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07-401_Lecture_1

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07-401_Lecture_1

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Nan Zin Mar Aye
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Lecture 1

Examples:
1. Z = { set of all integers} with operations (+, ×)
′+′ is an abelian group

2. Z / n (read Z mod n) = { 0, 1, …., n – 1 } with operations (+, ×)


Note:′1′ is the multiplicative unity, computer work in Z / 232

3. R[x] = {Polynomials with coefficient in R}

4. Z[x] = {Polynomials with coeff. in Z} = {∑ akxk : only finitely many ak ’s are non-zero}
Where:
i. ∑ akxk + ∑ bkxk = ∑ (ak + bk) xk

ii. (∑ akxk)(∑ bkxk) = ∑(∑ ai bj) xk


So: Z[x] is a group under ′+′, But not a group under ′×′ (most polynomial has no inverse)

5. M2(Z) = a b : a, b, c, d ∈ Z
c d

note: In this example ′×′ is not “commutative”

6. 2Z = {… -4, -2, 0 , 2, 4, 6, …}
note: NO MULTIPLICATIVE UNITY : there exist no a ∈ 2Z such that a.b = b ∀ b ∈ 2Z

7. Z[i] = { a + bi : a, b ∈ Z } , note: (a + bi) is a Gaussian integers

8. C = { a + bi : a, b ∈ R}

Definition: Ring
A Ring R is a set R with 2 binary operations on it (+, ×) such that:

1. a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
2. ∃ 0 ∈ R such that a + 0 = a
3. ∀ a ∈ R, ∃ (−a) such that (a) + (−a) = 0
(1) → (3) with operation ′+′ ⇒ R is a group
4. a + b = b + a
5. (ab)c = a(bc); associative
6. a(b + c) = ab + ac
(b+c)a = ba + ca
(distributive law is written in 2 ways because ′×′ is not necessarily commutative)

Observation: Examples 1 – 8 are all Rings


Theorem 1:
1. a.0 = 0 = 0.a
2. a(−b) = − (ab) = (−a)b
3. (−a)( −b) = a.b
4. b − с = b + (−с) … b ( a − с) =ba − bc
5. “Ring with Unity”
⇒ 1 ∈ R such that 1.a = a
also: (−1)a = −a, (−1)( −1) = 1

Proof of Theorem1 #1:


0+0=0
a(0 + 0) = a.0
⇒ a.0 + a.0 = a.0 by distributive law, Then:
method #1: a.0 = 0 by cancellation property of addition
a.0 + a.0 = a.0

method #2: add −(a.0) to both sides


⇒ (a.0 + a.0) + (−a.0) = a.0 + (−a.0)
⇒ a.0 + (a.0 + −a.0) = a.0 + (−a.0) ⇒ a.0 + (0) = 0 ⇒ a.0 = 0

Partial Proof of Theorem1 #2: (showing a(− −b) = −(ab))


Need to show that: ab + a(−−b) = 0
ab + a(−b) = a (b + (−b)) = a. 0 = 0 by above proof ⇒ ab + a(−b) = 0

Theorem 2:
1. If a ring has a unity, then it is unique
2. If an element ′a′ in a ring with unity has an (multiplicative) inverse ( b s.t. ab = 1 = ba)
Then it is unique

- Ring does not need to have unity but if there is then it is unique
- Element does not need to have inverse, but it does, then it is unique

In general: existence ⇒ uniqueness

Proof of Theorem2 #1:


Suppose 1 and 1′ are both units
Suppose ∀ a ∈ R, a.1 = a = 1.a, a.1′ = a = 1′.a

Then: 1′ = 1. 1′ = 1

Proof of Theorem2 #2:


Suppose b and b′ are both inverses of a
⇒ ab = 1 = ba, ab′ = 1 =b′a

b′ = 1.b′ = (ba)b′ = b(ab′) = b1 = b


Definition:
Assume R1 and R2 are rings Then the direct sum R1 ⊕ R2 is defined as follow:

As a set R1 ⊕ R2 = { (a1, a2): a1 ∈ R1, a2 ∈ R2}, and:


1. (a1, a2) + (a1, a2) := (a1 + b1, a2 + b2)
(addition of R1 ⊕ R2) addition in addition in
R1 R2
- the 3 addition above are different

2. (a1, a2).(a1, a2) := (a1.b1, a2 .b2)


- again the 3 multiplication are different

Claim: R1 ⊕ R2 is a Ring (can check by verifying axioms 1  6)


ex. 0R1 ⊕ 0R2 = (0R1, 0R2)

Definition: Sub-Ring
A subset S of a ring R is a called a subring of R if it is a ring w/ the operation (+,×) borrowed from R

(*) It is equivalent to saying, if a,b ∈ S then


1. a + b ∈ S
2. a.b ∈ S
(Then properties of addition and multiplication follow automatically: associative, distributive etc.)
3. 0 ∈ S (if 0 ∉ S, then S is not a ring)
4. a ∈ S Then (−a) ∈ S

(**) Also equivalent to saying, if a, b ∈ S then


1. a – b ∈ S
2. a.b ∈ S
3. S is not empty (assuming (*), 3 ⇒ 0 ∈ S thus S is not empty)

Also: a – (–b) = a + b , (S closed under substraction, then closed under addition as well)

Example 1: 2Z is a subring of Z

Example 2: Consider Upper triangular matrix ⇒ matrix of the form a b , a, b, c ∈ R = Ring


0 c
Then: the above is a subring of M2(R), to verify: Use (**)

Definition: Field
A field is a “commutative ring” with “unity ≠ 0” for which every non – zero element has an inverse

Definition: Zero Divisor


In a commutative ring R, an element a ≠ 0 is called a zero divisor if ∃ b ≠ 0 such that a.b = 0

Definition: Integral Domain


A commutative ring with “unity” that has no “zero divisor”
Some Nice Properties of Integral Domain:
1. Claim: If R is an integral Domain and a.c = b.c and c≠ ≠0 then a = b
Proof: (ac = bc) ⇒ (ac – bc = 0) ⇒ (a – b). c = 0
Since c≠ 0 and there is no zero divisor, then (a – b = 0) ⇒ a = b

2. Theorem: A finite integral domain with at least one non-zero element is a field
Note: A field is always an integral domain ⇒ no zero-divisors in field
Suppose a. b = 0, b≠ 0 ⇒ ∃ b–1
So (a.b. b–1 = 0. b–1) ⇒ (a.1 = 0) ⇒ (a = 0) ⇒ no zero divisor
Proof:
• If 1 = 0 then 1.a = 0.a = 0 = a, but ∃ a≠0, thus 1 ≠ 0 ⇒ unity≠0
• Let a ≠ 0, want to show ′a′ has an inverse:
Consider: S = {ak = a.a……a, k ≥ 0} ; k number a’s
Then S is a subset of our R, R is finite ⇒ ∃ i, j such that ai = aj

Assume i > j ⇒ ai = a(i – j) aj = 1. aj


By Cancellation ai–j = 1 ⇒ a.a….a = 1 ⇒ ai-j-1 is an inverse of a

Corrollary of Theorem: If p is prime, then Z / p is a field


Proof:
1. Z / p is definitely finite ( has p – elements)
2. Z / p is commutative (since product of Z is commutative)
3. Check that it is an integral domain (verify there is no zero divisor)
If 1 ≤ k, l ≤ p – 1 And (k.l = 0) in Z / p
⇒ k.l is divisible by p

Since p is a prime, “p divides k” or “p divides l”, but neither are true


⇒ Z / p has no zero divisor, so it is an integral domain that is finite ⇒ It is a field

Z Z/n Z[x] M2(Z) 2Z Z[i]


Unity 1 1 1.x0 None 1 + 0i
Depends on
Inverse None None None None none
what n is
Commutative Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes
Integral Domain Yes Depends on n Yes No No yes
Zero Divisor None Depends on n None N/A None none

Z/2 Z/6 Yet:


1 1
Yes No
Yes Yes No because it
None 3, 2 No becase it is not has no unity
cummutative
Yes no

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