Chapter 3 :

Attention
stimulus
- Attention :
focu
there is
makes us dismiss other
selection
always a

· Dichotic listening : - Attended channel - > the one asked to listento

- Unattended
channel
can't out the content
You make

only the characteristics.

Cocktail effect : selective attention

-

party
when
you hear something interesting in another

a
In attended channel is not inhibited
convo , so
you shift your
attention =o
(always
Inattention Blindness : -

Attention- goal driven :

you choose
- Stimulus driven :
hear a loud sound .

2
hypothesis -
attended input -o
consciousness

when -
early-selection my unattended input
hyper focused

packtail late selection attenda

eh basla?
1 :

Selection via
priming
-

repetition priming I : hear a

song ik in a mall
, hearing ur .
name

( waitng
am
-expectation priming goal driven
:

No Region in the brain is

responsible for attention : It is a network

259939
 Memory 1 : The
acquisition of memories -
working memory system
-

Learning is the
process of acquiring new info the outcome
of it is memory
.
So
, memory
is created when
something is learned , either
by 1
exposure or
repetition.

"Mental time travel" because

-
the act
of remembering is to
re-experience the
past in the
present.

Stages of memory (interdependant) :

Acquisition ->
Storage -- Retrieval

Types of memory
:

1 2

can be
put
into
words & b

cannota
>
-

3 senses

The Modal Model how

:

first model
explaining we store memories

Y
proposes
that
info is
first starred in
sensory memory suggest that at each stage info can be lost
by
# (info
degrades over time)
-

decay
items selected by attentional move into short term memory
interference (new into replaces old)
processes -

H
items reharsed move to
long term memory

Types of memories in short-term

memory :

1-Sensory memory "iconic these memories are

:
memory" · stored
for a
few seconds

· come
from the
five senses

· are
only
stored as
long as the sense is
being stimulated
associated with
·

reprocessed a a
memory -o stored in short-term
memory

2-Short-term memory : was known as transition place , now its known as Working memory
Chapter 6 the
acquisition of memory a
memory working system
• Definition: Memory is the result of learning and includes acquiring, storing, and retrieving information.

• “Mental Time Travel”: Recalling past experiences allows us to re-experience them in the present (Wheeler et al., 1997).

• Types of Memory:

• Sensory Memory: Short-lived, lasting milliseconds to seconds (e.g., echoic for sound, iconic for vision).

• Short-Term Memory (STM): Temporary holding space for information being actively used.

• Long-Term Memory (LTM): Stores information for extended periods (days to decades).

• Working Memory (WM): Active form of STM that allows for the manipulation of information during tasks.

Models and Concepts

&
how
The Modal Model of Memory fut model that explained we store memories . 1 2

• Describes how information flows through three stages: can -D a b

be put >
- cannot be
into expressed
1. Sensory Memory: Captures raw sensory input (e.g., sights, sounds). words
↓
2. Short-Term Memory: Holds selected information briefly for processing.
a senses

3. Long-Term Memory: Stores rehearsed and meaningful information for later retrieval.

• Memory Loss:

• Decay: Fades with time.

• Interference: New information disrupts or replaces old information.

the cusibestimata
only stored as long
fo ciconic memory)

Working Memory (WM)

• Definition: A system for holding and manipulating information during cognitive tasks.

• Capacity: Limited to 7 ± 2 items.

• Chunking: Organizes information into meaningful units, reducing cognitive load (e.g., remembering “FB-I-CIA-NBA” as three groups instead of
nine letters).

Features of Working Memory:

1. Rehearsal Loop: Repeats information to keep it active in memory.

2. Operation Span Tasks: Assess the ability to manage and recall information while performing other tasks (e.g., solving equations while
remembering words).

3. Central Executive: Oversees attention, decision-making, and goal-setting processes.

+
primacy -
recency effect
Contemporary View: Working memory isn’t a fixed “place” but a status of actively processed information.

Helping Agents in Working Memory

Working memory relies on specific tools or mechanisms to retain and manipulate information effectively:

1. Rehearsal Loop
• Definition: A mechanism for keeping information active through repetition.

• Example: Repeating a phone number mentally to avoid forgetting it.

• This helps temporarily maintain information but doesn’t ensure long-term storage.

2. Executive Control Processes

• Central Executive:

• Sets goals, plans actions, and selects steps to achieve objectives.

• Focuses attention on relevant tasks while tuning out distractions.

• Example: Planning the steps to solve a math problem while ignoring irrelevant details.
Working memory :

contains all knowledge all events

+
eije
-
specifics (names) in
-
-general (facts (

"Gragile
lif Im
memorizing phone numb
,
- someone calls me
,
i will loseit)

1-primacy effect remembering

: the first things because
focused + else stored had time to reherse
we were
nothing was

2-
recency effect remembering
: the last things that went into

items) because them.

(5-9
nothing replaced
the
working memory
>
-

group immediate recall

1 : -
high
group 2 30 seconds unfilled delay
- high
:

(recencyworkia
n
remembered low
seconds filled delay
30
groups
:
-o

slow
presentation rembeber first part more because they have time to reharse

long term -
>
hippocampus
working -
perivhinal cortex

=> Working memory represents 1-limited-capacity store

for retaining into over short-term (maintenance
:

2
performing mental
operations on contents of this stone
(manipulation)
example
:
remember a list
of numbers (maintain) , we can also add
(manipulate them in the head
using working
originate from
3
3- the content could be actedon memory
.

sensory inputs ,
such as someone
asking you
55x5 both,
info can
&
processed not just
a maintained
or retrieved from long-term , such as
recalling your room to buy
the size
of a
carpet
about
n-getting info into
working memory is
easy (whatever you're thinking
 all mental activities require WM
5
virtually
Some tasks demand more WM resources (Math problem vs
talking)
individuals differ in WM
capacity
6- to condense (7 9 , 00790)
chunking ability
:
info - reduce load ,

Operation span :

rember words
to asses
capacity of working memory, while
doing math
equations
standarized
correlates with test performance , reasoning a
reading comprehesion

Working memory
is not a brain
region ,
it is a set
of
activities

Helping agents

Crow, collum/

Central Executive :

-
involved in
cognitive processes needed
to
govern thoughts actions
&

-set
goals +
plan
to reach goals

just repetition (mechanical)

Y
1-rehearsal loop -maintenance reharsal
relational)
:
, maintenance
relational
- rehearsal
(thinking analyzing while reharsing)
&

A repetition not to
is
enough for into
go to LTM
.

Deep processing : intentional

learning studying for
: an exam

incidental learning info from: .

movie stick

shallow intention to lare

processing
+

intentional
it significant impact LTM the
deeper the processing
i
no on
- ,

the more we learn a memorize

deep processing intention to learn to

-
·

significant impact on LTM

2 [
deep
shallowa process
(focusonthe
e

Retrieval associate
(learn diffrent ways
in ,
1-connections retrieval
promote
in acompletion ships)
encoding promotes retrieval. Thinking
2- elaborate

Mnemonic strategies:
instructional strategy designed to help improve 1-first letter mnemonics : SEM-O
strategies enhance memory

memory of important info

mental
.
It connects new
learning 2.
images
to
prior knowledge through visuala acoustic mes 3-mental images +
peg images
basic
types rely on
key words , rhyming words , acronymus
3. Strategies for Organization
• Chunking: Combines smaller pieces of information into larger, more meaningful units.

• Example: Memorizing “CIA-FBI-NBA” as three organizations instead of random letters.

• Benefits: Reduces the number of items held in memory, making it easier to manage.

Rehearsal and Processing

• Maintenance Rehearsal: Repetition without deeper processing (e.g., rote memorization).

• Relational/Elaborative Rehearsal: Links new information to existing knowledge (better for long-term retention).

Depth of Processing:

• Shallow Processing: Focuses on surface-level details (e.g., font or appearance).

• Deep Processing: Involves meaningful engagement (e.g., understanding concepts).

Deep processing leads to stronger storage in long-term memory.

Retrieval and Mnemonics

• Connections Promote Retrieval: Elaborative encoding creates stronger links between ideas.

• Mnemonics: Strategies to improve recall by organizing information:

• Acronyms: SEM = Strategies Enhance Memory.

• Mental Imagery: Visualizing information vividly.

• Peg Words: Associating items with pre-learned words (e.g., “one is a bun”).

Study Techniques
1. Understand and Organize: Better understanding leads to stronger retention.

2. Engage Actively: Use self-questioning, group discussions, and summaries.

3. Use Spaced Learning: Distribute study sessions over time.

4. Sleep on It: Sleep consolidates memories for long-term storage.

Memory
the
-
understanding :

understand , the better

you memorize .
more
you

Cintrest
 Chapter 7: interconnection between
acquisition & retrieval
Context-Dependent Learning retrieval is better
Sif acquisition
is under water
,

• Memory retrieval is influenced by the context in which learning occurred. under water (visual , sensory cues)

• Psychological Context: Performance improves when the psychological state matches the one during learning, even if the physical environment changes (Smith,
1979). (studying with music, exam is loud environment

Encoding Specificity
• What is encoded in memory depends on the context and meaning attached to the information:

• Example:
i live in behara
1-
• Sentence: “The man lifted the piano” → Encodes “piano as heavy.”
example :
Khoury
group during history test ,
I am most
likely
z to remember him as a president
• Sentence: “The man tuned the piano” → Encodes “piano as musical.”
group because his name has 2 retrievala association wes

• Recall improves when retrieval cues (e.g., “heavy”) match the context of encoding.
group -
would
easily retrieve it .

⑧.The connections established in a learning process can change the meaning of what is remembered.

Language Impact:
• Phrasing can affect encoding and memory accuracy.

• Example: Participants shown a car crash video were asked, “How fast were the cars going when they _____ each other?”

• “Smashed”: 32% reported seeing broken glass (false).

• “Hit”: 14% reported seeing broken glass.

The Memory Network net

• Nodes: Units of memory connected by associations.

• Spreading Activation: friend

president-o history teacher >
-
school ->

• Activated nodes send signals to connected nodes. threshold

*

• Activation can summate from weak inputs to reach a threshold, causing the node to “fire.” nancy kids of
agram - mr- the name
the
song

Retrieval Cues
• Help navigate memory networks by triggering associated nodes. (shu esem
president,
shu esem mantazal
• Semantic Priming: Related words (e.g., “bread” and “butter”) prime each other, speeding recognition and recall. (preparing the neuron to be active

Types of Memory Retrieval

1. Recall: Requires active memory search and strong connections (e.g., essay questions). shu esem or math teacher
① ② hada
2. Recognition: Depends on familiarity or source memory (e.g., “I recognize this name”). btabrfe esmo
..; meg
tikmenwenhereeing someone in a
market
Explicit vs. Implicit Memory (long-term)
• Explicit Memory: Conscious memory tested through recall or recognition.

• Implicit Memory: Unconscious, revealed through indirect tasks like priming.(non-declarative)

• Examples:

• Lexical Decision Task: Faster identification of previously seen words.

• Word-Stem Completion: Participants complete words with previously seen stems (e.g., CLA → clap).

Effects of Implicit Memory

1. False Fame:

• Participants misattribute familiarity with non-famous names to fame when tested after a delay.(they don't recall
the source
2. Illusion of Truth:
-
were asked if interesting
• Familiar statements (even if false) are judged as more credible over time.

• Political or marketing claims benefit from this effect.

3. Cryptomnesia:

• Accidental plagiarism where a person believes an idea is original but actually recalls it from another source.
Processing Fluency
• Definition: The ease of processing information through familiar pathways.

• Impact:

• Recently used pathways become more fluent.

• Increased fluency creates a sense of familiarity.

Disrupted Memory Systems

1. Episodic Memory: Personal experiences.

2. Semantic Memory: General knowledge.

• Can function independently (e.g., Clive Wearing retains love for his wife but forgets personal events).

Anterograde Amnesia
• Inability to form new long-term memories, often caused by hippocampal damage.

• Korsakoff’s Syndrome:

• Due to thiamine deficiency from alcoholism.

• Preserves old memories but prevents new ones.

Memory Errors and Influences

• Encoding context and phrasing affect accuracy.

• Implicit biases influence judgments and preferences.

Chapter 8: remembering complex events

Memory Errors
1. Plane Crash Example:

• People confidently recalled seeing a video of a plane crash, even though no such video existed. Persistent questioning revealed many did not actually
remember it but others insisted they did, even adding fabricated details.

2. Memory Expectations:

• 1/3 of participants falsely recalled seeing books in an office because of expectations. Memory is shaped by what is expected, not just reality.

3. Episodic Memory Storage:

• Elements of a memory (e.g., sights, sounds) are stored in modality-specific areas of the brain (e.g., visual areas for images, auditory areas for
sounds).

• These elements are linked by connections, forming a web-like network.

4. Interconnected Memory Network: -

• Episodes aren’t stored in isolated “files.” Instead, they are linked by dense connections.

• Pros: Connections enable efficient retrieval.

• Cons: They can cause intrusion errors, where information from other episodes or general knowledge intrudes into a memory.

5. Schematic Knowledge:

• Schemas: Knowledge about what’s typical in a given context.

• Example: Expecting to see magazines in a dentist’s office, even if they aren’t present.

• Regularization of Memories: Memories may be adjusted to fit schemas.

The Cost of Memory Errors

1. Eyewitness Errors: Eyewitness testimony is prone to inaccuracies. (Police ask
misleading questions)
2. False Memories: Memories can be altered or implanted through suggestion or misleading evidence. 13 right memories & I
wrong, you think the 4th is right
3. Confidence ≠ Accuracy: Confidence in a memory does not reliably indicate its accuracy.

Forgetting
1. Decay Theory: Memories fade or erode over time due to brain cell loss or weakened connections.

2. Interference Theory: New learning disrupts old memories. (Studying a new

major)
(
3. Retrieval Failure: The memory still exists in long-term storage but cannot be accessed.(connections cannot be acssed

Undoing Forgetting
• Cognitive Interview:

• Context reinstatement (mentally re-creating the situation of learning).

• Uses multiple retrieval cues to improve recall.

• Memory Maintenance: Revisiting memories periodically reduces forgetting.

Memory Accuracy
• Memory is accurate more often than not but prone to errors because episodes are densely interconnected.

• Errors arise as a by-product of efficient mechanisms that help us retrieve memories and generalize knowledge.

Autobiographical Memory
1. Self-Reference Effect: Information related to oneself is better remembered.

2. Self-Schema:
the same

• People believe they’ve been consistent over time.

• This leads to reconstructing memories to align with current beliefs and attitudes.

• Example: Misremembering past relationships or attitudes to match current ones.

3. Positive Bias:

• People tend to remember their past more favorably.

• Example: Remembering 89% of A grades accurately vs. 29% of D grades.

Memory and Emotions
abouta
thiking the
1. Memory Consolidation: Emotional events enhance memory consolidation via the amygdala, which increases hippocampal activity.
minutes is memory
2. Narrowing of Attention: Emotion focuses attention on certain aspects of a scene, improving memory for those details while reharsal
neglecting others.

3. Flashbulb Memories:

• Vivid, detailed memories of emotional events.

• Some are accurate, while others are not, depending on discussion and rehearsal.

Traumatic Memories
1. Enhanced Memory: Traumatic events often result in vivid, long-lasting memories.
·

fragmented memory storage

: is
disrupted,
2. Repression: Painful memories may be pushed out of awareness (controversial).
inhibition
prefrontal cortex of
of

3. Recovered Memories: Some repressed memories can resurface later but may be inaccurate or false. amygdalaisdisrupted i eventstorage not
so when recall , it is
it
you
so intense because
you don't know why
.

Connections in Memory
• Connections enhance retrieval but also allow interference between memories.

• Over time, connections may weaken, causing memory gaps. These gaps are often filled with generic knowledge or schemas.
Chapter 12: Judgment &
reasoning

Emotion vs. Reason : do we take our descious ; emotion or reasonaalwaysyeven fre

real descious
↓
↑
himbic prefrontal
system
they inhibit
each other
1. Elliot’s Case:
• Brain surgery removed Elliot’s ability to feel emotion, making him indecisive (e.g., he couldn’t choose what to eat).
• Suggests that emotions are essential for decision-making.
2. Orbitofrontal Cortex:
·
• Crucial for decision-making, emotional control, and sensory processing.

Judgment

1. How We Judge: example :

• Ideal: Use past experiences and accurate frequency estimates. asked about
how assertive
• Reality: Use attribute substitution when information isn’t readily available, relying on[heuristics.strategy) :
they are
2. Availability Heuristic: O

• Judging frequency or likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind. what is available in
my
mind

• Example: Believing there are more words starting with “R” than those with “R”(as the third letter (incorrect).
Emotional/Rare Events: Tend to overestimate the frequency of rare but vivid events (e.g., plane crashes). - takessoe
muc
•
T3. Representativeness Heuristic:
•
·

Judging the likelihood of an event based on how much it resembles a prototype.

•
-

Examples:
• Coin toss (gambler’s fallacy): Believing tails is “due” after six heads in a row. (every toss has its own
probability 50150)

• Anecdotal evidence (“man who” stories): Drawing conclusions from isolated examples. (smoking a
healthy)
· blind date :
lawyer vs
engineer/whatsterotype a

Detecting Covariation of attribute substitution (availability representative)

: result ,

1. De nition: The relationship between two variables (positive or negative). (correlation)

• Illusory Covariation: Perceiving a relationship where none exists (e.g., astrology and personality).
2. Con rmation Bias:
• Favoring evidence that supports existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory data.
• Leads to biased attention and biased memory (e.g., big dogs are vicious).
3. Base-Rate Neglect: Ignoring general probabilities in favor of speci c, descriptive information.
• Example: Assuming Tom is an engineer based on his interests while ignoring the fact that only 30% of people in the
group are engineers.

Dual-Process Models t
type
sophisticated
1. Two Types of Thinking:
↓
• Type 1: Fast, automatic, heuristic-based (e.g., re ghters under stress). 1 Which mobile ; should buy
Type 2: Slow, analytical, effortful, and more accurate. (Which
•
major i chooses
2. Factors In uencing Use:
• Context (e.g., time pressure).
• Presentation format (percentages vs. frequencies). base rate
• Statistical training
J
(e.g., understanding sample
I
size).
6
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Induction and Deduction
Confirmation
is
desconformation)
1. Induction: Drawing general conclusions from speci c cases.
• Example: Predicting future behavior based on past observations. the pises
sun
everyday after the rooster craws .

2. Deduction: Determining speci c outcomes based on general premises.

• Example: Testing whether a belief leads to a logical conclusion.

Con rmation Bias and Belief Perseverance

of my
identity
1. Con rmation Bias: part avoid loosing
o so i

• Preferring evidence that supports beliefs while dismissing discon rming evidence.
• Example: Wason’s “2-4-6” task—participants failed to seek discon rming evidence to understand the rule.
2. Belief Perseverance:
• Continuing to believe something even when evidence disproves it.

Cognitive Dissonance

• De nition: Mental discomfort from con icting beliefs or behaviors. ↑

• Resolution: Justifying or altering beliefs to reduce discomfort.

↑ expensive skin care => better skin (unbie)

a
on
Dam
Logic and Errors in Reasoning

1. Syllogisms: Logical arguments with two premises and a conclusion.

• Errors often arise from belief bias—accepting conclusions that align with beliefs.
2. Conditional Statements: if the
object in
my
hand is a frog , then the
object is
green
• “If X, then Y” logic.
- the
object in
my hand is
green
therefore ,
it is a
frog
• Errors are common with negatives or abstract terms.
3. Wason’s Four-Card Task:
• Testing logical rules (e.g., “If a card has a vowel on one side, it must have an even number on the other”).

Decision-Making

1. Utility Maximization: Choosing the option with the greatest expected value.
2. Framing Effects:
• Decisions are in uenced by how options are presented:
• Positive frame (lives saved): Risk-averse.
• Negative frame (lives lost): Risk-seeking.
3. Opt-In vs. Opt-Out: opti check if you want t donate 12%

• Default options (e.g., organ donation) greatly in uence decisions. ↑ thefind

100%
did

-checkityoudontwa
donate
a reason to choose

4. Reason-Based Choice: Decisions are made when a convincing reason is detected. one medication as

(no enough argument

5. Role of Emotions: so
they chose

surgery)
• Affective Forecasting: Anticipating future emotions (often inaccurately).
• Orbitofrontal Cortex: Essential for evaluating emotional cues (somatic markers). jifdamaged
a risky decsions

6. Paradox of Choice: More options can lead to stress and dif culty deciding. because
annalsing
brain is
my no a
Cognitive Distortions: • Habitual, biased thinking patterns that develop over time due to adverse experiences.
-

↑
way l , not
thoughts
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 Chapter 13 : problem solving
Problem Solving how we do
anything in
life
• De nition: A process of deciding on a goal and determining the steps to achieve it.
• Key Components:
1. Initial State: Knowledge and resources at the beginning. > print -
at library

2. Goal State: Desired outcome.

3. Operators: Available tools or actions. >
-

print at maliks

4. Path Constraints: Limits that rule out some operations. >

-
lib is closed

Problem-Solving Strategies
1. Problem Space:
• Set of all states that can be reached while solving a problem, moving from the initial state to the goal state.
• Challenge: The problem space can be too vast to explore entirely (e.g., chess).
• Solution: Use heuristics.
D
>
-

strategies
2. Hill-Climbing Strategy: Helicopter view)
• Progressively move closer to the goal, but may require temporarily moving away from it.
3.
= Means-End Analysis:
• Compare the current state to the goal state, then create subproblems to bridge the gap.
4. Mental Imagery:
• Visualizing the problem can provide insights.

4 Drawing on Experience
1. Analogies:
• Comparing a current problem to a previously solved one.
• Experts use deep structure (core principles), while novices focus on surface features.
• Example: “Tumor problem” solved using the “Evil Dictator” analogy.
2. Breaking Problems into Subproblems:
• Helps create manageable chunks for solutions.

De ning the Problem

1. Well-De ned Problems:
• Clear goal state and operators (e.g., solving a math problem).
2. Ill-De ned Problems:
• Unclear goal state or operators (e.g., achieving world peace).
3. Functional Fixedness:
• A tendency to view objects only in their usual roles, limiting creativity.
• Example: Using pliers as a weight in the two-string problem.
4. Problem-Solving Set:
• Preconceived habits or strategies that may help or hinder nding a solution.
• Example: The nine-dot problem requires thinking outside conventional boundaries.
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Creativity in Problem Solving
1. Characteristics of Creative People:
• Domain knowledge and skill.
• ·
Intellectual traits (e.g., risk-taking, tolerating ambiguity). "not crowd"
ignore criticism , follow the

• Intrinsic motivation.(by the pleasure of the work)

• Supportive social/cultural context. -

2. Stages of Creative Thought (Wallas, 1926):

I
1. Preparation: Gathering information.
2. Incubation: Taking a break from the problem.
3. Illumination: A sudden insight.
4. Veri cation: Working out the details of the solution.

, andering
mind
3. Incubation Effect:
·
• Solutions may emerge after stepping away from a problem due to spreading activation or mental fatigue dissipating.
4. Divergent Thinking:
• Generating multiple solutions to a problem.
• Creativity relies on combining ordinary cognitive abilities in unique ways.

Intelligence
1. De nition:
• The ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly, and learn from
experience.
2. Measuring Intelligence:
• Wechsler Scales: Tests for general knowledge, vocabulary, reasoning, and perceptual skills.
• Reliability: High test-retest reliability (~0.70-0.80).armenter
hangs
• Validity: Predicts academic performance (25% variance) and professional success (36-64% variance).
3. Hierarchical Intelligence:
• General Intelligence (g): Common factor underlying all cognitive tasks. -

• Specialized Intelligences: Task-speci c abilities.

• Fluid Intelligence: Solving novel problems., new problems
• Crystallized Intelligence: Acquired knowledge and experience.
4. P-FIT Model (Parieto-Frontal Integration Theory):
• Intelligence depends on the integration of:
• Parietal Lobe: Attention control.
• Frontal Lobe: Working memory and executive functions.
• Other areas for language and reasoning.

Types of Intelligence
1. Practical Intelligence: Everyday problem-solving (“street smarts”).
2. Emotional Intelligence: Recognizing and managing emotions in oneself and others.
3. Multiple Intelligences (Gardner):
• Linguistic. ·

intrapersonal
• Logical-Mathematical ·
naturalistic

• Spatial
• Musical
• Bodily-Kinesthetic
• Interpersonal
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Roots of Intelligence
1. Genetic Factors:
• IQ correlates with genetic similarity (higher in monozygotic twins than dizygotic).
2. Environmental Factors:
• Socioeconomic status (SES) and educational opportunities affect IQ.
• Flynn Effect: IQ scores have risen ~3 points per decade, attributed to better nutrition and a more complex world.
Summary of Chapter 14: Consciousness
1. De ning Consciousness
Consciousness is broadly de ned as the awareness of sensations or ideas that allows re ection, the understanding of what it
feels like to experience them, and the ability to report this awareness. Despite this de nition, there is signi cant debate and
many aspects of consciousness remain poorly understood.
2. The Cognitive Unconscious
• Mental activities like thinking, remembering, and categorizing rely on processes that occur behind the scenes, referred
to as the cognitive unconscious.
• These unconscious processes enable seamless functioning but can sometimes lead to errors or issues due to lack of
conscious supervision.
3. Unconscious Processes and Conscious Products
• People are aware of mental products (e.g., decisions, memories) but not the processes that create them.
• For example, memory recall often blends true memories with inferences and assumptions, which can lead to
undetectable errors.
4. Unconscious Reasoning
• Unconscious thought processes often guide reasoning. For instance, in studies, participants inferred meanings or
made decisions without being aware of the reasoning behind them.
• An example is the placebo effect in the Nisbett and Schachter experiment, where participants unconsciously attributed
their physical symptoms to a pill rather than fear, affecting their behavior.
5. Mistaken Introspections
• People often misattribute the causes of their behaviors and beliefs, offering incorrect explanations for their actions.
• For instance, individuals cannot reliably identify why they started smoking or remember speci c in uences on their
actions.
6. After-the-Fact Reconstructions
• Since thought processes are largely unconscious, people often rely on after-the-fact reasoning to explain their
behaviors.
• These reconstructions are often accurate but can be awed if based on incorrect assumptions or unnoticed factors.
7. Unconscious Guides to Conscious Thinking
• Even conscious thought is shaped by unconscious frameworks, such as problem-solving sets or decision frames,
which guide and constrain thought processes.
• While these unconscious in uences are helpful in reducing ambiguity, they can also create obstacles if they promote
erroneous assumptions.
8. Limits of Unconscious Performance
• Unconscious processes are ef cient and usually appropriate for the situation, but they are in exible and guided by
habit or external cues.
• These processes cannot easily be controlled, leading to automatic errors like proofreading oversights or habitual
“action slips.”
9. Consciousness and Executive Control
• Consciousness is essential for tasks requiring executive control, such as overriding habits, planning actions, and
adapting to unexpected challenges.
• Executive control involves:
• Launching desired actions and overriding undesired ones.
• Representing goals, subgoals, and plans.
• Monitoring incoming information and its integration.
• Adjusting when processes face dif culties.
10. Metacognition
• Metacognition involves the ability to monitor and control one’s mental processes.
• It plays a crucial role in learning, especially in assessing what is well understood versus what requires more attention,
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as seen in studying for exams.

This chapter explores the interplay between conscious and unconscious processes, emphasizing that much of human
cognition occurs outside awareness but is essential for ef ciency and decision-making. However, conscious control is crucial
for tasks requiring exibility and intentional planning.

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