𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 ) = 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 (∆𝑃𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 ),

Method 3:
𝟏
∆𝑷𝑫 𝟐
𝑫𝝆 (
𝟐𝝆𝑳 )
𝑹𝒆 √𝒇 =
𝝁
𝟏 𝟏
∆𝑷𝑫 𝟐 𝒌𝒈 𝑵 𝟐
𝑫𝝆 (
𝟐𝝆𝑳 ) (𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝒎) (𝟗𝟗𝟖 )
𝒎𝟑 (𝟏𝟕𝟐𝟎 𝒎𝟐 ) (𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝒎)
𝑹𝒆 √𝒇 = = [ ] = 𝟐𝟔𝟗𝟏. 𝟎𝟓
𝝁 𝒌𝒈 𝒌𝒈
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏 𝟐 (𝟗𝟗𝟖 𝟑 ) (𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝒎)
𝒎 − 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒎

Using Modified friction factor plot (Reproduced with permission from reference 8. Copyright 1997,
American Chemical Society),

𝒇
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒈𝒖𝒓𝒆, 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑹𝒆 √𝒇 = 𝟐𝟔𝟗𝟏, 𝑭𝒐𝒓 " 𝒔𝒎𝒐𝒐𝒕𝒉 𝒑𝒊𝒑𝒆", 𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟕𝟓

𝟐𝟔𝟗𝟏 𝟐, 𝟔𝟗𝟏
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑹𝒆 = = = 𝟑𝟓, 𝟒𝟖𝟖
√𝒇 √𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟕𝟓

𝑫𝝊𝝆
𝑹𝒆 = = 𝟑𝟓, 𝟒𝟖𝟖
𝝁
𝒌𝒈
𝑹𝒆 𝝁 𝟑𝟓, 𝟒𝟖𝟖 (𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏 𝒎 − 𝒔𝒆𝒄) 𝒎
𝝊= = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟕
𝑫𝝆 𝒌𝒈 𝒔𝒆𝒄
(𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝒎) (𝟗𝟗𝟖 𝟑 )
𝒎
𝝅𝑫𝟐 𝒎 𝝅(𝟎. 𝟏𝟓)𝟐 𝒎𝟑 𝒈𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒔
𝒒 = 𝝊( ) = (𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟕 )[ ] = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟐 𝒐𝒓 𝟔𝟕
𝟒 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝟒 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒎𝒊𝒏

𝑁
4. A large, high-pressure chemical reactor contains water at an absolute pressure of 1.38 𝑥 107 2 and a
𝑚
temperature of 20°C. A 0.07-meter inside diameter line connected to it ruptures at a point 3 meters from the reactor
(as shown on the figure below). What is the flow rate from the break?

Given:

L=3 meters
D= 0.07 meter
𝑁
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 1.38 𝑥 107 𝑇 = 20°C
𝑚2

Required: Flow rate (q) from the break

Solution:
𝝅𝑫𝟐
𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐜 𝐅𝐥𝐨𝐰 𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐞 (𝒒) = 𝑭𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒙 𝑷𝒊𝒑𝒆 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝝊 ( )
𝟒

*Note that this represents an unsteady-state flow case. However, we can treat it as a pseudo-steady-state flow by
realizing that the initial flow at the rupture point will be the maximum outflow at the pipe.

*Using the Bernoulli balance and taking the liquid surface and the pipe break as the relevant limits,

𝑷 𝒈 𝝊𝟐 −𝒅𝑾𝒔
∆( + 𝒛 + ) = − 𝑭𝒉 (𝐵𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑖 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝝆 𝒈𝒄 𝟐 𝒅𝒎

𝑔
∆𝑧 = 0 ( 𝑁𝑜 𝑧 − 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡)
𝑔𝑐
−𝑑𝑊𝑠
= 0 (𝑁𝑜 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑)
𝑑𝑚

𝑷 𝝊𝟐
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, ∆ ( + ) = − ∑ 𝑭𝒉
𝝆 𝟐
 𝜐2 2 − 𝜐1 2
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝜐1 = 0
2
*The potential energy effect is neglected because of the magnitude of the other effects. This is so because
the liquid surface velocity 𝑉1 , will be very much lower than 𝑉2 the velocity of the fluid out at the pipe
break.
∆𝑷 𝝊𝟐 𝟐
( )+ = − ∑ 𝑭𝒉
𝝆 𝟐

𝟐𝐟𝐋𝛖𝟐 𝟐
𝐅𝐡 𝐝𝐮𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐩𝐢𝐩𝐞 𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐞𝐜𝐭: 𝐅𝐡𝐩 =
𝐃
𝛖𝟐 𝟐
𝐅𝐡 𝐝𝐮𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐬𝐮𝐝𝐝𝐞𝐧 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: 𝐅𝐡𝐜 = 𝐊 𝟐
𝟐𝒇𝑳𝝊𝟐 𝟐 𝝊𝟐 𝟐
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, ∑ 𝑭𝒉 = 𝑭𝒉𝒑 + 𝑭𝒉𝒄 = +𝑲
𝑫 𝟐
∆𝑷 𝝊𝟐 𝟐 𝟐𝒇𝑳𝝊𝟐 𝟐 𝝊𝟐 𝟐
( )+ = − ∑ 𝑭𝒉 = − [ +𝑲 ]
𝝆 𝟐 𝑫 𝟐
𝝊𝟐 𝟐 𝟐𝒇𝑳𝝊𝟐 𝟐 𝝊𝟐 𝟐 ∆𝑷
+ +𝑲 = −( )
𝟐 𝑫 𝟐 𝝆
𝟏 𝟐𝒇𝑳 𝑲 ∆𝑷
𝝊𝟐 𝟐 [ + + ] = −( )
𝟐 𝑫 𝟐 𝝆
𝑫 + 𝟒𝒇𝑳 + 𝑲𝑫 ∆𝑷
𝝊𝟐 𝟐 [ ] = −( )
𝟐𝑫 𝝆
𝟐𝑫(−∆𝑷)
𝝊𝟐 𝟐 =
(𝑫 + 𝟒𝒇𝑳 + 𝑲𝑫)𝝆
𝟏
𝟐

𝟐(−∆𝑷)
𝝊𝟐 =
𝑳
𝝆 (𝟏 + 𝑲 + 𝟒𝒇 ( ))
[ 𝑫 ]

For resistance coefficient, K for sudden contraction, using the figure below

𝐷1
For 𝐷1 <<<< 𝐷2 , 𝐷2
≈ 0 , 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑲 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎
For 𝑭𝒉 evaluation,
(Assuming Commercial steel),
Typical Values of Absolute surface roughness, (𝜺):

(ft) (mm)
Draw Tubing 0.000005 0.0015
Commercial Steel and Wrought Iron 0.00015 0.046
Mild steel 0.00016 -0.0016 0.05 – 0.50
Asphalted Cast-iron 0.0004 0.12
Galvanized Iron 0.0005 0.15
Cast Iron 0.00085 0.26
Wood Stave 0.0006-0.003 0.18 - 0.90
Concrete 0.001-0.01 0.3 - 3.0
Rivetted Steel 0.003-0.03 0.9 - 9.0

𝜺 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟔 𝒎
𝜺 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟔 𝒎
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟓𝟕
𝑫 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕 𝒎

Using Friction factor chart,

Assuming smooth pipe,

𝜺 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟓𝟕
𝒇𝒐𝒓 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟓𝟑 𝒇 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟓 ,
𝑫 𝟎.𝟎𝟕 𝒎

𝟏
𝟐
𝟐(−∆𝑷)
𝝊𝟐 =
𝑳
𝝆 (𝟏 + 𝑲 + 𝟒𝒇 ( ))
[ 𝑫 ]
𝑁 𝑁
𝑃𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 𝑃𝑔 + 𝑃𝐴𝑡𝑚 = 1.38 𝑥 107 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝐴𝑡𝑚 = 101.325𝐾𝑃𝑎 𝑜𝑟 1.013 𝑥105
𝑚2 𝑚2

𝑵 𝑵
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑷𝒈 = (∆𝑷) = (𝟏. 𝟎𝟏𝟑 − 𝟏𝟑𝟖)𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝟐
= −𝟏𝟑𝟔. 𝟗𝟖𝟕 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝟐
𝒎 𝒎
 𝟏
𝟐
𝑵
𝟐 [−(−𝟏𝟑𝟔. 𝟗𝟖𝟕𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟓 ) ] 𝒎
𝝊𝟐 = 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟗. 𝟗𝟒
𝒌𝒈 𝟑𝒎 𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝟗𝟗𝟖 𝟑 (𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎 + 𝟒(𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟓) (𝟎. 𝟎𝟕 𝒎))
[ 𝒎 ]

Checking if 𝒇 𝒊𝒔 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒅,
𝒎 𝒌𝒈
𝑫𝝊𝝆 (𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝒎) (𝟏𝟎𝟗. 𝟗𝟒 𝒔𝒆𝒄) (𝟗𝟗𝟖 𝒎𝟑 )
𝑹𝒆 = = = 𝟕. 𝟔𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟔
𝝁 𝒌𝒈
(𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏 𝒎 − 𝒔𝒆𝒄)

Using Friction factor chart,

𝜺 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟓𝟕
𝑹𝒆 = 𝟕. 𝟔𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟓𝟑, 𝒇 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟓 (∴ 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒅)
𝑫 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕 𝒎

𝝅𝑫𝟐
𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐜 𝐅𝐥𝐨𝐰 𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐞 (𝒒) = 𝑭𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒙 𝑷𝒊𝒑𝒆 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝝊 ( )
𝟒

𝒎 𝝅(𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝒎)𝟐 𝒎𝟑 𝒈𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒔

𝒒 = (𝟏𝟎𝟗. 𝟗𝟒 )[ ] = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝟑 𝒐𝒓 𝟔𝟕𝟐𝟎. 𝟓𝟔
𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝟒 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆

Alternative method of solution:

Using Colebrook-White Equation:
 Did a large number of experiments on commercial pipes and they also brought
together some important theoretical work by von Karman and Prandtl.
 It is applicable to the whole of the turbulent region for commercial pipes and uses
an effective roughness value (𝜀 ⁄𝐷 ) obtained experimentally for all commercial
pipes.
𝟏
𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝟑
𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟕𝟓 [𝟏 + (𝟐𝟎𝟎 (𝜺⁄𝑫) + )]
𝑹𝒆

𝟏
𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝟑
𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟕𝟓 [𝟏 + (𝟐𝟎𝟎[𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟓𝟕] + ) ]
𝑹𝒆
𝟏
𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝟑
𝑓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟕𝟓 [𝟏 + (𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟏𝟒 + ) ]
𝑹𝒆

𝟏
𝟑
𝟏𝟎𝟔
𝑓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝟏 + (𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟏𝟒 + )
𝑫𝝊𝝆
[
𝝁 ]
 𝟏
𝟑

𝟏𝟎𝟔
𝑓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟏𝟒 +
(𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝒎)(𝝊𝟐 ) (𝟗𝟗𝟖
𝒌𝒈
)
𝒎𝟑
𝒌𝒈
(𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏
( 𝒎 − 𝒔𝒆𝒄) ) ]
[
𝟏
𝟏𝟒. 𝟑𝟏𝟒 𝟑
𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟕𝟓 [𝟏 + (𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟏𝟒 + ) ]
𝝊𝟐

𝑺𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒇 in the equation below and solve by iteration:

𝟏
𝟐

𝟐(−∆𝑷)
𝝊𝟐 =
𝑳
𝝆 (𝟏 + 𝑲 + 𝟒𝒇 ( ))
[ 𝑫 ]

Sample Problem:
A pump takes water at 10°C from a large open reservoir and delivers it to the bottom of an open elevated tank (see
figure below). The level of the tank averages 48.77 m (160 feet) above the surface of the reservoir. The pipe is 0.076
𝐿
m in diameter and consists of 152.4 m of straight pipe, six elbows, two gate valves, and 2 tees ( = 60). The pump
𝐷
𝑚3
delivers 0.00898 . What is the horsepower consumed if the pump has a mechanical efficiency of 55% ?
𝑠𝑒𝑐

Solution:
Using Bernoulli balance,
𝑷 𝒈 𝝊𝟐 −𝒅𝑾𝒔
∆( + 𝒛 + ) = − ∑ 𝑭𝒉 (𝐵𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑖 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝝆 𝒈𝒄 𝟐 𝒅𝒎
∆𝑃
=0 (𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒)
𝜌
∆𝜐2
=0 (𝑁𝑜 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒)
2
𝒈 −𝒅𝑾𝒔
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎, ∆𝒛 + 𝑭𝒉 =
𝒈𝒄 𝒅𝒎
𝟐𝒇𝑳𝝊𝟐
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑭𝒉 =
𝑫
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝑞) = (𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)(𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎) = 𝜐𝑆
𝜋𝐷 2 𝑚3
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑞 = 𝜐 ( ) = 0.00898
4 𝑠𝑒𝑐
3
𝑚 4 𝑚
𝜐 = (0.00898 )[ ] = 1.98
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜋(0.076𝑚)2 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
@ 10℃, 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 999.6 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1.3 𝑥10−3
𝑚 𝑚 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑚 𝑘𝑔
𝐷𝜐𝜌 (0.076𝑚) (1.98 ) (999.6 )
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑚3
𝑅𝑒 = = = 115,700
𝜇 𝑘𝑔
1.3 𝑥10−3
𝑚 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐
From Friction Factor Chart for Newtonian Fluids,
A turbulent flow, assuming a smooth tube
For Re = 115,700, 𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟓

𝐅𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐝𝐮𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐅𝐢𝐭𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐬:

 In terms of Pipe length and equivalent length:
𝟐𝒇𝐋𝐓 𝛖𝟐
𝐅𝐡𝐩 =
𝐃
𝟐𝒇[𝐋𝐩𝐢𝐩𝐞 + 𝐋𝐞 ]𝛖𝟐
𝐅𝐡𝐩 =
𝐃
𝐋
𝟐𝒇 [𝐋𝐩𝐢𝐩𝐞 + (𝐭𝐮𝐛𝐞 𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫) ∑(𝐍𝐨. 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐢𝐭𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠) (𝐃 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐟𝐢𝐭𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐭𝐲𝐩𝐞)] 𝛖𝟐
𝐅𝐡𝐩 =
𝐃

∗∗∗∗ 𝐋𝐓 = 𝐋𝐩𝐢𝐩𝐞 + 𝐋𝐞 ∗∗∗∗∗

Where:
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 (𝐋𝐓 ) = 𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐩𝐢𝐩𝐞 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 + 𝐄𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐯. 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐝𝐮𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐟𝐢𝐭𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐬 = 𝐋𝐩𝐢𝐩𝐞 + 𝐋𝐞
Lpipe = original or actual pipe total linear length
L
Le = (tube diameter) ∑(No. of fittings) ( of the fitting type)
D

 In terms of Pipe length and no. of velocity heads:

𝟐𝒇𝐋𝐩𝐢𝐩𝐞 𝛖𝟐 𝝊𝟐
𝐅𝐡𝐩 = ]
+ ∑[𝑲𝟏 + 𝑲𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑲𝒏 ( )
𝐃 𝟐

𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 (𝐋𝐓 ) = 𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐩𝐢𝐩𝐞 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 + 𝐄𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐝𝐮𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐟𝐢𝐭𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐬 = 𝐋𝐩𝐢𝐩𝐞 + 𝐋𝐞

∗∗∗∗ 𝐋𝐓 = 𝐋𝐩𝐢𝐩𝐞 + 𝐋𝐞 ∗∗∗∗∗

Where: Lpipe = original or actual pipe total linear length

L
Le = (tube diameter) ∑(No. of fittings) ( of the fitting type)
D
 Equivalent Length (𝐋𝐞 ) due to fittings:

𝐿
𝐿𝑒 = (𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟) ∑(𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠) ( 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒)
𝐷
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝐿𝑒 = 0.076 𝑚 [6 𝑒𝑙𝑏𝑜𝑤𝑠 ( 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑏𝑜𝑤) + 2 𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑠 ( 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑠) + 2 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑠 ( 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑠)]
𝐷 𝐷 𝐷

𝑳𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟔 𝒎 [𝟔 (𝟒𝟎) + 𝟐 (𝟕. 𝟓) + 𝟐 (𝟔𝟎)] = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟔 𝒎 (𝟑𝟕𝟓) = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟓𝟎 𝒎

𝑜𝑟
𝑲𝒇 = [𝟔(𝟎. 𝟖𝟎) + 𝟐(𝟎. 𝟏𝟓) + 𝟐(𝟏. 𝟐)] = 𝟕. 𝟓 in terms of K

𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 (𝐋𝐓 ) = 𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐏𝐢𝐩𝐞 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 + 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐄𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐝𝐮𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐟𝐢𝐭𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐬 = 𝟏𝟓𝟐. 𝟒 𝐦 + 𝟐𝟖. 𝟓𝟎
= 𝟏𝟖𝟎. 𝟗𝟎 𝐦

𝐦 𝟐
𝟐𝒇𝐋𝐓 𝛖𝟐 𝟐 (𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟓)(𝟏𝟖𝟎. 𝟗𝟎 𝐦) (𝟏. 𝟗𝟖 𝐬𝐞𝐜) 𝐦𝟐
𝐅𝐡𝐩 = = = 𝟖𝟑. 𝟗𝟖𝟒
𝐃 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟔 𝐦 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐
or
𝐦 𝟐 𝑚 2
𝟐𝒇𝐋𝛖𝟐 𝛖𝟐 𝟐 (𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟓)(𝟏𝟓𝟐. 𝟒) (𝟏. 𝟗𝟖 𝐬𝐞𝐜) (1.98 𝑠𝑒𝑐) 𝐦𝟐
𝐅𝐡𝐩 = + 𝑲𝒇 [ ] = + (𝟕. 𝟓) [ ] = 𝟖𝟓. 𝟒𝟓𝟒
𝐃 𝟐 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟔 𝐦 2 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐

−𝒅𝑾𝒔 𝒈 𝒎 𝒎𝟐 𝒎𝟐
= ∆𝒛 + ∑ 𝑭𝒉 = (𝟗. 𝟖 ) (𝟒𝟖. 𝟕𝟕 𝒎) + 𝟖𝟑. 𝟗𝟖𝟒 = 𝟓𝟔𝟏. 𝟗𝟑
𝒅𝒎 𝒈𝒄 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐
𝟏 𝒌𝒈 − 𝒎
∗ 𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒆: 𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎, 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚, 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝒈𝒄 =
𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 − 𝒏𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏

𝒎𝟐
− 𝒅𝑾𝒔 𝟓𝟔𝟏. 𝟗𝟑
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆,
𝒈
= ∆𝒛 + 𝑭𝒉𝒑 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 = 𝟓𝟔𝟏. 𝟗𝟑 𝒏𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏 − 𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟔𝟐 𝒌𝑱
𝒅𝒎 𝒈𝒄 𝟏 𝒌𝒈 − 𝒎 𝒌𝒈 𝒌𝒈
𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 − 𝒏𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏

∗ 𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 (−)𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑤𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 "into" 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 (𝑷𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐 ) = 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒙 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 = 𝑾𝒔 ∙ 𝒎̇

𝒌𝑱 𝒌𝑱 𝒎𝟑 𝒌𝒈 𝑲𝑱
𝑷𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐 = 𝑾𝒔 ∙ 𝒎̇ = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟔𝟐 (𝑸 𝒙 𝝆) = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟔𝟐 ( 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟗𝟖 𝒙𝟗𝟗𝟗. 𝟔 𝟑 ) = 𝟓. 𝟎𝟒 𝒐𝒓 𝟓. 𝟎𝟒 𝒌𝑾
𝒌𝒈 𝒌𝒈 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒎 𝒔𝒆𝒄

*Note: Taking into account the efficiency of the pump. This efficiency actually represents the irreversibility of the
work performed (i.e., work was calculated for a reversible process):

𝑷𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐
𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 (𝑷𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 ) =
𝑷𝒖𝒎𝒑 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚
𝟓. 𝟎𝟒 𝒌𝑾
𝑷𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 = = 𝟗. 𝟏𝟔𝟒 𝒌𝑾
𝟓𝟓%

Sample Problem
Find the hydraulic radius for each of the following:
a. A filled equilateral triangle (side = a; altitude = h);
b. An open semicircle (diameter = D)
c. A square (side = S);
Solution:
For any complex cross section,
 Consider the parameter known as hydraulic radius, 𝑅ℎ
Where:
𝜋𝐷 2
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐷
𝑅ℎ = = 4 =
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝜋𝐷 4

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝐷𝑒𝑞 = 𝐷ℎ = 4𝑅ℎ

a. A filled equilateral triangle (side = a; altitude = h);

1(𝑎)(ℎ)
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 2 1
𝑅ℎ = = = ℎ
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 3𝑎 6

b. An open semicircle (diameter = D)

1 𝜋𝐷 2
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 ( ) 𝐷
𝑅ℎ = = 2 4 =
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 1 4
2 𝜋𝐷

c. A square (side = S);

𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑆2 𝑆

𝑅ℎ = = =
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 4𝑆 4
Sample Problem:
𝑚3
A volumetric flow of air (14.2 ) is to be moved from an air conditioner to a building 243.8 m away. The air is at
𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑁 𝑁
a temperature of 5°C and a pressure of 689.5 . Building pressure is 0 . What would be the dimension of a
𝑚2 𝑚2
smooth square duct used to transport the air?

Given:
𝑚3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑞 = 14.2
𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐿 = 243.8 m
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
𝑃0 = 689.5 ; 𝑃𝐿 = 0 2 ∆𝑃 = 𝑃𝑜 − 𝑃𝐿 = (689.5 − 0) 2 = 689.5 2
𝑚2 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 5℃ = 1.282 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 5℃ = 1.7 𝑥 10−5
𝑚 𝑚 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Required: Area or dimension of a smooth square duct used to transport the air?
Solution:

By Trial and Error,

Assume area or square dimension of the duct, 0.3m x 0.3 m or 0.09 𝑚2
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑞 = 𝜐 (𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)
𝑚3 1𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑞 14.2 ( ) 𝑚
𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜐= = 2
= 2.63
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 0.09 𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐

For any complex cross section such as square duct,

𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑆 2
𝑅ℎ = =
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 4𝑆
𝑆2
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝐷𝑒𝑞 = 𝐷ℎ = 4𝑅ℎ = 4 (4𝑆) = 𝑆= 0.3 m

𝑚 𝑘𝑔
𝐷 𝜐𝜌 (0.3 𝑚) (2.63 ) (1.282 3 )
𝑒𝑞 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑚 = 59,500
𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑′ 𝑠 𝑁𝑜. = 𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇 −5 𝑘𝑔
1.7 𝑥10 𝑚 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Using Friction factor chart, for smooth square duct and Re = 59,500 𝑓 = 0.0050

𝒇
 𝑷𝒐 − 𝑷𝑳 𝟐 𝒇 𝝆𝝊𝟐
=
𝑳 𝑫𝒆𝒒

𝑘𝑔 𝑚 2
2 𝑓𝐿 𝜌𝜐 2 2(0.005)(243.8 m) (1.282 𝑚3 ) (2.63 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ) 𝑘𝑔 − 𝑚3 𝑁 𝑁
∆𝑃 = = = 72.06 4 2
= 72.06 2 ≠ 689.5 2
𝐷𝑒𝑞 0.3 𝑚 𝑚 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑚 𝑚

Assume again area or square dimension of the duct, 0.19m x 0.19 m or 0.0361 𝑚2
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑞 = 𝜐 (𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)
𝑚3 1𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑞 14.2 ( ) 𝑚
𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜐= = 2
= 6.556
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 0.0361 𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐

For any complex cross section such as square duct,

𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑆 2
𝑅ℎ = =
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 4𝑆
𝑆2
𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝐷𝑒𝑞 = 𝐷ℎ = 4𝑅ℎ = 4 ( ) = 𝑆= 0.19 m
4𝑆

𝑚 𝑘𝑔
𝐷 𝜐𝜌 (0.19 𝑚) (6.556 ) (1.282 3 )
𝑒𝑞 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑚 = 93,936
𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑′ 𝑠 𝑁𝑜. = 𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇 −5 𝑘𝑔
1.7 𝑥10 𝑚 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Using Friction factor chart, for smooth square duct and Re = 93,936 𝑓 = 0.0046

𝑷𝒐 − 𝑷𝑳 𝟐 𝒇 𝝆𝝊𝟐
=
𝑳 𝑫𝒆𝒒

𝒌𝒈 𝒎 𝟐
𝟐 𝒇𝑳 𝝆𝝊𝟐 𝟐(𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟔)(𝟐𝟒𝟑. 𝟖 𝐦) (𝟏. 𝟐𝟖𝟐 𝒎𝟑 ) (𝟔. 𝟓𝟓𝟔 𝒔𝒆𝒄) 𝒌𝒈 − 𝒎𝟑 𝑵 𝑵
∆𝑷 = = = 𝟔𝟓𝟎. 𝟒𝟖 𝟒 = 𝟔𝟓𝟎. 𝟒𝟖 𝟐 ≠ 𝟔𝟖𝟗. 𝟓 𝟐
𝑫𝒆𝒒 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗 𝒎 𝒎 − 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒎 𝒎
Assume again area or square dimension of the duct, 0.185m x 0.185 m or 0.0342 𝑚2
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑞 = 𝜐 (𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)
𝑚3 1𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑞 14.2 ( ) 𝑚
𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜐𝜐 = = 2
= 6.92
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 0.0342 𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐

For any complex cross section such as square duct,

𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑆 2
𝑅ℎ = =
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 4𝑆
𝑆2
𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝐷𝑒𝑞 = 𝐷ℎ = 4𝑅ℎ = 4 (4𝑆) = 𝑆= 0.185 m

𝑚 𝑘𝑔
𝐷 𝜐𝜌 (0.185 𝑚) (6.92 ) (1.282 3 )
𝑒𝑞 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑚
𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑′ 𝑠 𝑁𝑜. = 𝑅𝑒 = = = 96,542
𝜇 𝑘𝑔
1.7 𝑥10−5
𝑚 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Using Friction factor chart, for smooth square duct and Re = 96,542 𝑓 = 0.0047

𝑷𝒐 − 𝑷𝑳 𝟐 𝒇 𝝆𝝊𝟐
=
𝑳 𝑫𝒆𝒒

𝒌𝒈 𝒎 𝟐
𝟐 𝒇𝑳 𝝆𝝊𝟐 𝟐(𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟕)(𝟐𝟒𝟑. 𝟖 𝐦) (𝟏. 𝟐𝟖𝟐 𝒎𝟑 ) (𝟔. 𝟗𝟐 𝒔𝒆𝒄) 𝒌𝒈 − 𝒎𝟑 𝑵 𝑵
∆𝑷 = = = 𝟕𝟔𝟎. 𝟒𝟖 𝟒 = 𝟕𝟔𝟎. 𝟒𝟖 𝟐 ≠ 𝟔𝟖𝟗. 𝟓 𝟐
𝑫𝒆𝒒 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟓 𝒎 𝒎 − 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒎 𝒎

Therefore,
Dimension could be in the range of 0.185 m x 0.185 m to 0.19m x0.19m
COUETTE FLOW
In one form of layer flow, illustrated in Figure below, the fluid is bounded between two very large, flat,
parallel plates separated by distance B. The lower plate is stationary, and the upper plate is moving to the
right at a constant velocity, 𝝊𝒐 . For a newtonian fluid the velocity profile is linear and the velocity, 𝝊 is
zero at y =0 and equals 𝝊𝒐 at y =B, where y is the vertical distance measured from the lower plate. The
𝝊
velocity gradient is constant and equals 𝒐 . Considering an area (A) of both plates, the shear force needed
𝐵
to maintain the motion of the top plate is :
𝝁𝑨𝝊𝒐
𝑭𝒔 =
𝒈𝒄 𝑩

Velocities and velocity gradient in a fluid between flat plates

(Flow under these conditions is called “Couette flow”)

LAYER FLOW WITH FREE SURFACE

 The liquid layer has a free surface and flows under the force of gravity over an inclined or vertical
surface.
 Flow is in steady state, with fully developed velocity gradients
 Thickness of the layer is assumed to be constant.
 Flow usually is laminar

Consider a layer of a newtonian liquid flowing in steady flow at constant rate and thickness over a flat
plate.
 The plate is inclined at an angle, (𝜷) with the vertical.
 The breadth of the layer in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the figure is (b)
 The thickness of the layer in the direction perpendicular to the plate is (𝜹)
 Isolate a control volume as shown in the figure above
 The upper surface of the control volume is in contact with the atmosphere
 The two ends are planes perpendicular to the plate at a distance (L) apart,
 The lower surface is the plane parallel with the wall at a distance (𝒓) from the upper surface
of the layer.

By momentum balance principle the sum of all forces on the control volume is zero. The two forces
remaining are therefore the shear force on the lower surface of the control volume and the component of
gravity in the direction of flow
𝑭𝒈 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷) − 𝝉𝑨 = 𝟎
𝜌𝑟𝐿𝑏𝑔
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 =
𝑔𝑐
𝜏 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑏 (𝐿)
 𝜌𝑟𝐿𝑏𝑔
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, [ ] (cos 𝛽) − 𝜏(𝑏𝐿) = 0
𝑔𝑐

𝜌𝑟𝐿𝑏𝑔
[ ] (cos 𝛽) = 𝜏(𝑏𝐿)
𝑔𝑐

𝝉𝒈𝒄 = 𝜌𝑟𝑔(cos 𝛽)
𝑑𝜐
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝝉𝒈𝒄 = −𝜇
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝜐
−𝜇 = 𝜌𝑟𝑔(cos 𝛽)
𝑑𝑟
𝜐
𝜌𝑔(cos 𝛽) 𝑟
∫ 𝑑𝜐 = − ∫ 𝑟𝑑𝑟
0 𝜇 𝛿

𝝆𝒈(𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷) 𝟐
𝝊= (𝜹 − 𝒓𝟐 )
𝝁
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∶ 𝛿 = total thickness of the liquid layer
𝑟 = distance from the upper surface of the layer

𝟑
 For layer flow on flat surface, the ratio of the maximum local velocity to the average velocity is 𝟐
instead of 2.0 as in laminar flow in a pipe

Liquid Loading (𝚪):

𝒎̇ 𝜹𝟑 𝝆𝟐 𝒈(𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷) 𝒌𝒈
= = 𝚪 , 𝒊𝒏
𝒃 𝟑𝝁 𝒔𝒆𝒄 ∙ 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉

𝟏
𝟑𝝁𝚪 𝟑
𝒐𝒓 ∶ 𝜹 = ( 𝟐 ) , 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝝆 𝒈(𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷)
𝟒𝑹𝑯 𝝊𝝆 𝒎̇ 𝝆 𝟒𝚪
𝑨𝒍𝒔𝒐, 𝑹𝒆 = = 𝟒𝜹 ( )=
𝝁 𝝆𝑳𝒑 𝜹 𝝁 𝝁
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW OF GASES
 When pressure changes in gases occur which are greater than about 10%, it will be considered
compressible flow of gases is occurring.
 The solution of the energy balance is more complicated because of the variation of the density or
specific volume with changes in pressure. The field of compressible flow is very large and covers
a very wide range of variations in geometry, pressure, velocity, and temperature.
 Initially, we will restrict our discussion to isothermal and adiabatic flow in uniform, straight
pipes and do not cover flow in nozzles

𝐏 𝐠 𝛖𝟐 −𝐝𝐖𝐬
∆( + 𝐳 + ) = − ∑ 𝐅𝐡
𝛒 𝐠𝐜 𝟐 𝐝𝐦
𝐠 −𝐝𝐖𝐬
𝐹𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒, ∆𝐳 = 𝟎 𝐚𝐧𝐝 = 𝟎 (𝒏𝒐 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒇𝒕 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌)
𝐠𝐜 𝐝𝐦

𝐏 𝛖𝟐
∆ ( + ) + ∑ 𝐅𝐡 = 𝟎
𝛒 𝟐

𝐏 𝛖𝟐 𝟐𝒇𝑳𝝊𝟐
∆( + ) + =𝟎
𝛒 𝟐 𝑫

𝐏 𝛖𝟐 𝟐𝒇𝑳𝝊𝟐
∆( + ) + =𝟎
𝛒 𝟐 𝑫

For Isothermal Compressible Flow:

𝟒𝐟𝐋𝐆𝟐 𝐑𝐓 𝟐𝐆𝟐 𝐑𝐓 𝐏𝐨
𝐏𝐨 𝟐 − 𝐏𝐋 𝟐 = + 𝐥𝐧
𝐃𝐌 𝐌 𝐏𝐋

𝟐𝐟𝐋𝐆𝟐 𝐆𝟐 𝐏𝐨
𝐨𝐫 𝐏𝐨 − 𝐏𝐋 = + 𝐥𝐧
𝐃𝛒𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝛒𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐏𝐋

Maximum Flow of Compressible flow of Gas:

𝑴(𝑷𝑳 )𝟐
𝑮𝑴𝒂𝒙 = √
𝑹𝑻

𝑹𝑻
𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜, 𝝊𝑴𝒂𝒙 = √ = √𝑷𝑳 𝒒𝟐
𝑴
Example:
Natural gas (CH4 ), is being pumped through a 1.016-m inside diameter pipeline for a distance of
kg mol
1.609x105 m at a rate of 2.077 sec . It can be assumed that the line is isothermal at 288.8 K. The
pressure P2 at the discharge end of the line is 170.3 x 103 Pa absolute. Calculate the pressure P1 at the
inlet of the line. The viscosity of methane at 288.8 K is 1.04 x 10−5 Pa ∙ sec.

Given: Methane Gas

D= 1.016 m
L = 1.609x105 m ; T = 288.8K
kg mol
Molar rate = 2.077 sec ; μ = 1.04 x 10−5 Pa ∙ sec
P2 = 170.3 x 103 Pa absolute
N∙m
R = 8314.34
kgmol ∙ K
Required: P1 =?
Solution:
πD2 π(1.016m)2
A= = = 0.8107 𝑚2
4 4
kgmol kg 1 kg
G = 2.077 (16 )( 2
) = 41
sec kgmol 0.8107m sec ∙ m2
kg
DG 1.016 m (41 sec ∙ m2 )
Therefore, R e = = = 4.005 x 106
μ −5 kg
1.04 x 10 m ∙ sec

For Commercial Steel and Wrought Iron, 𝜺 =0.046mm

𝜀 0.000046 𝑚
= = 0.0000453
𝐷 1.016 m

From ChE HB (8th Edition p. 6-11)

Colebrook Equation:
𝟏 𝜺⁄𝑫 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝟔
= −𝟒 𝒍𝒐𝒈 ( + ) 𝑹𝒆 > 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
√𝒇 𝟑. 𝟕 𝑹𝒆√𝒇

𝟏 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟓𝟑 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝟔
= −𝟒 𝒍𝒐𝒈 ( + ) 𝑹𝒆 > 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
√𝒇 𝟑. 𝟕 𝟒. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 √𝒇

𝑩𝒚 𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝒇𝒂𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 (𝒇) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟕𝟖

Using Churchill Equation:

𝟏 𝛆 𝟕 𝟎.𝟗𝟎
= −𝟒 𝐥𝐨𝐠 [𝟎. 𝟐𝟕 ( ) + ( ) ] 𝐑𝐞 > 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
√𝐟 𝐃 𝐑𝐞
𝟎.𝟗𝟎
𝟏 𝟕
= −𝟒 𝐥𝐨𝐠 [𝟎. 𝟐𝟕(𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟓𝟑) + ( 𝟔
) ] 𝐑𝐞 > 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
√𝐟 𝟒. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝐱𝟏𝟎

𝟏
= −𝟒𝒍𝒐𝒈 (𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟖𝟖𝟏𝟏𝟑) = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟗𝟎𝟐𝟑𝟐
√𝒇
𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟕𝟗
Using Colebrook-White Equation, (𝑴𝒐𝒐𝒅𝒚′ 𝒔 𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 (𝒇𝑴 ):
 Did a large number of experiments on commercial pipes and they also brought together some
important theoretical work by von Karman and Prandtl.
 It is applicable to the whole of the turbulent region for commercial pipes and uses an effective
roughness value (𝜀 ⁄𝐷 ) obtained experimentally for all commercial pipes.

𝟏 𝜺 ⁄𝑫 𝟐. 𝟓𝟏
= −𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 ( + ) 𝑹𝒆 > 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
√𝒇𝑴 𝟑. 𝟕𝟏 𝑹𝒆√𝒇𝑴

*𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 < 𝑹𝒆 < 𝟏𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝜺⁄𝑫) <
𝟎. 𝟎𝟏
𝟏 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟓𝟑 𝟐. 𝟓𝟏
= −𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 ( + ) 𝐑𝐞 > 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
√𝒇𝑴 𝟑. 𝟕𝟏 (4.005 x 106 )√𝒇𝑴
𝑩𝒚 𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝑴𝒐𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 (𝒇𝑴 ) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝒇𝒂𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 (𝒇) = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟕𝟖
𝟒

For Isothermal Compressible Flow:

𝟒𝐟𝐋𝐆𝟐 𝐑𝐓 𝟐𝐆𝟐 𝐑𝐓 𝐏𝐨
𝐏𝐨 𝟐 − 𝐏𝐋 𝟐 = + 𝐥𝐧
𝐃𝐌 𝐌 𝐏𝐋

𝐏𝐨 𝟐 − (170.3x103 𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑠 )2
2
𝑘𝑔 N∙m
4(0.00278)(1.609x105 𝑚) (41 2 ) (8314.34 )(288.8K)
𝑠𝑒𝑐 ∙ 𝑚 kgmol ∙ K
=
kg
(1.016m) (16 )
kgmol
2
𝑘𝑔 N∙m
2 (41 2 ) (8314.34 )(288.8K) 𝐏𝐨
𝑠𝑒𝑐 ∙ 𝑚 kgmol ∙ K
+ ln
kg 170.3x103 𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑠
(16 )
kgmol

𝐏𝐨
𝐏𝐨 𝟐 − (170.3x103 𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑠 )2 = 4.4426𝑥1011 + 5.0455x108 ln
170.3x103 𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑠

𝑩𝒚 𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆 ∶ 𝑷𝑶 = 𝟔𝟖𝟖 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑷𝒂𝒂𝒃𝒔

(𝟔𝟖𝟖 𝒙𝟏𝟎 ) − (170.3x103 𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑠 )2 = 4.4426𝑥1011 + 𝟕. 𝟎𝟒𝟒𝟕𝐱𝟏𝟎𝟖
𝟑 𝟐

𝟒. 𝟒𝟒𝟑𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 ≈ 4.45𝑥1011

𝑨𝒏𝒔: 𝑷𝒐 = 𝟔𝟖𝟖 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑷𝒂𝒂𝒃𝒔

PROPERTIES OF STEEL PIPE (ChE HB-8th Edition)
END OF LECTURE