MSCBOT-603

M.Sc. III Semester

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
SCHOOL OF SCIENCES
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

MSCBOT-603

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
SCHOOL OF SCIENCES
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY

Phone No. 05946-261122, 261123

Toll free No. 18001804025
Fax No. 05946-264232, E. mail [email protected]
htpp://uou.ac.in

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 1

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Expert Committee
Prof. J. C. Ghildiyal Prof. G.S. Rajwar
Retired Principal Principal
Government PG College Government PG College
Karnprayag Augustmuni

Prof. Lalit Tewari Dr. Hemant Kandpal

Department of Botany School of Health Science
DSB Campus, Uttarakhand Open University
Kumaun University, Nainital Haldwani

Dr. Pooja Juyal

Department of Botany
School of Sciences
Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani

Board of Studies

Prof. P.D. Pant Prof. S.S. Bargali

Director, School of Sciences HOD, Department of Botany
Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani DSB Campus, Kumaun University, Nainital

Prof. Amrita Nigam Dr. S.S. Samant

School of Sciences Retd. Director
IGNOU, New Delhi Himalayan Forest Research Institute (H.P)

Dr. S.N. Ojha Dr. Pooja Juyal

Assistant Professor Assistant Professor (AC)
Department of Botany Department of Botany
Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani

Dr. Kirtika Padalia Dr. Prabha Dhondiyal

Assistant Professor (AC) Assistant Professor (AC)
Department of Botany Department of Botany
Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani

Dr. Pushpesh Joshi

Assistant Professor (AC)
Department of Botany
Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 2

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Programme Coordinator

Dr. S.N.Ojha
Assistant Professor
Department of Botany, School of Sciences
Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani, Nainital

Unit Written By: Unit No.

1. Dr. Manish Tripathi 1, 2 & 6
Assistant Professor
Department of Botany, SSJ Almora campus
Almora University, Almora

2. Dr. Prakash Chandra Paliwal 3

Assistant Professor,
Department of Botany
Government PG College, Ramnagar

3. Adapted from
https://egyankosh.ac.in/handle/123456789/45122 4, 5, 7, 9 & 11
https://egyankosh.ac.in/handle/123456789/83807
https://egyankosh.ac.in/handle/123456789/83804
Rap up material

4. Dr. S.N.Ojha 8
Assistant Professor
Department of Botany, School of Sciences
Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani, Nainital

5. Dr. Pooja Juyal 10

Department of Botany
School of Sciences
Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani,

Chief Course Editor

Dr. Pooja Juyal

Department of Botany
School of Sciences
Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 3

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Co-Editor

Dr. S.N. Ojha Dr. Kirtika Padalia

Assistant Professor, Department of Botany Assistant Professor (AC)
School of Sciences Department of Botany, School of Sciences,
Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani

Dr. Prabha Dhondiyal Dr. Pushpesh Joshi

Assistant Professor (AC) Assistant Professor (AC)
Department of Botany, School of Sciences Department of Botany, School of Sciences
Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani

Title : Plant Resource Utilization and Conservation

ISBN No. :
Copyright : Uttarakhand Open University
Edition : 2022

Published By: Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani, Nainital-263139

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 4

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

CONTENTS

BLOCK-1 PLANT RESOURCES: FOOD VALUE PAGE NO.

Unit-1 Domestication and Introduction of plants 7-29

Unit-2 Food species, Fruits and Nuts 30-71

Unit-3 Edible Oils, Species and Condiments 72-94

BLOCK-2 PLANT RESOURCES: DIVERSE VALUE PAGE NO.

Unit-4 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 96-117

Unit-5 Fodder and Fiber Crops 118-136

Unit-6 Beverages and Narcotics 137-157

Unit-7 Timber and Non-timber 158-181

Unit-8 Sugar and Starch, Energy crops 182-231

BLOCK-3 PLANT CONSERVATION PAGE NO.

Unit-9 Principles of conservation 233-250

Unit-10 Strategies for in-situ conservation 251-278

Unit-11 Strategies for ex-situ conservation 279-313

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 5

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

BLOCK-1 PLANT RESOURCES: FOOD VALUE

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 6

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

UNIT-1 DOMESTICATION AND INTRODUCTION OF

PLANTS

Contents
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Introduction and domestication of plants
1.3.1 Purpose of Plant Introduction and Domestication
1.3.2 Procedure of Plant Introduction
1.3.3 Agencies associated to Plant Introduction in India
1.3.4 Merits and Demerits of Plant Introduction:
1.3.5 Achievements of Plant Introduction
1.4 Agricultural Origins
1.5 Origin of cultivated plants- Vavilov‘s centres of origin
1.6 Summary
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Self assessment questions
1.9 References
1.10 Suggested readings
1.11 Terminal questions

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 7

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

1.1 OBJECTIVES

This unit will help you to understand the origin, introduction and domestication of cultivated
plants. This unit also describes in detail that how an individual plant species introduce to new
region and acclimatized. The main objectives of this unit are:
 To know about the domestication and introduction of plants.
 To know the origin of cultivated plants
 To know about Vavilov‘s centers of origin

1.2 INTRODUCTION

The food is an essential requirement of human beings. The prehistoric humans primarily got their
food from the wild edible plants but since the time passed, they started to cultivate the wild
plants. The traditions of those prehistoric humans take very prominent part in the origin of
cultivation of plants. The domestication of plants is the starting step in the direction of a full-
fledged agricultural economy. A plant is refers to as domestic when its natural characteristics got
improved too much therefore it is hard to grow and reproduce those plant without human
participation. It is thought the domestication is the co-evolutionary outcome of the symbiotic
relationship between humans and the plants because plants and human behaviours evolve to suit
one another. The humans started harvesting of plants selectively based on some precise
characteristics of plants like taste, size, colour and many more. They stored and utilize the seeds
of those specific plants for further cultivation.

It is believed that most of the plant were cultivated first during historical times and consequently
have exceptionally poor evidence. The paleontological data is entirely unavailable for cultivated
plants and archaeological information is fragmented and very poor. In the beginning of 19th
century the origin of majority of the cultivated plants were unknown. No species was common
to the tropical regions of the two hemispheres before cultivation. In brief, the original
distribution of the cultivate species were very much uneven. There was no proper proportion in
the number of plants cultivate and their needs for human.

Some ancient Roman and Greek naturalists like Theophrastus, Elder, and Galen Pliny laid down
systematic groundwork of wild plant domestication. Alexander von Humboldt also considered
the origin of useful plants is a big secret as well. Finally, Darwin‘s evolutionary theory
recommended that origin of cultivated plants take place through natural selection and repetitive
hybridization.

So, in this chapter we will discuss about the domestication and introduction of plants, origin of
cultivated plants in detail.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 8

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

1.3 INTRODUCTION AND DOMESTICATION OF PLANTS

What is introduction and domestication of plants?

The human beings received their nutrition from others (plants and animals), therefore, they are
called heteroptops in nutrition. The present day humans are evolved from herbivorous ancestors
but in a while about two million years ago (viz., early Palaeolithic man), they started using
hunting through weapons made by stone. Later on they began to eat roots, tubers and fruits of
wild plants too. Much later, man started cultivating plants and raising animals and started a
settled life. Initially their establishments have been primarily located in the river valleys and
plains near river banks where plenty of water and fertile soil was accessible. By getting all these
favorable conditions, it was easy to cultivate crops, resulted plentiful crop production and they
became self-sufficient.

It is believe that agriculture have been originated somewhere in the well irrigated highlands of
the Indus, Euphrates and Nile and Tigris rivers nearly 7000-13000 years ago. A few other
prehistoric sites like Tehuacan valley in modern Mexico and banks of Yellow river in modern
China are also the evidences of ancient agricultural activities. Apart from this, the agriculture has
begun separately in various parts of the world. So, do you ever think that how a regional
cultivated crop becomes cosmopolitan in its distribution? It could become possible only due to
the ―plant introduction‖ of a particular region to the other region. Let‘s make it easy to
understand this concept with this example. The cultivation is called deliberately growing a plant.
Foremost, those individual plants were brought into cultivation that grow fast and produce crop
rapidly within a season which include the present day cereals. Cereals were originally weeds that
grew in mountain areas of Asia, Africa, Europe, North and South America but now they are
being cultivated in all other parts of the world due to the plant introduction. So, the plant
introduction is a progression of introducing plants (a genotype or a group of genotypes) from
their own environment to a new environment. This process may include new varieties of crop or
the wild relatives of crop species or totally a new crop species for the area. Introduction may be
classified into two categories:

(a) Primary Introduction: When the introduced variety is well suitable to new environment
afterward it released, devoid of any modification of genotype for commercial production is
called primary introduction. Some examples of primary introduction are; dwarf wheat varieties
like Lerma roja, Sonora-64, and dwarf rice varieties like ‗IR-8‘ and Taichung Native 1.

(b) Secondary Introduction: When the introduced variety is subjected to the selection or used
in hybridization programme with local varieties having some new characters to obtain the
superior varieties called secondary introduction. For example, the varieties like ‗Kalyan Sona‘
and Sonalika of wheat have been selected from material introduced from CIMMYT, Mexico.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 9

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

The progression of plant introduction is the thriving observance of two imperative aspects, viz.

(i) Domestication: It is a method of bringing of wild plants under cultivation by making them
appropriately modified for new environment. In other words, we can say that it is the practice in
which wild species have been evolved into crop plants using artificial selection of some
characters. The plant domestication involves an early hybridization event followed by selective
breeding. With the help of this technique now the cultivars are able to cultivate plant based on
some selectively and specific characteristics like taste of the fruits, size of the flowers, colour of
the flowers and fruits and so on. The domestication of plants is the starting step in the direction
of a full-fledged agricultural economy.

Domestication is the reflection of co-evolution where both the components (plants and humans)
developing a symbiotic relationship because human and plant behavior evolve to suit one
another. The process of domestication of wild edibles and introduction of plants has been going
on since the prehistorical time. Some important crops of human use and their domestication
information are given below (Table 1.1):

Table 1.1: List of domestication of some important plants

Domestication time Plant name Domesticated at
Fig tree Near East
9000 BC
Rice East Asia
Barley, Einkorn wheat, Emmer
8500 BC Near East
wheat
Chick pea Anatolia
8000 BC Bottle gourd Asia
Potato Andes mountain
Squash Central America
7000 BC Maize Central America
6000 BC Broomcorn millet East Asia
Bread wheat Near East
Cassava South America
5000 BC Avacado Central America
Cotton Southwest Asia
4000 BC Chilli Peppers South America
Water melon, Olives Near East
Cotton Peru
3500 BC Pomegranate Iran
Hemp East Asia
3000 BC Cotton Meso America
Cocoa South America

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 10

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Squash North America

2600 BC Sunflower Central America
2500 BC Sweet potato Peru
2400 BC March Elder North America
2000 BC Sorghum Africa
Sunflower North America
1800 BC Pearl millet Africa
1600 BC Chocolate Mexico
1500 BC Chenopodium North America
1st century BC Egg Plant Asia
14th century AD Vanilla Central America

(ii) Acclimatization: When an improved variety from distant or neighbouring area is introduced
at a new area, normally it fails to express its phenotypic expression in the same manner as its
native place. But later on, the growth of new plant variety accelerates and furnishes optimal
phenotypic characters. In other words, now the variety becomes acclimatized to their new
environment. Sometimes, the performance of a variety improves with a number of generations
grown when introduce to a new environment. So, acclimatization is the capability of a plant
variety to become adapted to a new edaphic and climatic condition. The process of
acclimatization leads to increase the frequency of most adapted genotypes which depends on
three factors:
(a) Breeding system: Breeding systems referring in plants is simply called as "Who mates with
whom". It is an essential aspect which determines the homozygosity, patterns of genetic
diversity and genome evolution in plants. It can divide into two types; (i) Pure breeding:
Breeding between pure breeds where the ancestors of both mating type have been members of a
recognized breed and (ii) Cross breeding: Breeding where status of only one parent is known or
breeding between two different breeds, varieties, or populations.
(b) Genetic variation: Genetic variation or diversity is called as the diversity exists within
different genotypes of the same species. It is required in natural selection where the organisms
with environmentally preferred traits are improved which are very much competent to adapt the
environmental conditions and transfer their genes to next progeny.
(c) Duration of the crop: The time duration from establishment to harvesting a crop is known as
duration of the crop. Its timing may differ a little depending on the growing circumstances
especially water availability and solar radiation.

1.3.1 Purpose of Plant Introduction and Domestication

(i) For germplasm conservation: The dissemination of high yielding varieties is one of the
many reasons of a threat to old varieties to abolish from an area. Here, germplasm collection as

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 11

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

well as conservation helps to maintain the pure line, cultivars, mutants, clones etc from as many
sources as possible.

(ii) Use in agriculture, forestry and industry: New varieties of plants or crops which are high
quality and better production introduced from various places for use as fiber, food, medicinal,
timber etc as well as the breeding material for hybridisation work.

(ii) For aesthetic interest: Various ornamental plants are introduced for beautification and for
aesthetic value.

(iv) For studying origin and distribution: The distribution of crop plants and their various
forms in different parts of the world gives an idea of their origin and evolution.

1.3.2 Procedure of Plant Introduction

Plant introduction procedure consists of following steps:
(i) Ways of Procurement of Plants or Germplasm: Commandeer for introduction of new
varieties crop or plant should be submitted to National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources
(NBPGR) within the country or to International Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR).
One may get the plant specimen on an exchange basis from friendly countries either directly or
through Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) or the specimen can also be purchased or
obtained as free gift from individuals or organizations.

(ii) Packaging and Dispatch: Any part of the plant which is utilized for the propagation of that
species is called a propagule. Based upon the type of propagule, it gets cleaned from other weed-
seeds and contaminants and treated with fungicides, packed carefully and dispatched so that it
can reach the intention in viable condition. The propagule may be tubers, bulbs, buds, seeds,
seedlings, root cuttings, suckers, stolons runners etc depending upon the plant species.

(iii) Entry and Plant Quarantine: On receiving of the specimen the entry inventory,
examination and checking is done by the nation for other contaminants and the presence of
diseases, nematodes, insect etc. The specimen first treated with fungicides, nematicides,
insecticides, and then released to the user. The general purpose of all this ‗regulatory and
quarantine‘ procedures is to prevent diseases and pests from entering into the country as well as
to check spreading further.

(iv) Cataloguing: Subsequent to quarantine, the introduced specimen is given a number

concerning place of origin, variety, species, and the data are recorded. The plant materials are
classified into three groups:
1. Exotic collection – prefix ‗EC‘
2. Indigenous collection – designated as TC‘
3. Indigenous wild collection – marked as TW‘.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 12

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

(v) Evaluation: To evaluate the potential of new introductions, their performance at different
substations are evaluated as well as resistance to diseases and pests are evaluated under different
environments.

(vi) Multiplication and Distribution: The capable newly introduced species is propagated and
then released as varieties after required examinations.

1.3.3 Agencies associated to Plant Introduction in India

The central plant introduction agency in India is National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources
(NBPGR), which has its headquarters at New Delhi, but has substations for testing the plant
materials. NBPGR has the gene bank for long term storage and future use; it helps to assess the
introduced plant material, coordinates the work of other agencies and imparts training in plant
collection, introduction and maintenance in India. The Substations under NBPGR are:
(i) Shimla: It represents the temperate zone of approx. 2300 m above sea level, place for
germplasm collection in northern hills, station for acclimatization of material introduced from
temperate zone and high altitude.
(ii) Jodhpur: Exclusively meant for exploring and acclimatizing plant material for arid zone,
this is under Central Arid Zone Research Institute.
(iii) Amravati: This substation carries out acclimatization and multiplication of introduced
material for central zone of India.
(iv) Kanya Kumari: It represents the tropical zone situated at South India.
(v) Shillong: This centre has been created for collection of germplasm from North-East India.

Other agencies engaged for this purpose are:

(i) Forest Research Institute (FRI): It situated at Dehradun, Uttarakhand. The plant
introduction organization set up at the institute at looks after introduction, acclimatization,
conservation and testing of forest trees.
(ii) Botanical Survey of India (BSI): It is located in Kolkata, West Bangal. This body is meant
for introduction of medicinal plants and also plants for botanical importance.
(iii) Different Central Research Institutes as well as Agricultural Universities play the role
for collection, introduction and maintenance of germplasm of crop plants.

1.3.4 Merits and Demerits of Plant Introduction:

(A) Merits:
i. Introduction provides completely new crop plants to a place.
ii. Better yielding varieties may be originated directly or after selection or hybridisation.
iii. Introduction is the most economical and quick method of crop improvement when intro-
duced material can be used directly.
iv. Germplasm collection, maintenance and protection of genetic variability are possible
through the ways of introduction and exploration.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 13

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

v. Introduction of some varieties to newer areas may protect them from some diseases.

(B) Demerits:
i. Some disadvantages or demerits coupled with plant introduction are prologue of
some transmissible diseases, pests and weeds.
ii. Some weeds like Lantana, Argemone, Eichhornia, etc have also been introduced from
other countries with the introduction of crop plants.
iii. Some diseases like flat smut of wheat, late blight of potato, coffee rust, bunchy top of
banana etc are have been introduced in India along with introduction of plant materials.
iv. Many insect pests like potato tuber moth, woolly aphis of apple, fluted scale of citrus
were introduced in India along with plant introduction.
However, in most of the cases, the introduction of diseases, pests, insect and weeds occurred
during a phase when quarantine was almost non-existent.

1.3.5 Achievements of Plant Introduction

The course of introduction from the ancient times assists the entire world to achieve newer crop
species to new places as well as the new varieties of crop plants. Some important achievements
are:
(A) New Crop Species: A number of crops have been introduced in India from outside which
ar not native of India. Many cereal, fruit, oil yielding and many more economical utilized crops
like maize, potato, groundnut, chillies, tea, coffee, rubber, guava, grape, pineapple etc are now
cultivated in India only by introduction of all these species to India. Many ornamentals plants
like Gulmohor, Phlox, Salvia, Aster are also introduced to India.

(B) New Crop Varieties:

(a) Selection of desirable varieties: A lot of varieties have been developed after selecting from
introduced varieties. E.g., Sonalika and Kafyan Sona were selected after introduction of Mexican
varieties.
(b) Direct multiplication and released as new varieties: The very useful and high yield dwarf
varieties of rice (e.g., TN-1, IR-8) and wheat (e.g., Sonora 64, Lerma Rojo) are introduced in
India. There are many more examples of direct release of varieties in other crop plants like soya-
bean, oat, tomato, onion, cauliflower etc.
(c) Introduced varieties as donor in hybridization programme: Sometimes the introduced
varieties have better-quality in comparison to the already existing varieties. This may be used as
donor for disease, pest and stress resistance for plant type and quality characters in hybridization.
In case of rice, the dwarfing gene from TN-1 or IR-8 have been used for developing, other dwarf
rice varieties in rice. All the sugarcane varieties have been derived from introduced noble cane
variety of Saccharum officinarum.
(d) Mutation breeding: Sometime, if the introduced variety is lacking a few characters but is
agronomically superior may be treated with mutagen to resolve the deficiency or incompetency.
For example, a wheat variety Sonora-64 introduced with red colour grains did not take too much
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 14
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

attention of the farmers; therefore, the new mutagenic variety produced called Sharbati Sonora
with amber colour grains by the Gamma- ray treatment by M.S. Swaminathan.

1.4 AGRICULTURAL ORIGINS

Evidence for plant cultivation and domestication comes from a variety of sources including:
 Carbonized remains formed by high temperature ‗baking‘ under low oxygen.
 Parched plant remains produced under extreme dry conditions.
 Impregnations of metal oxides.
 Fecal remains.
 Mineralization where cell cavities are replaced by minerals such as silica (phytoliths).
 Impressions pressed into pottery and bricks.
 Plant material sunk in peat bogs or mud under anaerobic conditions.
In these deposits, domestication is considered to be signified by substantial increases in the size
of seeds, dramatic reductions in seed or fruit coat thickness and the apparent loss of dispersal
organs. These confirmations are often complemented by the human artifacts which offer traces
about diet, such as grinding wheels and sickles. Soil from prehistoric settlements is sometimes
passed through screens to obtain small objects, but this technique often allows valuable material
such as seeds to be lost.
The transformation of human from hunter to farmer is a gradual process which took thousands of
years. The early documentation of this has been recorded in the excavations in the Tehuacán
Valley of Mexico where excavates 12 sites and uncovered 12,000 years of agricultural history in
the area. Primarily, humans who got their food from small animals and wild plants now collect
plant products in a set round of annual activities. About 9000 years ago, it became more difficult
and humans began to relocate more of their energy to collections of wild plant like avocados,
chili, peppers squash etc. They dispersed into small forage groups during the unfavorable
seasons while came together during the abundant season. They tried to begin the produced wild
plants through the periodic farming, however, the effort was negligible. Over the next 5000
years, the humans of the Tehuacán Valley slowly enhanced the utilization of the cultivated
vegetation, such that, by 7000 BP, about 10% of their diet came from cultivated plants. They
were outside the native areas of domestication, but by this time a large group of potentially
introduced crops were growing, including maize, amaranth, beans, squash, and peppers. As the
time precede, humans continued to put more and more effort in cultivation. Around 3000 BP, a
large proportion of their diet came from cultivated sources. They also cultivated the cotton
plants. In animal kingdom the records indicated that the dog has domesticated about 5000 years
ago and Turkeys about 2000 years ago. Parallel verification of evolutions from hunters to
farmers can be established at copious places across the Near East. One such site is Jericho in the
Jordan Valley, where a continuous record of 9000 years of habitation was left as people built
new mud huts on top of others as they deteriorated over time. In the earliest period, the
settlement consisted of Natufians, who were primarily hunters of gazelles and foxes and who

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 15

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

tended a few cereals but had no domestic animals. About 9000 years ago, they began to raise
cereals in earnest, and there is the first confirmation that sheep and goats were being
domesticated. A similar long-term record of successive settlement is recorded at Catalhöyük,
Turkey, where people were initially foragers who raised a few cereals on the side, but by 10,000
BP had domesticated cattle and were large-scale farmers.
Agriculture arose about 12,000 years ago separately at many locations across the world. Vavilov
(1926, 1949–1950) initially recognized 8 centres of domestication, mainly based upon the
outlines of crop diversity. These were customized by Harlan in 1967 that are based on the native
range of crop progenitors along with the combination of many archaeological confirmations.
Harlan identified 3 comparatively small geographical areas, which are called centres, and another
three rather diffuse regions, which are called noncentres (Fig 1.1). According to him these
centres were most likely self-governing but the non-centres may have had few contacts with
neighboring ones. The three centres were the: (i) Near East (parts of Jordan, Turkey, Syria, Iraq
and Iran), (ii) Mesoamerica (Central America & Mexico) and (iii) North China. He considered
Africa, South-East Asia and South America to be non-centres. Recently, eastern North America
has also been added as a centre of crop origin.

Fig. 1.1: Earliest places where agriculture began; A1- Near East centre; A2- African non-centre; B1-
North Chinese centre; B2- South East Asian and south Pacific non-centre; C1-Mesoamerican centre;
C2-South American non- centre; D-Eastern North American centre (Figure modified from Harlan,
1967)

The sufficient evidences have specified that human started farming in the hills above the Tigris
river on the western edge (now Iran). A lot of primeval agricultural places have been positioned
in this region. Among the first crops domesticated in this region were einkorn and emmer wheat,
pea, lentil chickpea, barley and flax. Sheep and goats were the first domesticants animal.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 16

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Agriculture began at the early age in the forest margins of Ethiopia, West Africa, and along a
transcontinental band through the savannah as well. Ethiopia has provided the most primitive
confirmation (6th millennium BP) of African farming but the other origins are most likely just as
old. People in the Sahel domesticated pearl millet, sorghum, guinea-fowl and African rice. West
Africans were cultivated cowpea, African yams, and the oil-palm. Ethiopians domesticated
finger millet, coffee and teff. Data on China and Asia are still rising, but they were evidently
primitive regions of animal and plant domestication. The Wei and Yellow river basins in the
north China and the Yangtze valley in the south China also illustrate proof of agriculture about
8000 BP. They started domestication of plants like rice millets; soybean etc and pigs as animal
were the early Chinese domesticants. South-East Asia is the biggest dilemma due to its humid
and hot weather surroundings lead to rapid degradation of food resources, however, there is
evidence that farming was practiced by 8000 to 10,000 BP in New Guinea and Thailand. Sugar
cane and banana were first domesticated in South-East Asia.

Louis Pierre de Candolle, a Swiss botanist, worked on phytogeography and published his work in
1883 entitled ―Origin of cultivated plants‖ which sustains the available prehistoric literatures and
ancient ethnological studies. His work documented the history of 247 species of cultivate plants
and consists the ancestral forms of regions of domestication. According to de Candolle,
cultivated plants have originated for a while in the distant past from wild ancestors in relatively
restricted areas of the world. Further, he also recommended that each crop had a single region of
origin. Based on his work, he recognized following classes of economic plants:

Classes Cultivated plants

Class 1:
Pyrus malus, Solanum melongenum, Setaria italic,
Old world plants that have been
Panicum miliaceum, Pennisetum typhoideum, Oryza
cultivated for over 4,000 years
sativa, Sorghum vulgare, Triticum vulgare etc.
Class 2:
Beta vulgaris, Avena sativa, Papaver somniferum
Old world plants that have been
Secale cereal, Saccharum officinarum, Juglans
cultivated for over 2,000 years
regia etc.
Class 3:
Fagopyrum esculentum, Coffea arabica,
Old world plants that have been
Abelmoschus esculentus, Petroselinum crispum,
cultivated for less than 2,000 years
Pastinaca sativa etc.
Class 4:
New world plants that have been Theobroma cacao, Phaseolus vulgaris, Zea mays
cultivated for more than 2,000 years Ipomea batatas, Nicotiana tabacum etc.

Class 5:
Persea americana, Gossypium sp., Psidium guajava
New world plants that have been
Ananas comosus, Solanum tuberosum, Vanilla
cultivated before the time of Columbus
planifolia etc.
Class 6: Rubus biflorus, Cinchona sp., Prunus domestica,

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 17

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

New world plants that have been Hevea brasiliensis, Fragaria vesca etc.
cultivated since the time of Columbus

Agricultural probably began independently in the New World, 1000–2000 years later than in the
Old World. There was a comparatively dense Mesoamerican centre expanding from Honduras to
Mexico City, while South American produce emerged in a wide region covering most of coastal
and central South America. Coastal Peru is often called as a central point of early South
American agriculture, but the data are somewhat prejudiced, since the majority archaeological
research has been achieved on dry coastal regions where plant material is readily preserved.
Three ecological/geographical regions of domestication have been proposed:
(i) An Andean high elevation complex
(ii) A lowland complex
(iii) An Andean mid-elevation complex
The centre in eastern North America spanned the area between the Appalachian Mountains and
the western borders of Missouri and Arkansas. A diverse group of crops and animals were
initially cultivated and domesticated in the America. Potatoes, quinoa and several other tuber
crops were domesticated in the Andean high-elevation complex. Groundnut, amaranth, bean,
coca, etc were part of the Andean mid-elevation complex. Avocados, chilli, cotton, peppers,
manioc, pawpaw, squash, pineapple, sweet potato and yams were domesticated in the tropical
lowlands of Central and South America. In recent times, fruit phytoliths (silica deposits) have
been recovered from domesticated Cucurbita in early Holocene archaeological sites in south-
western Ecuador (12,000–10,000 BP). The starch grains of yam, manioc and arrowroot have
been found on ancient plant milling stones from the Panamanian tropical forest (7000–5000 BP),
supporting the independent emergence of plant domestication in the lowland neotropical forest.
Species of avocado, amaranth, beans, cotton, chenopod, chilli peppers, pumpkin and squash were
domesticated independently in Mesoamerica, along with maize. Turkeys were the first animals
domesticated in Mexico, while llamas and guinea pigs were the first animals tamed in South
America. Sunflower, goosefoot, sump weed and squash originated in North Americans.

1.5 ORIGIN OF CULTIVATED PLANTS-VAVILOV’S CENTRES

OF ORIGIN

Agriculture is the oldest occupation of the human‘s oldest occupation and probably began when
they discovered that certain seeds when spilled on disturbed ground grew in some mysterious
way into new plants. It now appears certain that early domestications were made more or less
alongside and independently on the lower slopes of the Zagros Mountains, the ‗fertile crescent‘
of the Tigris and Eupharates valleys in northern Iraq (Old World), and in the Tehuacán Valley of
Mexico (New World). Ancient arrangement was astonishingly copious in both these regions. The
initial confirmation of authentically cultivated forms so far discovered, dates from about 7000

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 18

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

BC in both the hemispheres. Every necessary plant species which we worth nowadays is a living
compliment to our primitive ancestors who, discovered the virtues of certain plants, long before
the dawn of recorded history, chosen the most valuable wild species and intensely altered them.
Many of them have been changed so much that their wild ancestors cannot be traced with
conviction. Indeed, early humans were a plant breeder, devoid of any sufficient acquaintance of
genetics, and exhibited a notable knowledge in domesticating plants and preparing them for
food. For the invention of numerous of those economic plants, their relocations from one
continent to another and information of their properties and cultivation, we are indebted to the
scholars of antiquity, the ancient conquerors, the medieval trade princes, the Spanish
conquistadores and the mariners and explorers of many lands. They all took with them the seeds
of their native plants and in revisit, brought home for transplantation anything they found fit.
Even though human domesticated plants at very first but he did not document them critically for
a long time however some irregular plant sketches were made by the Palaeolithic man. The
actual establishment of the systematic study of plants, however, was laid by the Greek and
Roman physician-botanists such as Theophrastus (often known as ‗the father of botany‘),
Dioscorides, Pliny the Elder, Galen and others Dioscorides‘ De Materia Medica is perhaps one
of the most important ancient writings.

For the subsequently 14 centuries, in botany as in other sciences, roughly nothing was proficient.
The previous attempts of Aristotle and Theophrastus were considered thus accomplished and
reliable that there was little besides to study and surely not anything for questioning. However,
the revival of information in the ‗Renaissance‘ had a enormous impact on agriculture. One of the
old perspectives regarding the origin of cultivated plants postulated that these are the gift to
humans by the God. In addition, there was a faith that the procedure of cultivation itself
enhanced the genetics of plants. However, men perplexed these submissions by the end of the 18
century.
Alexander von Humboldt in 1807 proclaimed that ‗we know nothing of the original source of our
most useful plants; their origin is an impenetrable secret‘. These domesticated plants were arise
by the intense modifications in the wild plants which were under cultivation. Mendel‘s work,
first published in 1865, remained obscure until 1900. He formulated the laws of inheritance and
attributed the origin of cultivated plants to natural selection and hybridisation.

Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov

A Russian scientist, Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov was a pioneer worker in the field of plant
introduction and exploration. He was recognized for the gene centre concept of cultivated plants
and their wild progenitors. Under his novel guidance, one of the greatest investigators in crop
geography and genetics, widespread collections of these plants and their wild relatives were
made by sending expeditions all over the world. His deductions were foundation on a selection
of facts, obtained from the sources diverse from those of his predecessors, such as morphology,
cytology, genetics anatomy distribution and reaction to disease. Vavilov maintain the record of

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 19

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

the varied forms of the most significant cultivated plants and their allocation over a range of
parts of the earth. He perceived that the allocation of plants was not uniformly distributed. In few
limited areas, an extensive range of genetic inconsistency was encountered. For example, South
America for potato and Ethiopia for wheat. Over fifty per cent of the diversity found in the world
was present in these regions. There are a few such regions and mostly they are small areas
restricted to the mountains or foothills of the subtropics and tropics. Vavilov called these regions
with the greatest wealth of forms, ‗gene or diversity centres‘ and further suggested that these are
the regions of origin as well as dispersion. From these centres, the species have migrated in
different directions in the course of which many recessive mutants arose. All discrepancy from
the cultivated type to a entirely wild species were to be seen in these centres. In the case of
potato, a investigate for its prime centre of origin, the Andes of South America, exposed all
degrees of variation from a tuber forming cultivated type to the wild non-tuber forming types.
These centres were characterized by the presence of dominant genes. It emerged that the heart of
these gene centres was distinguish by the preponderance of the dominant genes and towards the
peripheral regions these genes were replaced by recessive alleles increasingly. A Vavilov Center
(of Diversity) is a region of the world first specify by Nikolai Vavilov to be an original center for
the domestication of plants. For crop plants, Nikolai Vavilov identified various numbers of
centers. It was only 3 in 1924 which increased by 8 in 1935 and reduced to seven again in 1940.

Vavilov's scheme as updated by Schery and Janick

Vavilov centers are those centers which maintain the high diversity of crop and their wild
relatives can be found which are representing the natural relatives of domesticated crop plants.
Later in 1935 Vavilov divided the centers into 12, giving the following list:

1. Chinese center
2. Indian center
(a) The main centre Assam and Burma (now called Myanmar)
(b) The Indo-Malayan centre includes Indochina and the Malay Archipelago
3. Indo-Malayan center
4. Central Asiatic center
5. Persian center
6. Mediterranean center
7. Abyssinian center
8. South American center
(a) The Peruvian-Ecuadorean-Bolivian centre
(b) The Chiloe centre
(c) The Brazilian-Paraguayan centre
9. Central American center
10. Chilean center
11. Brazilian-Paraguayan center

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 20

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

12. North American center

Table 1.2: Cultivated plants of eight world centers of origin (Source: Schery 1951 and Janick 2002)

Center Plants

(1)
 Grains and Legumes: maize, common bean, lima bean, tepary
South Mexican and bean, jack bean, grain amaranth
Central American Center:
 Melon Plants: malabar gourd, winter pumpkin, chayote
Southern sections
 Fiber Plants: upland cotton, bourbon cotton, henequen (sisal)
of Mexico, Guatemala, H
onduras and Costa Rica.  Miscellaneous: sweet potato, pepper, papaya, guava, cashew,
chochenial, arrowroot, wild black cherry, cherry tomato, cacao.

2) Peruvian, Ecuadorean, Bolivian Center:

 Root Tubers: Andean potato, Other endemic cultivated potato
species. Fourteen or more species with chromosome numbers
varying from 24 to 60, Edible nasturtium
 Grains and Legumes: starchy maize, lima bean, common bean
 Root Tubers: edible canna, potato
(2)
 Vegetable Crops: pepino, tomato, ground, pumpkin, pepper,
South American Center
cherry
includes 62 plants listed;
three subcenters  Fiber Plants: Egyptian cotton
 Fruit and Miscellaneous: cocoa, passion flower, guava, tobacco,
coca, heilborn, quinine tree, cherimoya,
2A) Chiloé Center (Archipelago near the coast of southern Chile)
Common potato (48 chromosomes), Chilean strawberry
2B) Brazilian-Paraguayan Center
manioc, peanut, rubber tree, pineapple, Brazil nut, cashew, Erva-
mate, purple granadilla.
 Cereals and Legumes: durum wheat, emmer, Polish wheat, spelt,
(3) Mediterranean oats, sand oats, canarygrass, grass pea, pea, lupine
Mediterranean Center:
 Forage Plants: Egyptian clover, serradella, white clover, crimson
Includes all of Southern
clover
Europe and Northern
 Oil and Fiber Plants: flax, rape, black mustard, olive
Africa bordering
the Mediterranean Sea.  Vegetables: cabbage, turnip, lettuce, asparagus, celery, chicory, pa
Listed 84 plants rsnip, rhubarb, garden beet
 Ethereal Oil and Spice plants: caraway, anise, peppermint, sage,
hop thyme
(4)  Grains and Legumes: einkorn wheat, durum wheat, poulard
Middle East: wheat, common wheat, oriental wheat, Persian wheat, two-
Includes interior of Asia row barley, rye, Mediterranean oats, common oats, lentil, lupine
Minor, all  Forage Plants: alfalfa, Persian clover, fenugreek, vetch, hairy
of Transcaucasia, Iran, vetch

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 21

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

and the highlands  Fruits: fig, pomegranate, apple, pear, quince, cherry, hawthorn.
of Turkmenistan. Listed
83 species

(5)
Abyssinian Center:  Grains and Legumes: Abyssinian hard wheat, poulard
Includes Ethiopia, Eritre, wheat, emmer, Polish wheat, barley, grain sorghum, pearl
and part of Somalia. 38 millet, African millet, cowpea, flax, teff
species listed; rich in  Miscellaneous: sesame, castor, bean, garden, okra, myrrh, coffee,
wheat and barley. indigo cress, enset.

(6)
Central Asiatic Center:
Includes Northwest India  Grains and Legumes: common wheat, club wheat, shot, peas,
(Punjab, Northwest lentil wheat, horsebean, chickpea, mung, mustard bean,
Frontier Provinces and flax, sesame
Kashmir), Afghanistan, T  Fiber Plants: hemp, cotton
adjikistan, Uzbekistan,  Vegetables: onion, garlic, spinach, carrot
and western Tian-Shan.  Fruits: pistachio, pear, almond, grape, apple.
43 plants

Two sub-centers:
Indo-Burma: Main Center (India):
Includes Assam, Bangladesh and Burma, but not Northwest India,
Punjab, nor Northwest Frontier Provinces, reported 117 plants
 Cereals and Legumes: chickpea, pigeon pea, urd bean, mung
bean, rice bean, cowpea,
 Vegetables and Tubers: eggplant, cucumber, radish, taro, yam
 Fruits: mango, tangerine, citron, tamarind
 Sugar, Oil, and Fibre Plants: sugar cane, cotton, coconut,
(7) palm, sesame, safflower, tree, oriental
Indian Center cotton, jute, crotalaria, kenaf
 Spices, Stimulants, Dyes, and Miscellaneous: indigo, hemp, black
pepper, gum, sandal wood, cinnamon
tree, croton, bamboo, turmeric,
7A) Siam-Malaya-Java: statt Indo-Malayan Center: Includes Indo-
China and the Malay Archipelago, 55 plants
 Cereals and Legumes: Job's tears, velvet bean
 Fruits: pummelo, banana, breadfruit, mangosteen
 Oil, Sugar, Spice, and Fibre Plants: candlenut, coconut
palm, sugarcane, clove, nutmeg, black pepper, manila hemp.
(8)  Cereals and Legumes: rice, broomcorn millet, Italian
Chinese Center: millet, Japanese barnyard millet, sorghum, buckwheat, hull-less
A total of 136 endemic barley, soybean, Adzuki bean, velvet bean

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 22

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

plants are listed in the  Roots, Tubers, and Vegetables: Chinese yam, radish, Chinese
largest independent cabbage, onion, cucumber
center  Fruits and Nuts: pear, litchi, orange, peach, cherry, Chinese
apple, apricot, , walnut, ,
 Sugar, Drug, and Fibre Plants: sugar cane, opium poppy, ginseng
camphor, hemp.

These areas of diversity constitute only a small proportion (two to three per cent) of the total land
surface of the earth and are geographically distinct, being isolated by deserts or mountain ranges.
Eighty-five per cent of the 640 species listed by Vavilov originated in the Old World (Asia,
Europe and Africa), and the remainder are of the New World (the Americans).

All the centres of diversity are situated in the mountainous regions of the tropical zones of the
Old and New Worlds. The wide temperature fluctuations and the strong ultraviolet radiations in
these areas are the grounds of the origin of such a multitude of forms. The extraordinary
diversity of the climate of all mountains, especially the tropical ones, makes it easier for the
newly originated mutants to find a suitable environment than it would be in a region with a more
uniform climate.

Vavilov further distinguished between primary and secondary or ‗accumulation‘ gene centres.
He suggested that the process of domestication from the native wild relatives began in the
primary gene centre, and these are characterised by the dominant genes. As the cultivated plants
later migrated to another gene centre, they were subjected to the same natural force that again led
to a considerable increase in the diversity of the cultivated plants that came into this region. In
this way, a new or secondary gene centre was developed from the cultivated plants in question.
This gene centre was significantly characterised by a diversity of recessive characters and was
also devoid of wild relatives. The Abyssinian centre was extraordinarily rich in the varieties of
wheat, barley, pea, flax and lentil, but there are none of the wild relatives that are found in the
Middle East, many thousands of kilometers from Ethiopia. Thus, in the primary gene centre the
diversity was a consequence of ancient cultivation. The longer a given biological entity occupied
a particular region, the larger would be the number of variables it would exhibit (Willis‘ age-and
area hypothesis, 1922). In contrast, the reasons for the diversity in the secondary gene centre
were ecological diversity, farming practice, human migration patterns (attraction of different
tribes to different races of a crop) and the internal biological dynamics of hybridisation,
segregation and selection.

Even within a basic centre of biodiversity, there are very tiny areas of varietal richness, which
Vavilov called as ‗agro-ecological groups‘. This idea was expected by Harlan was used the term
‗microcentre‘- a region that may contain an astonishing variation of one or more crops.
According to Vavilov, many of our most important cultivated plants had a multiple rather than a
single origin as suggested by de Candolle. These primary crops were domesticated directly from
the wild plants, example of which are wheat, barley, rice, soybean, flax, cotton, maize and

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 23

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

potato. Vavilov pointed out that there were at least two distinct centres of distribution for wheat;
soft wheat originated in the Southeast Asia, whereas the hard wheat came from the
Mediterranean region. Likewise, barley was domesticated in the Southwest Asia, North Africa
and Southeast Asia.

On the other hand, secondary crops, such as rye, oats, etc. originated as weeds growing with the
primary crops. As the primary crops were taken to areas with harsher climatic conditions and
poorer soils, the percentage of weeds increased since they were better adapted to such conditions.
Hence, finally the weeds became the crop, and the crop became the weed.

1.6 SUMMARY
The broad objective of the present unit is to know about the domestication and introduction of
plant species and their origin. The history of human evolution is very old where the prehistoric
human primarily got their food from the wild edible plants but as the time passed, they started to
cultivate the wild plants. Therefore, the traditions of those prehistoric humans take very
prominent part in the origin of cultivation of plants. It is believed that most of the plant were
cultivated first during historical times. However the paleontological data is entirely unavailable
for cultivated plants and archaeological information is fragmented and very poor.

The efforts of some ancient Roman and Greek naturalists like Theophrastus, Elder, and Galen
Pliny laid down systematic groundwork of wild plant domestication. Alexander von Humboldt
also considered the origin of useful plants is a big secret as well. Finally, Darwin‘s evolutionary
theory recommended that origin of cultivated plants take place through natural selection and
repetitive hybridization.

If we talk about the agriculture it is believed that agriculture have been originated somewhere in
the well irrigated highlands of the Indus, Euphrates and Nile and Tigris rivers nearly 7000-13000
years ago. A few places of other prehistoric sites like Tehuacan valley in modern Mexico and
banks of Yellow river in modern China are also the evidence of ancient agricultural activities.

Do you ever think that how a regional cultivated crop becomes cosmopolitan in their
distribution? It could become possible only due to the ―plant introduction‖ and domestication of
a particular region to the other region. The plant introduction is a progression of introducing
plants (a genotype or a group of genotypes) from their own environment to a new environment.
This process may include new varieties of crop or the wild relatives of crop species or totally a
new crop species for the area. Introduction may be classified into two categories: (i). Primary
introduction: When the introduced variety is well suitable to new environment afterward it
released devoid of any modification of genotype for commercial production. (ii). Secondary
introduction: When the introduced variety is subjected to the selection or used in hybridization

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 24

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

programme with local varieties having some new characters to obtain the superior varieties
called secondary introduction.

The plant domestication is a method of bringing of wild plants under cultivation by making them
appropriately modified for new environment. Domestication is the reflection of co-evolution
where both the components (plants and humans) developing a symbiotic relationship because
human and plant behaviours evolve to suit one another. Some main purposes of plant
domestication are germplasm conservation, enhancement in agriculture, forestry and industry,
aesthetic interest etc. The major agencies which are associated to plant Introduction in India are
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), Forest Research Institute (FRI),
Botanical Survey of India (BSI) etc.

Agriculture is the oldest occupation of the human‘s oldest occupation. A Russian scientist,
Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov was a pioneer worker in the field of plant introduction and
exploration. Vavilov proposed some centers of origin of cultivated plant which are known as
Vavilov‘s centers of origin. These are those centers which maintain the high diversity of crop
and their wild relatives. According to Vavilov, many of our most important cultivated plants had
a multiple rather than a single origin as suggested by de Candolle. These primary crops were
domesticated directly from the wild plants, for example wheat, barley, rice, soybean, flax, cotton,
maize, potato etc.

1.7 GLOSSARY

Prehistoric time: the vast period of time before written records or human documentation,
includes the Neolithic Revolution, Neanderthals and Denisovans, Stonehenge, the Ice Age and
more.
Wild relative crop: wild plant species that are genetically related to cultivated crops.
Domestication: the process of taming an animal or plant and keeping it as a pet or on a farm or
cultivation.
Evolution: the development of plants, animals, etc. over many thousands of years from simple
early forms to more advanced ones
Co-evolution: the influence of closely associated species on each other in their evolution.
Symbiosis: It is a type of a close and long-term biological interaction between two different
biological organisms.
Archaeology or archeology: It is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis
of material culture.
Plant Hybridization: It is the process of crossing two genetically different individuals to result
in a third individual with a different, often preferred, set of traits.
Cultivation: It is called deliberately growing a plant.
Plant introduction: It is a progression of introducing plants (a genotype or a group of
genotypes) from their own environment to a new environment.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 25

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Acclimatization: It is the capability of a plant variety to become adapted to a new edaphic and
climatic condition.
Breeding systems: It referring in plants is simple called as "Who mates with whom"
Pure breed: Breeding between pure breed where the ancestors on both mating type have been
members of a recognized breed.
Cross breed: Breeding where status of only one parent is known or breeding between two
different breeds, varieties, or populations.
Genetic variation or diversity: It is called as the diversity exists within different genotypes of
the same species.
Crop duration: The time duration from establishment to harvesting a crop is known as duration
of the crop.
Germplasm: It is living tissue from which new plants can be grown. It can be a seed or another
plant part – a leaf, a piece of stem, pollen or even just a few cells etc.
Conservation: It is the moral philosophy and conservation movement focused on protecting
species from extinction, maintaining and restoring habitats, enhancing ecosystem services, and
protecting biological diversity.
Aesthetic value: It is the emotional or spiritual value attributed to a work of art or nature
because of its beauty or other factors associated with aesthetic preference.
Plant variety: It represents a more precisely defined group of plants, selected from within a
species, with a common set of characteristics.
Propagules: a vegetative structure that can become detached from a plant and give rise to a new
plant, e.g. a bud, sucker, or spore.
Plant quarantine: It is a technique for ensuring disease- and pest-free plants, whereby a plant is
isolated while tests are performed to detect the presence of a problem.
Phytogeography or botanical geography: It is the branch of biogeography that is concerned
with the geographic distribution of plant species and their influence on the earth's surface.
Vavilov center: A center of origin is a geographical area where a group of organisms, either
domesticated or wild, first.
Biodiversity: developed its distinctive properties. They are also considered centers of diversity.
Biodiversity is the biological variety and variability of life on Earth. Biodiversity is a measure of
variation at the genetic, species, and ecosystem level.

1.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1.8.1 Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Centres of early civilization were in:
(a) Tropical plains (b) River valleys
(c) Temperate plains (d) Hills

2. The earliest place where agriculture and civilisation are believed to have started

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 26

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

(a) Nile (b) Northern plains of India

(c) China River valley (d) All of the above

3. Ethiopia is the original home of

(a) Coffee (b) Maize
(c) Rice (d) Cabbage

4. Cabbage originated in:

(a) Mexico and Central America (b) Peruvian Andes
(c) Mediterranean (d) South West Asia

5. Maize evolved in
(a) Brazil (b) Mexico and Central America
(c) U.S.A. (d) Asia Minor and Afghanistan

6. The centre of origin of Almond and Apple is

(a) South-West Asia (b) South-East Asia
(c) China (d) Asia Minor and Afghanistan

7. The original home of Rice is

(a) South-West Asia (b) South-East Asia
(c) Mediterranean (d) China

8. Peruvian Andes are believed to be centre of origin of

(a) Tomato (b) Potato
(c) Tomato and Potato (d) Tomato, Potato and Chillies

9. The origin of Sunflower is believed to be in

(a) Mexico and Brazil (b) Brazil
(c) U.S.A. (d) Peruvian Andes

10. South-East Asia is thought to be centre for the origin of

(a) Rice (b) Rice and Sugarcane
(c) Rice, Sugarcane and Mango (d) Rice, Sugarcane, Mango and Banana

1.8.2 Fill in the blanks:

1. The famous cultivated plant which developed in China is _______
2. The birthplace of Hevea/Para Rubber is _______
3. The centre of origin of Wheat is _______
4. Gene banks comprise _______

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 27

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

5. Dwarf wheats were developed by the scientist _______

6. The dwarf varieties brought from Mexico into India were _______and _______
7. IR.-36 was developed through breeding of _______ and _______
8. Cereals belong to family _______
9. Major crops of the world belong to family _______
10. Triticale is a man-made cereal which has been developed through hybridisation between
_______ and _______

1.8.3 True and False:

1. Rice is the principal cereal of Tropical region.
2. The plants introduced from Old World to New World is maize.
3. Food grains which provide the most important staple food to man are Legumes.
4. Rice is the good source of carbohydrate.
5. Cereals are biennials crop.
6. Botanical name of Rice is Pennisetum typhoides.
7. Sharbati Sonora and Sonalika are the Improved Wheat varieties.
8. Paddy is Rice grain with husk.
9. Polished rice is the best form of rice.
10. Triticum monococcum is the common bread wheat.

Answer Key:
1.8.1: 1(c); 2(d); 3(a); 4(c); 5(b); 6(d); 7(b); 8(d); 9(c); 10(d).
1.8.2: 1. Tea; 2. Brazil; 3. South-West Asia; 4. Seed banks, orchards, tissue culture and
cryopreservation; 5. Borlaug; 6. Sonora-64, Lerma Rojo-64; 7. Thirteen Rice varieties, Oryza
nivara; 8. Gramineae; 9. Gramineae; 10. Wheat, Rye
1.8.3: 1. True; 2. False; 3. False; 4. True; 5. False; 6. False; 7. True; 8. True; 9. False; 10. False

1.9 REFERENCES

 https://www.studyandscore.com/studymaterial-detail/Alphonse-de-Candolle-Origin-of-
cultivate-plants-Classes-of-economic-plants-Regions-of-first-origin
 https://www.studyandscore.com/studymaterial-detail/origin-and-introduction-of-plants-
domestication-of-plants-basis-of-plant-domestication
 Janick J (2002) History of Horticulture, Purdue University,
 Schery R. W. Adapted from Vavilov (1951) by, Plants for Man, Prentice Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ, 1972

1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 28

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

 Janick J (2002) History of Horticulture, Purdue University,

 Schery R. W. Adapted from Vavilov (1951) by, Plants for Man, Prentice Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ, 1972

1.11 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1.11.1 Short answer type questions:

1. What do you under by introduction of plant species?
2. Describe the primary and secondary introduction in brief.
3. What do you know about the domestication of plant?
4. What is acclimatization of a species?
5. Highlight the main purposes of plant introduction and domestication.

1.11.2 Long answer type questions:

1. Write in detail note on procedure and agencies associate of plant introduction in India.
2. Discuss the merits and demerits of plant introduction.
3. Highlight some achievements of plant introduction in detail.
4. Discuss the origin of agriculture in detail.
5. What do you understand by the Vavilov‘s centres of origin?

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 29

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

UNIT-2 FOOD SPECIES, FRUITS AND NUTS

Contents

2.1- Objectives
2.2- Introduction
2.3- Food species
2.3.1- Cereals
2.3.2- Pulses
2.3.3- Millets
2.3.4- Vegetables
2.4-Fruits
2.5-Nuts
2.6-Summary
2.7-Glossary
2.8-References
2.8-Suggested readings
2.10-Self Assessment Questions
2.11-Terminal Questions

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 30

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

2.1 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit the students will be able to known about the;
 Major food species of the world.
 Origin, cultivation, food value and production of the cereals.
 Origin, cultivation, food value and production of the pulses.
 Food value and uses of millets.
 Major vegetable, fruit and nut species and its nutrient values and uses.

2.2 INTRODUCTION
Food plant species may be defined as those plant species or plant organs that can be included in
human meal or a part of it. Human meals can be chiefly divided into three categories breakfast,
lunch and dinner. These three meals are mainly consists either of plant products (cereals,
vegetables, legumes, fruits and nuts) or products of animals (meat, cheese, butter, curd, yoghurt,
milk, eggs etc.).

As the title of the block ―Plant resources of food value‖ asks to mention about the plant species
which can be used as food, so here in this unit we are going to study only about the plant
products which make our meals.

As we look at the major classification of plant products used as food it appears that only higher
plants made their way to our dining table but this is not the complete truth. Human also use
various lower plants in their diet. Among these lower plants macro-fungi such as mushrooms,
morels, truffles and puffballs contribute the major portion; Algae such as sea grapes (Caulerpa
lentillifera), Nori or purple laver (Porphyra spp.), Aonori or green laver (Monostroma spp. and
Enteromorpha spp.), Kombu or haidai (Laminaria japonica), Wakame, quandai-cai (Undaria
pinnatifida), Hiziki (Hizikia fusiforme), Mozuku (Cladosiphon okamuranus), Dulse (Palmaria
palmata), Irish moss or carrageenan moss (Chondrus crispus), Winged kelp (Alaria esculenta),
Ogo, ogonori or sea moss (Gracilaria spp.), Callophyllis variegata, Spirulina, Chlorella,
Gelidium corneum, Gracilaria lichenoides and Eucheuma spinosum are the second largest
contributor, and only a single species i.e. Matteuccia struthiopteris of Ferns made to the
contributor list. Some species of lichens contribute in making spices.

Very few species of Gymnosperms provide some nuts to eat such as the Mexican pinon (Pinus
cembroides), the Colorado pinion (P. edulis), the Italian stone pine (P. pinea), and the Chinese
nut pine (P. koraiensis), Chilgoza Pine (Pinus girardianana) and Sago from some cycads e.g.
Cycas revoluta.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 31

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Angiosperms are the most dominating plant group in obtaining food products. The main reason
why these plants are so much in demand as food products because these species contain all the
necessary and sufficient nutrients like carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins and minerals. A
major portion of the global supply of food products is obtained from rice, wheat, maize, sugar
cane, potato and beans etc. Some beans and vegetables such as mustard, groundnut, soyabean,
sunflower, linseed, olive and castor oil are widely used in the food industry.

Almost all the vegetables provide vitamins and mineral salts that are essential for human health.
The lack of these vegetables from the diet results in vitamin deficiency and consequently causes
some diseases such as beriberi, scurvy and pellagra from the lack of vitamin B (thiamine),
vitamin C and vitamin B6 (niacin), respectively.

As we saw in the above paragraphs, with the help of some examples, plants constitute a large
proportion of human diet. A huge section of all the edible plant species can be categorized into
three broad categories such as cereals, vegetables and legumes. We will study these three
categories in details further in this chapter.

2.3 FOOD SPECIES

2.3.1 Cereals

The term ‗cereals‘ is derived from a Greek festival ‗Cerealia‘ which is celebrated in ancient
Rome to honor the goddess Ceres who is the goddess of agriculture, grain crops, fertility, and
motherly relationships. In this festival Romans used to offer grains such as wheat and barley to
the goddess Ceres.

Cereals are the important component of human diet. True cereals belong to the family Poaceae
also known as grass family (Fig 3.1). On the other hand there are some other crops which are
used to make flour but these species do not belong to the family Poaceae. These plants are called
as pseudocereals for example buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), quinoa (Chenopodium
quinoa), Amaranthus spp. etc.

Cereals have a significant role in the evolution of Human civilizations. No civilization can ever
be imagined without a stable supply of food and the agricultural revolution was the answer to the
mentioned problem. Cereals were the first plants ever to be domesticated and cultivated in
agricultural lands. Roughly every civilization, whether it is Ancient Egypt, Greece, Inca, Indus
valley, Mayan, Mesopotamian and Roman was based on one or another species of the cereals.

Now the question arises why the cereals have so much significance as food plant species. The
cereals belong to the grass family and grasses have adapted themselves in growing almost on
every possible habitat; cereals give very high yield per unit area; in comparison to the products

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 32

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

of other plant species cereal grains are very compact and dry, this feature of cereals make them
the perfect food species for handling, transporting and storing without the fear of spoilage; apart
from all the above mentioned reasons the cereal grains have great nutritive value, as they contain
a higher percentage of carbohydrates than any other food plant, sufficient protein (7-10 per cent),
fats, vitamins and minerals. The general characteristics of cereals are following:

Habit: Generally herbaceous annuals, few are perennial.

Stem: Cylindrical, often erect, generally hollow (except at the nodes), have intercalary
meristem. Primary, secondary and tertiary or even quaternary tillers may arise from the
subterranean nodes of the primary, secondary and tertiary stems, respectively and this gives the
plant a tufted appearance.
Leaves: Alternate with parallel venation, having two distinct parts (leaf sheath and lamina). A
ligule (membranous outgrowth) is also found at the junction of the leaf sheath and lamina.
Inflorescence: Spike of spikelets (wheat, barley and rye) or panicle of spikelets (oats, rice and
sorghum).
Stamen: Usually three, sometimes six.
Gynoecium: Single with two feathery stigmas.
Flower: Chasmogamous and adapted for wind pollination.
Fruit: One-seeded indehiscent fruit, or caryopsis, in which the pericarp is completely fused with
the seed-coat.

The most commonly used cereals are wheat, rice, corn, barley and oats. Some important millets
are Finger millet (ragi), Foxtail millet, Barnyard millet and pearl millet. A study conducted in
2013 suggests that a large percentage of the world‘s population manages to survive chiefly on
wheat, rice or maize (Graph 1). China (552,430,540 tones) is the world‘s largest producer of
cereals, followed by United States (436,553,678 tones) and India (293,940,000 tones). Some
most common species of cereals and millets are being described here in details.

(A) Wheat

Botanical Name: Triticum spp.

Characteristic Features: Annual grass, comprising various wild (weeds) and cultivated species.
Cultivated wheat (T. aestivum) grows to a height of 2-4 ft. Inflorescence terminal spike or head
consisting of 15-20 spikelets borne on a zigzag axis. Individual spikelets sessile, solitary, consist
of 1-5 flowers each. Mature grain consists of the embryo (6 per cent), a starchy endosperm (82 to
86 per cent), the nitrogenous aleurone layer (3 to 4 percent), and the husk or bran (8 to 9 per
cent). Husk or bran is made up of the remains of the nucellus, the integuments of the seed coat,
and the ovary walls or pericarp.
Origin: On the basis of the number of chromosomes present in their reproductive cells, all the
wheat species can be classified into three categories namely diploid, tetraploid and hexaploid
wheat. Originally all the wheat varieties were considered to be diploid but in time, unknowingly,

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 33

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

human provided them a chance to get naturally hybridized and after that their chromosomes
doubled and gave rise to the modern day tetrapliod and hexaploid wheat varieties.

Production: According to a datum published in 2012 wheat has a total production of about
670.8 million metric tons and it is the third most produced cereal after maize and rice. The top
producer of wheat is China (120 million tons) followed by India (94.8 MT).
India produces 86 per cent common bread wheat (T. aestivum), 13 per cent durum wheat (T.
durum) and the remaining 01 per cent is emmer wheat (T. dicoccum).

Types: On the basis of the growing season of wheat all the varieties of wheat can be categorized
in to two main groups: Spring and winter wheat.
Spring wheat: Short growing season (almost 100 days), no need of very low temperatures in the
early phases of growth, sown in March-May, harvested in the late summer from August to
September.
Winter wheat: Long duration, require relatively low temperatures during the early phases of
growth, sown in October-November and reaches maturity in the early summer of the next year,
that is, May to July. On the basis of the chemical composition of the grain wheat can be divided
into two broad groups: Soft and hard wheat.
Soft wheat: Pale, possess a white starchy interior, lower in gluten content and make a weak flour
suitable for making cakes, crackers, cookies, pastries and household flour.
Hard wheat: Dark and vitreous show no white starchy area, higher in gluten content and make
strong flour, a property desirable for bread making (leavened loaf).
On the basis of official grain standards in the United States, wheat is categorized into seven
grades: (1) hard-red spring, (2) durum, (3) hard-red winter, (4) soft-red winter, (5) white wheat,
(6) red durum and (7) mixed wheat.

Cultivation Method: The wheat seeds must be sown in about 4 to 5 cm inside the soil. Always
put the seeds in rows and maintain a spacing of 20-22.5 cm between the rows. Planting or
sowing the seeds in the right time is also important as delayed sowing can cause a gradual
decline in the production.
Season: Wheat is a Rabi crop that is grown in the winter season. Sowing of wheat takes place in
October to December and harvesting is done during the months of February and May. The wheat
crop needs cool winters and hot summers, which is why the fertile plains of the Indo-Gangetic
region are the most conducive for growing it.
Soil: Wheat grows best in a well-drained loamy soil. The term ―loam‖ is textural and reflects the
particle size distribution of the soil and the relative quantities of the sand, silt and clay size
fractions.
Harvesting: The crop is harvested when it is ripe and the straw has turned golden yellow and
brittle. At this stage, the moisture content of the grains is nearly 14 per cent. Wheat is sown in

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 34

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

October and harvested in May-June. The crop remains dormant in the cold months of November
to March and starts growing as the temperature rises in April.
Uses: Wheat is the important source of carbohydrates to human. Wheat flour has good baking
qualities and be used in various forms. In India almost 85-90 per cent of wheat is used to make
roties. The soft wheat flour is mainly used in making cakes, biscuits, pastries etc. and hard wheat
flour is used in bread making. Flour from Durum wheat is used in making macaroni, spaghetti,
semolina, vermicelli, noodles.
Wheat is also used in industrial preparations such as starch, gluten, distilled spirits, malt etc.
Wheat starch is preferred by many laundries for use in finishing clothes. Gluten is used for the
production of monosodium glutamate, a product that intensifies the flavour of food.
Wheat bran is rich in proteins and vitamins and is a valued livestock feed. It is employed in the
human diet not only for its nutritional quantities but for its role as ‗roughage‘, indigestible
material, which stimulates intestinal peristalsis and adds bulk to the waste mass. Wheat straw is
used as livestock feedstuff, animal bedding and compost. Some wheat straw is used for making
corrugated paper, as well as high-quality insulated building board.

(B) Rice
Botanical Name: Oryza sativa
Characteristic Features: The rice plant is a semiaquatic, free tillering annual grass with a
cylindrical jointed stem (culm), about 50-150 cm tall. The internodes are shortest at the base,
becoming progressively longer. Above each node, there is a pronounced thickening ‗pulvinus‘
with an intercalary meristem. Generally, it has a shallow root system further depends on the type
of the soil and the water availability. The first leaf at the base of the main culm and each tiller is
rudimentary, consisting of a bladeless ‗prophyllum‘. Leaves are arranged in alternate manner on
the stem in two levels – one at each node, each consisting of leaf sheath, leaf blade, ligule and
auricles, the former encircling the whole or part of the internode. At the junction of the leaf
sheath and leaf blade, there is a triangular membranous, usually colourless ligule that tends to
split with age and is flanked on either side by a small sickle-like appendage, fringed with long
hairs (auricles). The leaf blade is long, narrow, 30–50 cm or more in length and 1-2 cm broad
and somewhat pubescent having spiny hairs on the margins. The lamina of the uppermost leaf
below the panicle (‗flag‘ or ‗boot‘) is wider and shorter than the other.
The rice inflorescence is a loose terminal panicle. The spikelets are usually borne singly, but
clustered forms with 2-7 spikelets together. The flower is usually self pollinated and is
surrounded by lemma and palea that make up the hull or husk and remains attached to the grains
in threshing. The lemma is tough, papery and may be fully awned, partially awned or awnless,
while the palea is somewhat smaller and sometimes awned. Enclosed within the lemma and
palea are two broad, thick, fleshy lodicules, six stamens in two alternating whorls and a pistil
with two plumose stigmas on two styles.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 35

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Origin: It has the origin in Southeastern Asia, but in time it has spread to every warm region of
the world. The Chinese were the first to cultivate rice, and their records go back for 4000 years.
Rice was introduced into India before the time of the Greeks, and very early reached Syria and
Northern Africa. The first rice was grown in Europe in 1468 in Italy. The first rice in America
was grown in South Carolina in 1694 from seed brought from Madagascar.

Production: The global production of rice in 2012 was around 719 million tons. Out of that,
152.6 million tons (around 35 per cent) were produced in India. European countries like Italy and
Spain also produced small quantities of rice but Asian continent alone accounts for more than 90
per cent of the world‘s production.

Cultivation: The rice crop is grown over an extremely wide range of climatic conditions. Rice
production requires; relatively high temperature; ample amount of water; close textured or
relatively impervious subsoil to prevent excessive loss of water by seepage and good drainage
system to allow the field to dry at the time of harvesting. Different varieties of rice vary in their
season of growth, maturation period and suitability to varying conditions of soils, temperature,
rainfall, altitude and adaptability to such special environments such as flooded land, alkalinity
and acidity of soil and depth of standing water.
Flooded fields are a prime requirement for rice production. Rice can be grown on different soil
types but it prefers the heavy alluvial soils. Acidic soil pH is good for rice cultivation. Best
conditions for rice to grow are high temperature (21 to 35 °C) and humidity.

Harvesting: The right time to harvest the crop is when the panicles become yellowish in color
and turned downward. Pre-mature and delayed harvesting are the reasons for lowering the yield.
Uses: Rice is the vital part of the diet in Southeast Asia. About 90 per cent of rice is eaten as
plain boiled rice with cooked pulses, curd, vegetables, fish or meat. The other Indian rice
preparations are kheer, firni and pulao. In South India, fermented preparations such as dosa, idli
and uppma are prepared. Rice flour is used in confectionery, ice creams, puddings and pastry.
Rice starch, has broad industrial potential in the cosmetic industry, as a thickener in calico
printing, in the finishing of textiles and for making dextrins, glucose and adhesives. Alcoholic
beverages such as ‗sake‘ in Japan and ‗wang-tsin‘ in China are made from rice through fungal
fermentation.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 36

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Fig. 2.1: Some important cereal, pulse and millet crop of human food
The rice husk is of little value as an animal feed because of its high silicon content. Hulls are
used as a fuel, as bedding for poultry and for packing and insulation. Ash from the burnt rice
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 37
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

hulls is used as a filler in concrete and bricks, and as a source of sodium silicate in making soaps,
polishes and other cleaning agents. The bran and rice polish, by-products of the rice milling
industry, are valued as a stock feed. Rice bran oil (RBO) is used for edible purposes.
In China and Japan, a very fine type of paper is manufactured from the rice straw. The straw is
also used for feeding cattle, as soil mulch, fertiliser and for the manufacture of strawboards. It is
also employed for thatching, making hats, mats, sacks, ropes and baskets. Rice has played an
important part in many ancient customs and religious and magical rituals in the East and is still
associated with several ceremonies.

(C) Maize
Botanical Name: Zea mays
Characteristic features: Maize is a tall annual grass (3 to 15 ft). The jointed stem is solid and
contains a considerable amount of sugar when young. The leaves are large and narrow, with
wavy margins. Extensive fibrous root system, aerial prop roots are usually formed at the base of
the stem. Two kinds of flowers are produced. The tassel, at the top of the stem, bears the
staminate flowers, while the cob or ear with the pistillate flowers is produced lower down on the
stalk and so is protected by the leaves. Each ovary has a long silky style, the corn silk. The
ovaries, and consequently the mature grains, are produced in rows on the cob. The cob is
surrounded by a husk composed of leafy bracts. The grains consist of the hull, protein,
endosperm and embryo. Two kinds of endosperm are usually present: a hard, horny yellow
endosperm and a soft white starchy endosperm.

History and Origin: Maize is supposed to have originated in Guatemala and Southern Mexico.
All the principal types of maize we know today were already in existence in the pre-Columbian
times.

Production: The global production of maize is 872 million tons and out of that United States
alone produced 273.8 million tons. The other major maize producers in the order of ranking are
China 208.2 Mt, Brazil 71.2 Mt, Mexico 22 Mt, Argentina 21.2 Mt and India 21 Mt.

Types: There is no knowledge about the wild species of Zea in the present. On the basis of
nature of endosperm and shape of the grain maize can be broadly categorized into the following:

Pod Maize (Zea tunicata):

1. Each grain is covered with a husk.
2. The plant is very leafy and the tassels are very heavy.
3. Has no commercial value because of the presence of the individual husks.

Pop Maize (Zea everta):

1. Grains are usually elongate and oval, small in size, very hard and flinty with a tough hull.
2. The endosperm is mostly hard and glossy.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 38

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

3. Dry grains explode (expansion of endosperm) with a popping sound

4. Two kinds of popcorn occur: rice popcorn (pointed and imbricated grains) and pearl popcorn
(rounded and very compact grains).
5. Has little commercial production.
Flint Maize (Zea indumta):
1. Hard endosperm present outside the embryo and white endosperm as a protective layer.
2. Height ranges from 5-9 ft
3. The ears are two in number, long and cylindrical, have 8-16 rows of grains of different in
color.
4. Matures early.
Dent Maize (Zea indentata):
1. This is the largest species, with a height ranging from 8-15 ft.
2. Only one ear is produced in a plant. The ears are large
3. Grains are deep wedge-shaped and commonly yellow or white in color.
4. Due to its massive yield it is chiefly grown in the Corn producing areas.
5. It is the main source of fodder and commercial grain.
Soft Maize (Zea amylacea):
1. The hard endosperm is entirely lacking.
2. The morphology of grains is similar to flint maize, but the size varies.
3. It is not grown on a commercial scale in the United States.
Sweet Maize (Zea saccharata):
1. The entire endosperm is translucent and the starch is almost changed to sugar.
2. The grains are broad and wedge-shaped with a characteristically wrinkled surface. The grain
is used in the unripe state.
3. It is adapted to the colder areas.

Cultivation: Alluvium soil with high organic and nitrogen content is best suited for the
production of maize. Average temperature ranging from 66-75 °F is the best for its cultivation.
For the optimum growth of the plant proper sunlight and 20-in. annual rainfall are the two
essential factors.
Uses: The whole plant including the grain is the chief source of livestock feed. The grain is very
nutritious, with a high percentage of easily digested carbohydrates, fats, and proteins and very
few harmful substances. The heavy use of maize is in the US pork industry which uses about 40
per cent of the total production. Because of the absence of gluten it cannot be baked as bread.
Cornmeal is often baked in cakes, such as johnny cakes, ash cakes, hoe cakes, corn pone, and the
Mexican tortillas. Corn is also used in producing cornstarch, corn syrup, corn sugar, corn oil,
dextrins and industrial alcohol. Various types of alcoholic beverages are made from the grain.
The stock fibers are used for making paper and yarn, cigarette papers are made from inner husks
and the cobs are used for fuel and as a source of charcoal. As a result of recent chemical

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 39

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

investigations the stalks, cobs, and other waste from maize bid fair to become important sources
of valuable solvents, explosives, and even a gas that can be used for home consumption.

2.3.2 Pulses
Pulses are the chief source of protein to the vegetarian population. Protein is present in the large
proportion then carbohydrates and fats. All the pulses belong to the family Leguminosae
(Fabaceae). The characteristic feature of this family is the presence of a special kind of fruit, a
legume, which is a pod that opens along two sutures when the seeds are ripe. Out of the 11,000
known species of legumes, majority of them have industrial, medicinal, or nutritive value.
Legume seeds have low water content and impermeable seed coats which facilitate their storage
for long duration. Because of the rich energy content legumes are particularly used in cold
weather or by those who take part in rigorous physical work. The immature fruits also serve as a
vegetable. Legumes are also used as field and forage crops. When plowed under they are an
excellent fertilizer and greatly increase the nitrogenous content of the soil.

Classification: All the species of pulses (Fig 2.1) belong to the family Fabaceae. The tabular
representation (Table 2.1) of the different groups of pulses is mentioned below:

Table 2.1: Different groups of most common pulses

Family Tribe Genera
Lentil (Less esculenta), Pea (Pisum sativum), Chick pea (Cicer
Vicieae arientum), Grass pea or Khesari dhal (Lathyrus sativus) and Broad
or Horse bean (Vicia faba)
Hedysareae Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea)
Soya bean (Glycine max), Lablab bean (Lablab purpureus),
Fabaceae Common beans (Phaseolus spp.), Cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata),
Phaseoleae Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), Horse gram (Dolichos uniflorus) and
Ground beans (Voandzeia subterranea) and minor pulses such as
Sword and Jack beans (Canavalia spp.)
Galegeae
Cluster bean or Guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba)
(Indigofereae)

Origin: According to the Chinese literature, the soya bean was cultivated between 3000 and
2000 BC. Legumes also featured in the cropping systems of the early Egyptian dynasties. Pea
and lentils were present at various archaeological sites such as Hacilar, Beidha and Jarmo, dating
as far back as 7500 to 6500 BC (Helbaek 1966). Pisum, Vicia and Lens were found at Neolithic
sites in Greece (Renfrew 1966). The evidences suggest the domestication of common bean back
in 4975 BC in the Tehuacan Valley in Mexico. Fragments of lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus) or
common bean have been reported in dried human excreta (desiccated faeces or coprolites) in

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 40

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

coastal Peru, dating back to 3000 BC. According to Kaplan et al. (1973) the common bean and
the lima bean were present in the inter-montane Peruvian Valley, dating to about 6000 BC.

Nutrition: Pulses contain, almost 2-3 times more protein (about 30 % of its dry weight) than
cereals, up to 60 % carbohydrates and 1-2 % fat except soya bean having up to 20 % fat. They
also have niacin, thiamine, carotene, riboflavin and ascorbic acid. Pulses are rich in calcium and
iron. Sprouted legume seeds are a great source of vitamin C.

Production: Pulses are chiefly cultivated in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world.
India is the world‘s largest producer as well as the biggest consumer of legumes. Pulses cover
28170000 ha land area and according to a data published in 2013, produces about 18311200
tones which is about 25 % of the total global production. In India, the top three pulse growing
states are Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. Globally, the top three producers are
Canada, Myanmar and China.

Uses: Pulses are consumed in different forms e.g. whole or de-husked splits (daal), fried or
puffed grain products, fermented preparations, germinated seeds and flour. In India, more than
75 per cent of pulses are consumed as daal (dehusked splits). Sprouted pulse grains are a good
source of vitamin C. List of some pulse crops used as food is given in the Table 2.2.
Legumes are also used as fodder because they are rich in proteins and minerals. Some examples
of fodder legumes are Alfalfa or Lucerne (Medicago sativa), Clovers (Trifolium spp.), White
clover (Trifolium repens), Acaciella angustissima, Leucaena leucocephala, Indigofera spicata,
Acacia aneura, A. albida, Albizia canescens, A. lebbeck, Cassia sturtii, Brosimum alicastrum
and Prosopis tamarugo. List of some fodder legumes is given in Table 2.3.
Legumes are the best manures because they biologically fix atmospheric nitrogen with the help
of Rhizobium bacteria which lives in their root nodules. Table 2.4 showing List of some common
legume species used as manure. After harvesting the crop the remaining green plant is tilled back
in to the soil which improves soil fertility, moisture content and nutrient retention. Some
commonly used pulses are described in brief.

(A) Pea
The common pea (Pisum sativum) is a annual, glaucocus, tendril-bearing, climber with white or
coloured flowers and pendulous pods. It is native of Southern Europe and has been cultivated
since before the beginning of the Christian era. In India, the pea is grown during winter season in
the plains while during summer season in the hills. The global production of pea was 9.8 million
tons. Canada (2.8 MT), Russia (1.6 MT), and China (1.1 MT) were the top three roducer of pea
globally. India comes at fourth number with the production of 0.62 MT.
There are two type Field Pea and garden pea. Field pea (P. sativum ssp. arvense) have stipulate
with a red spot, pink or purple flower, small pod, small seeds, angular, brownish or grey in
colour. It is usuall grown in the fields for the dried seeds and sometime for the forage. Garden
Pea (P. sativum ssp. hortense) have stipulate without a red spot, white flower, large pod, seeds

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 41

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

are large, bluish green in colour, round/smoot/ wrinkled in shaped, rich in sugar. It is more robust
but less hardy and is usually grown for green pea.

(B) Chick Pea

The chick pea (Cicer arietinum) is a native of Southern Europe, where it is still extensively
grown. It is also an important food plant in many parts of Asia, Africa, and Central America. The
plant is a branching, bushy annual, which matures in 90 days. It is well adapted to arid and
semiarid regions. The chick pea is one of the best legumes for human consumption as the seeds
are very nutritious. The sparse foliage is poisonous so the plant cannot be used for forage. The
green pods are sometimes eaten, and the seeds are used as a substitute for and as an adulterant of
coffee.

(C) Bean
On the basis of origin the bean can be grouped into two broad category: American (New world)
and Asiatic (Old world). The new world species had large, flattened pods, large seeds and white
to purple flower e.g., common bean, kidney bean or haricot bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), lima,
butter or sieve bean (P. lunatus), tepary bean (P. acutifolius) and the scarlet runner bean (P.
coccineus). The old world species have yellow flowers, cylindrical pods with breaks, seeds are
smaller. Some important species of old words are golden gram, green gram or mung (P. aureus),
black gram (P. mungo), adzuki bean (P. angularis), rice bean (P. calcaratus) and mat bean (P.
aconitifolius). Beans can also be categorized in two major group: Dry bean are eaten either fresh
or dried. The top three producers of the dry beans were Myammar (3.8 million tons), India (3.6
million tons) and Brazil (2.9 million tons). In green beans the pods and matured seeds are eaten
as vegetable. Top producers of green beans are China (16.2 million tons), Indonesia (0.87 million
tons) and India (0.62 million tons).

(D) Cowpea
The cowpea (Vigna sinensis) in spite of its name is more closely related to the beans than to the
peas. It is a vigorous bushy or trailing summer annual, with curious, cylindrical, pendant pods.
The plant grows indefinitely as long as the environmental conditions are favorable. The cowpea
is a native of Southeastern Asia. The chief value of cow pea is as a forage crop, as a cover crop
to prevent erosion, and as a green manure. The cowpea is an important crop in China, India, and
the southern United States, where it is increasing in prominence.

(E) Soyabean
The soyabean (Glycine soja) is a small, bushy, erect or prostrate annual plant. The soybean is a
native of Southeastern Asia, where over 1000 varieties are grown. Manchuria leading in
commercial production followed by Korea, Japan, and the Dutch East Indies. It is easily the most
important legume in the Far East, where soybeans are used everywhere in the daily diet of the
natives to supplement rice. Soybean sauce, made from cooked beans, roasted wheat flour, salt,

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 42

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

and ferment, is widely used. The flour, with a low carbohydrate and high protein content, is an
excellent food for diabetics. Soybean milk, extracted from the seed, is used in cooking and is
recommended for infants and invalids. Soybean oil, an important drying oil.

(F) Peanut
The peanut (Arachis hypogaea) is a true legume rather than a nut, for the shuck is merely a shell
like pod. The plant is a bushy or creeping annual with the peculiar habit of ripening its fruit
underground. As many as 20 kinds of peanuts are grown, differing in habit and the size of the
pod. Peanuts require ample warm sunshine and a moderate rainfall. The nuts or seeds are used
for roasting or salting, in candy, and for the preparation of peanut butter. Peanuts are a very
nutritious food. One lb. yields 2700 cal., whereas 1 lb. of beef furnishes only 900 cal. Peanut oil,
is also important food oil.

(G) Lentil
The lentil (Lens esculenta) is one of the most ancient of food plants and also one of the most
nutritious. It is a native of Southwestern Asia, and was early introduced into Greece and Egypt.
The plant is a slender, tufted, much-branched annual with tendrils. The pods are short and broad,
with small lens-shaped seeds. The seeds are widely used, chiefly in soups. They are more
digestible than meat and are used instead of meat in many Catholic countries during Lent. The
plants are somewhat used for fodder.

(H) Cajan Pea

The cajan pea or pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) is one of the most promising legumes at the present
time. It was first domesticated in Asia or Africa and is now widely cultivated in the tropics,
particularly in the East Indies, India, and the West Indies, where over 30 kinds are grown. The
plant is an erect shrub. Both the immature and ripe seeds have been used for human and animal
food since earliest time. In recent years the plant has been developed as a forage crop and rivals
alfalfa in importance. It is drought resistant, grows well in any soil, matures rapidly, and in many
other ways is highly desirable. Livestock and poultry are particularly fond of it.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 43

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Table 2.2: List of some pulse crops used as food

English name Common Indian Botanical name Centre of Origin

S. No
name
1 Pea Matar Pisum sativum Central to Western Asia
Chickpea, Gram, Bengal gram, Arhar Cicer arietinum Southwest Asia
2
Garbanzos
3 Cluster Bean Guar ki phalli Cyamopsis tetragonoloba India
Grass pea, Chickling Vetch or Pea, Khesari dhal Lathyrus sativus Southern Europe and Western Asia
4
Lathyrus Pea
5 Bean Moth Phaseolus aconitifolius India
Common bean, French bean, Kidney Rajma Phaseolus vulgaris America
6
bean, Haricot beans
7 Black gram, Woolly pyrol Urd Phaseolus mungo India
8 Cowpeas Lubia Vigna unguiculata Central Africa
Winged bean, Princess bean, Goa Chaukoni bean Psophocarpus tetragonolobus Papua New Guinea
9
bean, Asparagus pea, Manila bean
10 Lima beans Sem, Lobia Phaseolus lunatus Central and South America
11 Scarlet runner beans Phaseolus multijlorus South America
12 Green gram, Golden gram Moong Phaseolus aureus India
13 Cowpea Vigna sinensis Southeastern Asia
14 Soybean Soya bean Glycine max Southeastern Asia
Broad bean, Windsor, horse, or Scotch Vicia faba Algeria or Southwestern Asia
15
bean
16 Peanut Mungfali Arachis hypogaea Brazil
17 Lentil Masoor, Malka Lens esculenta Southwestern Asia
Cajan pea, Pigeon pea, Congo pea or Arhar Cajanus cajan Africa
18
Red gram
19 Lablab or bonavist bean Sem Dolichos lablab Asia

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 44

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Table 2.3: List of some fodder legumes

S. English name Botanical name

No.

1 Horse beans or Jack beans Canavalia ensiformis

2 Velvet bean Stizolobium deeringianum
3 Kudzu bean Pueraria thunbergiana
4 Kidney Vetch Anthyllis vulneraria
5 Crown Vetch Coronilla varia
6 Lucerne, Alfalfa Medicago sativa
7 Black Medic, Yellow Trefoil Medicago lupulina
8 White Sweet Clover Melilotus albus
9 Yellow Sweet Clover Melilotus officinalis
10 Sainfoin Onobrychis vicifolia
11 French Serradella Ornithopus sativus
12 Red Clover Trifolium pretense
13 Persian Clover (shaftal) Trifolium resupinatum
14 White Clover Trifolium repens
15 Strawberry Clover Trifolium fragiferum
16 Egyptian Clover or Berseem Trifolium alexandrinum
17 Alsike Clover Trifolium hybridum
18 Crimson Clover Trifolium incarnatum
19 Subterranean Clover Trifolium subterraneum
21 Yellow Sulking Clover Trifolium dubium
22 Broad Bean Vicia faba
23 Bitter Vetch Vicia ervilia
24 Spring Vetch or Common Vetch Vicia sativa
25 Purple Vetch Vicia atropurpurea
26 Hungarian Vetch Vicia pannonika
27 Hairy Vetch Vicia villosa
28 White Lupin Lupinus albus
29 Yellow Lupin Lupinus luteus
30 Blue Lupin Lupinus angustifolius
31 Cowpea (Lobia) Vigna unguiculata
32 Fenugreek (Methi) Trigonella foenum-graecum
33 Butterfly Pea Centrosema plumeieri
34 Sesban Sesbania sesban
35 Florida Beggerweed Desmodium tortuosum
36 Hetero Desmodium Desmodium heterophyllum

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 45

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

37 White Popinac Leucaena leucocephala

38 Velvet Bean, Bengal Bean Mucuna deeringiana
39 Indigo Indigoferra arrecta, Indigoferra paucifolia
40 Macroptilium, Purple Bean Macroptilium atropurpureum, Macroptilium
geophilum
41 Kudzu Vine Pueraria lobata
42 Tropical Kudzu Pueraria phaseoloides
43 Brazilian Lucerne, Stylo Stylosanthes guianensis
44 Cluster Bean (guar) Cyamopsis tetragonoloba
45 Sunhemp Crotolaria juncea
46 Pillipesara Phaseolus trilobus
47 Mat or Moth Bean Phaseolus aconitifolius
48 Indian Clover or Senji Melilotus parviflora

Table 2.4: List of some legume species used as manure

S. English name Botanical name

No.
1 Dhaincha Sesbania speciosa, Sesbania bispinosa
2 Sunhemp Crotalaria juncea
3 Wild Indigo or Purple Indigo Tephosia purpurea, Tephosia noctiflora
4 Bengal Indigo, Common Indigo Indigofera tinctoria
5 Pillipesara Phaeseolus trilobatus
6 Cluster Bean or Guar Cyamopsis tetragonoloba
7 Spotted Gliricidia or Madre tree Ipomoea carnea
8 Tanner‘s Cassia Cassia auriculata
9 White Gold Mohur Delonix elata
10 Karanj or Indian Beech Pongamia pinnata
11 Portia Tree or Indian Tulip Tree Thespesia populnea
12 Neem Tree or Margosa Tree Azadirachta indica
13 Horse Tamarind Leucaena leucocephalum
14 Morinda Morinda tinctoria
15 Indian Ash Tree Lannea coromandelica
16 Giant Sunhemp Crotolaria mucronata
17 Negundo or Chinese Chaste Tree Vitex negundo
18 Agati Sesbania Sesbania grandiflora

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 46

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

2.3.3 Millets
Millets are a group of highly variable small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world
as crops or grains for fodder and human food. Millets are important crops in the semiarid
tropics of Asia and Africa (especially in India, Mali, Nigeria, and Niger), with 97% of millet
production in developing countries. The crop is favored due to its productivity and short growing
season under dry, high-temperature conditions. Millets are indigenous to many parts of the
world. The most widely grown millet is pearl millet, which is an important crop in India and
parts of Africa. Finger millet, proso millet, and foxtail millet are also important crop species.
Millets may have been consumed by humans for about 7,000 years and potentially had "a pivotal
role in the rise of multi-crop agriculture and settled farming societies.
(A) Pearl Millet (Bajra)
Botanical Name: Pennisetum typhoides
It is a tall plant (6-15 ft.), with 3-8 compact cylindrical spikes that bear white grains. It is grown
in India, Egypt, and Africa in rainy-season. It is an important food source for the lower classes,
and especially used in cold weather because of its heating qualities. The flour is very nutritious
and used for making bread or cake. It has an enormous yield of forage, which is succulent when
young, and it can be cut several times in a season.

(B) Finger Millet (Rahi, Madua)

Botanical Name: Elusine corocana
It is a tall plant with tufted stems, each with 4-6 spikes. It is grown from Dutch Malaya to
Northern Africa. It is a very high yielding crop, needs no added fertilizers to the soil. It is one of
the major crops in India, particularly during the rainy season, and is an important food. The grain
is free from insects and can be stored for a long time. Its flour is used for puddings and cakes,
and grain is used to make a local fermented beverage.

(C) Barnyard Millet/ Himalayan Millet (Madira)

Botanical Name: Echinochloa frumentacea
It is herbaceous annual with spares tillers, height 60-120 cm, roots fibrous and shallow, stem
slender, leaves flat, glabrous or slightly hairy, inflorescence panicle with densely crowded
unawned spikelets, fruit caryopsis, color of the grain is generally yellow or white. It is a very
drought resistant plant but generally grown as a rainfed crop. Its grains are used in making
pudding (kheer), sometimes in making beer and also as feed for cage birds. The straw of
Himalayan millet is used as fodder for cattle.
Grains are the very important component of the human diet as well as for the animal as the
fodder. Table 2.5 showing some of the major grain crops of the world, their centre of origin and
their uses in daily life. Some most commonly used vegetables are discuss in brief.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 47

 PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Table 2.5: Some of the major grain crops of the world

S. English name Common Indian Botanical name Family Type of fruit Centre of Origin
No. name
Common Wheat Gehun Triticum aestivum subsp. Poaceae Caryopsis Western Asia
1 aestivum
Food Value: Produced in majority worldwide (95%), usually high in gluten and consumed as grounding flour in bakeries.
Club Wheat T. aestivum subsp. compactum Poaceae Caryopsis Syria
2
Food Value: Similar enough to common wheat, grown in Pacific northwest. Alternative of common wheat.
3 Durum wheat Rava/sooji T. durum Poaceae Caryopsis Central Europe
(Semolina)
Food Value: Used to produce dry pasta, making Upma, and couscous. Gluten is relatively less than other wheat species.
4 Spelt/hulled/dinkel - T. spelta Poaceae Caryopsis Transcaucasia (North
wheat east of Black-Sea)
Food Value: Important source of carbohydrates, protein, and fiber. Lesser gluten than common wheat.
5 Emmer/Awned wheat Khapali Gehun T. dicoccon Poaceae Caryopsis Old Mesopotamia
Food Value: Used in bakeries. Popular as farro food in Italy. Grown in Deccan‘s of India for its possible value for Diabetics.
6 Wild Emmer - T. dicoccoides Poaceae Caryopsis Middle-East (Modern
day Israel to Iran)
Food Value: Popular human food, rich in nutrients and used as fodder also.
7 Polish Wheat - T. polonicum Poaceae Caryopsis Mediterranean region
Food Value: High in Gluten and used to make Macaroni.
8 Persian Wheat - T. carthlicum Poaceae Caryopsis Iran
Food Value: Usually ground into flour and used as cereal. Not suitable for bakeries.
9 Macha Wheat - T. aestivum subsp. macha Poaceae Caryopsis Caucasus region
(Georgia)
Food Value: Rich in protein. Suitable for bread making.
10 Vavilov Wheat - T. aestivum subsp. vavilovi Poaceae Caryopsis Southwest Asia
Food Value:

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 48

 PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

11 Shot Wheat Indian dwarf wheat T. aestivum subsp. Poaceae Caryopsis Indian subcontinent
sphacrococcum
Food Value: Relatively high in protein content than common wheat.
12 Oriental Wheat Kamut T. turanicum Poaceae Caryopsis Iran and Afghanistan
Food Value: Same as common wheat.
13 Timopheevi Wheat - T. timopheevii Poaceae Caryopsis South eastern turkey
Food Value:
14 Einkorn/little spelt Dalia T. monococcum Poaceae Caryopsis Hills of Antolia and
Balkans and turkey
Food Value: Rich in fiber and proteins, low gluten. Used in making bulgur.
15 Wild Einkorn - T. boeotictim Poaceae Caryopsis Syria
Food Value:
16 Maize Makka Zea mays Poaceae Caryopsis Mexico
Food Value: Consumed as most apt human food. Such as: sweet corn, toasted corn, dried corn. Corn flakes are a common breakfast
cereal in most parts of the world especially North America.
17 Rice Chawal Oryza sativa Poaceae Caryopsis India or China
Food Value: Rice is a very important staple food for a large segment of the world population.
18 Barley Jau Hordeum vulgare Poaceae Caryopsis Western Asia
Food Value: Source of dietary fiber and minerals. Used in making bears.
19 Oat Jai Avena sativa Poaceae Caryopsis Middle East
Food Value: Rich in antioxidants. Contains powerful soluble fiber called beta glucan.
20 Sorghum/broom cron Jowar/durra Sorghum vulgare Poaceae Caryopsis East Africa
Food Value: Consumed as flatbreads/rotis. Enriched with iron, protein, fiber. This can help reduce cholesterol.
21 Pearl millet Bajra Pennisetum typhoides Poaceae Caryopsis Northern- central sahel
in West Africa
Food Value: Iron content 8 times higher than rice. Rich in fiber so that can help attain weight loss.
22 Finger millet Ragi, Madua Eleusine coracana Poaceae Caryopsis Highlands of east
Africa

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 49

 PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Food Value: This gluten free millet is good for brain development in growing kids. Ragi is a powerhouse of nutrition.
23 Proso or Common - Panicum miliaceum Poaceae Caryopsis China
millet
Food Value: It is low glycemic index has made it a fad among weight watchers. It is a common bird feed also.
24 Foxtail millet Thinai/kangani Setaria italic Poaceae Caryopsis China
Food Value: Good for immunity. Available in form of Semolina and rice flour.
25 Teff - Eragrostis tef Poaceae Caryopsis Ethiopia
Food Value: Teff provides two third portion of daily protein intake around African continent.
26 White fonio - Digitaria exilis Poaceae Caryopsis West Africa
Food Value: Gluten free and high in dietary fiber. Seeds are used in making of porridge and couscous.
27 Black fonio - Digitaria iburua Poaceae Caryopsis West Africa
Food Value: Rich in fibers.
28 Guinea millet - Brachiaria deflexa Poaceae Caryopsis Guinea (West Africa)
Food Value: World‘s most obscurely cultivated crop. High in fiber and minerals.
29 Himalayan millet Jhangora/madira Echinochloa frumentacea Poaceae Caryopsis Central Asia
Food Value: High fiber content, which can help in losing weight. Good replacement of rice. Good for healthy bones.
30 Little millet Kutki/shavan saamai Panicum sumatrense Poaceae Caryopsis Temaprate zones of
Asia
Food Value: Packed with a goodness of vitamin B and minerals. High content of fiber. Help in weight loss.
31 Kodo millet/cow Varagu/kodra Paspalum scrobiculatum Poaceae Caryopsis Tropical Africa
grass/Indian crown
grass
Food Value: Easy to digest and rich in photochemicals and antioxidants.
32 Job's tears Samkru/Ranmaka/gurlu Coix lachryma-jobi Poaceae Caryopsis Southeast Asia
Food Value: High in carbohydrates, protein, mineral ions and fibers. Low in fat.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 50

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

2.3.4 Vegetables
The dictionary meaning of the term vegetable is edible seeds, roots, stems, leaves, bulbs, tubers
or non-sweet fruits of any of numerous herbaceous plant. Vegetables are a vital part of the
human diet worldwide especially in the tropical areas. They are the main source of essential
vitamins and minerals. Vegetables are significant because they grow rapidly and produce a
maximum quantity of food for the area planted.

The food value of vegetables, especially leafy and fruit vegetables is low because of the presence
of large amount of water. Root crops, however, contain large amounts of carbohydrates but are
poor in proteins and oils, and rank next to cereals as a source of a carbohydrate food. Grain
legumes differ from other vegetables owing to the large amount of proteins they contain and are
familiarly known as ‗poor man‘s meat‘. Soya bean is a valuable article of human diet, being rich
sources of oil as well as proteins.

Carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, is abundant in several vegetables, such as carrots, sweet

potatoes, spinach, lettuce, amaranths, kale, turnip greens, muskmelon and watermelon. It is also
found in raw tomatoes, cabbage and green peppers. Vitamin C is abundant in many vegetables,
such as broccoli, lettuce, tomatoes, peppers, potatoes, cabbage, cucumber, bitter gourd and
onion, especially when they are uncooked. Thiamine, niacin and riboflavin occur in succulent
vegetables and legumes. Green vegetables have vitamin E and the quantity of vitamin E in leafy
vegetables increases with their greenness.

Potato, sweet potato and onion contain phosphorus; Spinach, beans, lettuce, onions, tomatoes
and head cabbage, cauliflower and broccoli contain Calcium; Soya bean, spinach, peas, chillies,
radish, garlic, beans and tomato have iron; Onion, okra and asparagus contain iodine; legumes
contain more iron, calcium and potassium salts.

Classification of Vegetables: On the basis of part of the plant used as vegetable they can be
classified as root crops, leafy vegetables and fruit vegetables (Table 2.6).

Table 2.6: Classification of the vegetables according to their parts uses

S. No. Part of the plant used Name of the vegetable

1 Bracts and thickened receptacle Globe artichoke
2 Buds Brussels sprouts
3 Bulbs Onion and garlic
4 Corm Taro
5 Flower stalk and buds Broccoli and cauliflower
6 Leafstalk or petiole Celery, rhubarb and Swiss chard
7 Leaves Spinach, lettuce, cabbage, parsley and chive
8 Mature fruits Tomato and pepper
9 Petals Yucca and pumpkins

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 51

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

10 Root Radish, carrot, turnip, sweet potato, cassava and

beet root
11 Seeds Beans, pea and lentil
12 Stem tubers Potato and yams
13 Stems Kohlrabi, asparagus and bamboo
14 Young fruits Eggplant, cucumber and sweet corn

(A) Potato

Botanical Name: Solanum tuberosum

Characteristic Features: It is an erect, branching, more or less spreading annual from 2-3 ft. in
height. It has pinnately compound leaves, fine fibrous roots, and numerous rhizomes which are
swollen at the tip to form the familiar tubers. The flowers are white, yellow, or purple, with a
tubular corolla, while the fruit is a small brownish-green or purple inedible berry.

History and Origin: It is a native American species and was cultivated from Chili to New
Granada at the time the Spanish explorers reached this continent. The potato was introduced into
Europe soon after 1580 by the Spaniards, and by the end of the seventeenth century it had spread
all over Europe and the British Isles. The potato was first introduced into New England by Irish
immigrants in 1719.

Cultivation: Potatoes are adapted to many soils and many climates. They are grown all world
over except in 1ow tropical regions. They are hardy and mature rapidly. The optimum
temperature for potato cultivation ranges between 40-50 °F and optimum soil is a rich light soil.
Potatoes are usually propagated vegetatively by means of tubers, or parts of tubers, the so-called
seed potatoes. Pieces of the tubers are cut at right angles to the main axis so as to remove the
inhibiting effect of the terminal bud. The tubers have a rest period of several weeks.

Production: Potatoes are grown more universally than any other crop. Around 9 per cent of the
global potato production is grown in Europe. The commercial production of potatoes is being
done in Long Island, New York, southern New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and the eastern shore of
Maryland. Other important states are Minnesota, New York, Michigan, Wisconsin,
Pennsylvania, and Idaho.

Uses: Potato is eaten as boiled, steamed, fried, baked or roasted. Potato chips are a world famous
snack. Various culture media for the growth of microorganisms are made of potato. Numerous
commercial products namely starch, alcohols, glucose, lactic acid, etc. are also made from
potato. Fermented cooked potatoes are also used in making Vodka.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 52

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

(B) Onion

Botanical Name: Allium cepa

Characteristics Features: Onion is a biennial crop; root shallow and fibrous; leaf consists of a
sheathing leaf base and a hollow, linear, cylindrical or flattened blade and ligule; bulb consists of
a short, plate-like stem surrounded by a number of concentric layers of fleshy leaf bases. The
outer leaf bases are thin, fibrous and dry, forming a protective covering or ‗tunic‘ around the
inner fleshy ones, which are laden with food. The innermost leaves also have thickened leaf
bases but with an aborted lamina. Intact onions are odourless, the odour comes after cutting or
because of some injury to the bulb when organic sulphur compounds (mostly n-propyl
disulphide) get released.

Origin: Onion is believed to have originated from the eastern Mediterranean region, including
Iran, Pakistan and the mountainous countries to the North. No wild varieties are known. Pictures
carved on Egyptian monuments prove that onions were cultivated in Egypt at least 4800 years
ago.

Cultivation: It is grown in the colder parts of temperate regions. It grows best on sandy or silt
loam soil with a pH ranging 5.8-6.5. A comparatively high temperature is needed for bulb
formation.

Uses: Onion is used in culinary practices in various ways. Bulbs (immature and mature) are
eaten raw as a salad. Onions are extensively used for flavoring soups, ketchups, canned meat
products, sausages, sauces, stews, curries and a great variety of other savoury dishes.

(C) Tomato

Botanical Name: Lycopersicon esculentum

Characteristics Features: It is a branched and short-lived perennial plant but from agricultural
point of view it is considered as annual. Branching is monopodial at the base of the stem and
sympodial towards the apex. Small glandular hairs cover the stem, petiole and peduncle.
Imparipinnate compound leaves spirally arranged with lobed margins. The ovary is 6-20
chambered because of the false septa. Fruits are berries. The red color of tomato fruit is because
of the presence of two pigments carotene and lycopersicin (lycopene).

History and Origin: It is a native of Peru and Ecuador. In pre-Columbian times tomato spread
to Mexico and after that from Mexico to Europe in 1523 and from there to across the Pacific into
South East Asia. Initially, it was grown mainly as an ornamental crop and called as ‗object of

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 53

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

affection‘. Before the 19th century Italy was the only tomato consuming nation after the second
half of the nineteenth century tomatoes were started being cultivated widely.

Production: Worldwide production of tomatoes was around 162.7 million tons in 2012. Three
greatest producers are China about 50.5 MT, India (17.5 MT) and US (13.2 MT). Some other
producing nations were Turkey, Egypt, Iran, Italy, Spain, Brazil, and Mexico.

Cultivation: The seeds are first sown in a nursery and then transplanted into the field. The
plants are sensitive to frost. Tomatoes can be grown anywhere globally and except colder
regions, in colder areas tomatoes are grown in glasshouses.

Uses: It is widely used as salads and in making of tomato soups, pickles (green tomatoes),
ketchups, sauces and other products. Its seeds are used in making semi-drying oil which is used
as a salad oil and also in the manufacture of margarine and soap. The residual mass or ―press‖
cake‘ is employed as stock feed and fertilizer.

2.4 FRUITS

Before the Humans started agriculture they were partly dependent on fruits. At that time fruits
were, and still are, the easily available source of minerals, organic acids, vitamins, pigments and
tannins. Fruits have high water content but they are low in proteins and fats.

Classification of fruits: The classification of fruits has been performed on numerous criteria but
these two criteria are the most common, which are being mentioned below:
1) Number of ovaries involved in fruit formation
2) Climatic adaptability
1) Number of ovaries involved in fruit formation: According to this criterion fruits can be
categorized into three groups:
a) Simple fruits: This class of fruits is derived from a single ovary of one flower.
b) Aggregate fruits: This class of fruits is derived from numerous ovaries of the same flower.
The individual ripened ovaries may form a drupe (e.g. blackberries, raspberries) or an achene
(e.g. buttercups) etc.
c) Multiple fruits: This class of fruits is derived from the ripened ovaries of several flowers
crowded on the same inflorescence.

2) Climatic adaptability: According to this criterion fruits can be categorized into three
groups:
a) Temperate: These fruits are deciduous and require a period of cold.
b) Subtropical: They are either deciduous or evergreen, and are usually able to withstand a
light frost.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 54

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

c) Tropical: These are evergreen and extremely sensitive to low temperatures.

In 2012 it was reported that China is the leading country (139,680,899 tones) in the production of
fruit crops, followed by India (71,072,580 tones) and Brazil (38,368,678 tones). Some most
common and frequently consumed fruits are being mentioned in detail below. However, a
comprehensive list of some of the major fruit crops of the world is given in Table 2.7.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 55

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Table 2.7: Some of the major fruit crops of the world

S. English name Common Botanical name Family Types of Centre of Edible Part
No. Indian name fruit Origin
1 Grapes Angoor Vitis vinifera Vitaceae Berry West Asia Fruit wall/Pericarp and
Placenta
Food Value: Eaten fresh as table grapes. Used for making wine, jam, juice and jelly. Good source of fibers and mineral ions.
2 Banana Kela Musa paradisiaca Musaceae Berry Southeast Mesocarp and endocarp
Asia
Food Value: Cholesterol and fat free. Rich in mineral ion and dietary fiber.
3 Orange Malta Citrus sinensis Rutaceae Hesperdium Southeast Mesocarp or pulp
Asia, China
Food Value: Eaten fresh as raw fruit. Great source of vitamin C.
4 Mandarin Narangi Citrus reticulata Rutaceae Hesperdium Southeast Mesocarp or pulp
orange Asia, China
Food Value: Eaten fresh as raw fruit.
6 Apple Seb Malus domestica Rosaceae Pome Central Asia Hypanthium layer
Food Value: High in fiber and vitamin C. Rich in antioxidant.
7 Mango Aam Mangifera indica Anacardiaceae Drupe East Asia Mesocarp
Food Value: King of fruits. Very high in carbohydrates and all Vitamins.
8 Olive Jaitoon Olea europaea Oleaceae Berry Mediterranean Fleshy mesocarp
basin
Food Value: High in good fat. Rich in antioxidant.
9 Pear Nashpati Pyrus communis Rosaceae Pome Central Asia Flashy thalamus
Food Value: Contain high amount of water. Decent amount if vitamins and minerals.
10 Peach Aaru Prunus persica Rosaceae Drupe China Fleshy exterior and
mesocarp
Food Value: Rich in antioxidants. Improves digestion and heart‘s health.
11 Plum and prune Pulam Prunus domestica Rosaceae Drupe Europe Pericarp and fleshy

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 56

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

mesocarp
Food Value: Rich in polyphenols and help protect against bone loss.
12 Pineapple Ananas Ananas comosus Bromeliaceae Sorosis Brazil Exterior rachis, bracts,
Rind (core)
Food Value: Improves digestion and helps in making bones strong.
13 Lemon Nimboo Citrus limon Rutaceae Hesperdium Southeast Mesocarp or pulp
Asia, China
Food Value: High concentration of citric acid.
14 Lime Chota Nimbu Citrus aurantifolia Rutaceae Hesperdium Southeast Mesocarp or pulp
Asia, China
Food Value: Used as flavoring agent in various drinks.
15 Grapefruit Chakotra Citrus paradisi Rutaceae Hesperdium South Asia Mesocarp or pulp
Food Value: Rich in polyphenols, flavanoids and vitamin C.
16 Pummelo Chakotra Citrus grandis Rutaceae Hesperdium South Asia Mesocarp or pulp
Food Value: Good source of flavanoids.
17 Dates Khajoor Pheonix Arecaceae Drupe Southern Mesocarp
dactylifera Mediterranean
basin
Food Value: High content of carbohydrates.
18 Cherry (Sweet) - Prunus avium Rosaceae Drupe Central Mesocarp
Europe and
West Asia
Food Value: Good source of vitamin A and C.
19 Cherry (Sour) - Prunus cerasus Rosaceae Drupe West Asia Mesocarp
Food Value: Slightly better nutritional profile than sweet one.
20 Cacao - Theobroma cacao Sterculiaceae Berry Amazon Dried pulp or mesocarp
Basin (South
America)

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 57

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Food Value: Contains fibers, protein, and healthy fats. Rich in mineral ions.
21 Strawberry - Fragaria spp. Rosaceae Etaerio of America Fleshy receptacle
Achene
Food Value: Source of vitamin C. Helps in weight management and maintaining healthy skin.
22 Apricot Khubani Prunus armeniaca Rosaceae Drupe Central and Pericarp and fleshy
East Asia mesocarp
Food Value: Good source of vitamin A and C.
23 Passion fruit - Passiflora edulis Passifloraceae Pepo Brazil Endocarp and partially
mesocarp
Food Value: Rich in vitamin A, B, C. Reduces anxiety and stress. Contains iron, antioxidants, and fibers.
24 Raspberry Hisaalu Rubus ellipticus Rosaceae Etaerio of Europe, Complete fruit
berries America
Food Value: Rich in antioxidants. Good for bones.
25 Cranberry - Vaccinium Ericaceae Berry Eastern Pericarp and placenta
macrocarpon United States
Food Value: High in fiber, prevents tooth decay and treats urinary tract infections.
26 Sapodila or Chiku Achras sapota L. Sapotaceae Berry Tropical Mesocarp
sapota America
Food Value: Storehouse of vitamin A, C, E. Great for skin health and have amazing moisturizing properties.
27 Cherimoya Hanumanphal Annona cherimola Annonaceae Aggregation Andes of Peru Mesocarp
of berries and Ecuador
Food Value: Sweet, juicy and very fragrant. Used in making of ice cream and custard. Rich in potassium and magnesium so that
it can help to reduce blood pressure.
28 Sweetsop, Sharifa/ Annona squamosa Annonaceae Aggregation South Mesocarp
Sugar apple sitaphal of berries America and
West Indies
Food Value: Contain anti-oxidant. Rich source of Vitamin A and C.
29 Breadfruit - Artocarpus altilis Moraceae Multiple East Indies Pulpy mesocarp

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 58

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

fruit
Food Value: It can be dried, and ground into flour for later use. Seeds are edible after cooking. Used in arthritis, asthma, and
back pain.
30 Jackfruit Kathal Artocarpus Moraceae Sorosis Malaya Bract, perianth, and
heterophyllus seeds.
Food Value: High in carbohydrates and other mineral ions. Low in fat.
31 Papaya Papita Carica papaya Caricaceae Berry West Indies or Mesocarp
Mexico
Food Value: Low in sugars and rich in vitamin C.
32 Watermelon Hadwana Citrullus lanatus Cucurbitaceae Berry Tropical Inner pericarp and
tarbooz (Pepo) Africa mesocarp fused with
endocarp.
Food Value: Water content is 91.5%. Helps in retaining hydration.
33 Muskmelon Kharbuza Cucumis melo Cucurbitaceae Pepo India Mesocarp
Food Value: Good source of potassium especially.
34 Fig Anjeer Ficus carica Moraceae Syconus West Asia Flashy receptacle
Food Value: Lowers cholesterol and control blood sugar level. Good source of calcium so that can ward of osteoporosis.
35 Mangosteen Mangustan Garcinia Clausiaceae Berry Malaya Mesocarp
mangostana
Food Value: Rich in antioxidants. Support blood sugar control.
36 Phalsa Phalsa Grewia asiatica Tiliaceae Drupe India
Food Value: One can consume phalsa by blending them with sugar and lime.
37 Litchi Litchi Litchi chinensis Sapindaceae Berry China Aril
Food Value: Rich in vitamin c and carbohydrates. Consumed raw or in form of juice.
38 Mullberry Shahtoot Morus alba Moraceae Sorosis China
Food Value: Rich in vitamins. Low level of fat and carbohydrates. Help to reduce blood sugar level.
39 Avocado - Persea americana Lauraceae Berry Mexico or Fleshy inner pericarp
Mill. South and mesocarp.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 59

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

America
Food Value: Contains low carbohydrates and high in good fat. Avocado oil is highly conducive.
40 Guava Amrood Psidium guajava Myrtaceae Berry Tropical Pericarp and placenta
America
Food Value: Rich in vitamin C.
41 Pomegranate Annar Punica granatum Punicaceae Balausta Iran Seeds
berry
Food Value: High in fiber, vitamins and minerals.
42 Jambolan Jamun Syzygium cumini Myrtaceae Berry East Indies Pericarp and mesocarp
Food Value: Incredible source of vitamin B and C. Good for stomach.
43 Jujube Ber Zizyphus Rhamnaceae Drupe China Peicarp and mesocarp
mauritiana
Food Value: Anti bacterial and anti inflammatory. Contraceptive properties.
44 Kiwifruit - Actinidia delicious Actinidiaceae Berry China Inner pericarp,
mesocarp, and endocarp
along with seeds.
Food Value: Kiwi fruit is rich in fiber so can help in better digestion. Rich in vitamin C, E and K.
45 Coconut Nariyal Cocus nucifera Arecaceae Drupe Southeast Seed and endosperm
Asia
Food Value: Coconut flesh is high in vitamins and rich in fibers. Coconut water consumption is also conducive.
46 Aegle Bel Aegle marmelos Rutaceae Amphisarca Indian Inner pericarp and
subcontinent fleshy placenta
Food Value: Consumed raw and by making juice. Beneficial in diabetes and high cholesterol.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 60

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

(A) Apple
Botanical Name: Malus domestica
Characteristics Features: It is a low spreading and long-lived tree; leaves simple, dull green;
flowers in terminal umbel like cymes, usually borne on spurs. Flowers have five sepals, five
petals, numerous stamens arranged in three whorls and a pentacarpellary, five-styled inferior
ovary. Tree possesses pale green foliage and pinkish-white bloom. The fruit is a pome and also a
false fruit.
Apples are classified on the basis of their time of maturation (summer, winter or autumn), color,
size and flavour, etc. into four broad categories like cooking apples, eating apples, cider apples
and drying apples.
History and Origin: Apple is believed to have originated in the Caucasus Mountains of western
Asia. Remains of apple fruits and seeds have been found in the ruins of prehistoric lake
dwellings in Switzerland. Neolithic finds in central Europe include the remains of sliced dry
apples, indicating that even then they were used as dried fruits or stored for the winter.
Cultivation: It is a cold season crop. It requires an annual rainfall of 60-75 cm and temperature
ranging between -2 to 6°C for 2-3 months. Apples grow best on fertile, well-aerated moist soil
with lime in traces. In orchards apples are propagated by grafting or clonally propagated.
Production: Washington, New York, Pennsylvania, California, Virginia, Michigan, Ohio, and
Oregon lead in production in the order named. Canada is also a large producer.
In 1935, 168,465,000 bu. were grown in the United States, about half of which were consumed
locally.
Uses: It is mostly consumed as fresh fruit but also used in processed form such as apple butter,
jelly, canned apple sauce and apple juice (sweet cider). Sweet cider can be further fermented
with controlled bacterial inoculation to an alcoholic product (hard cider) or into acetic acid
(vinegar). The byproduct of cider press (apple pomace) is a commercial source of pectin, which
is used in the preparation of jellies, jams and marmalades. Murabba (an Indian preserved food) is
also made from apple and considered as a stimulant for the heart. Apple is the only fruit with a
world famous saying that ‗an apple a day keeps the doctor away‘.

(B) Banana
Botanical Name: Musa paradisiaca
Characteristics Features: It is herbaceous plant however it has treelike appearance. The stem is
composed of the sheathing spiral leaf bases. Leaves are about 4 ft. in length and 1 ft. in width,
with a prominent midrib. Inflorescence consists of clustered flowers which are nearly surrounded
by large, fleshy, reddish, spathelike scales, which drop off as the fruits mature. These drooping
inflorescences develop into the familiar "bunches" of bananas. The fruit is a modified berry and
lacks seeds. After one harvest the tree is cut down, and suckers develop from the rhizome, which

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 61

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

give rise to new plants. Banana trees have very rapid growth and are very high yielding
depending on the locality and other climatic factors.
History and Origin: Banana is originated in the humid tropical regions of South East Asia. It
spread across the islands of the South Pacific at a very early date. According to the Arab legends,
banana plant is the tree of paradise. The impact of the legend reflects in the naming of the fruit as
Musa paradisiaca. Banana was first referred in ancient Hindu writings and epics dating as far
back as 500 BC.
Production: About 101.9 million tons of banana were produced worldwide, and India‘s
contribution was about 24.8 million tons, followed by China (10.8 MT), the Philippines (9.2 MT)
and Ecuador (7.0 MT) – all together producing almost 50 per cent of the world total. The other
major producing countries, in the order of importance, were Brazil (6.9 MT), Indonesia (6.1
MT), Angola (2.9 MT), Guatemala (2.7 MT) and Tanzania (2.5 MT).
Cultivation: It can be grown in almost all warm regions of the globe however the ideal
conditions for cultivation is tropical lowlands. It grows best in rich alluvial soil with a pH
ranging between 4.5-7.5. For banana cultivation 100-250 cm rainfall and 270C average
temperature is best amd the plantation should be protected against heavy winds.
Uses: Ripe banana is the best and instant source of energy and contains various mineral salts,
vitamins and a high percentage of carbohydrates with a little oil and protein. It is consumed as
raw fruit and various products are made from it such as banana purée and banana chips and
banana figs. Banana on fermentation gives alcohol and vinegar. In some regions of southeastern
Asia, the male buds, after removal of the fibrous outer bracts, are eaten as a boiled vegetable.
Even the inner core of the pseudostem is cooked as a curry in the banana growing areas.
Ingestion of banana peel or smoking dried peel is reported to induce hallucinations. These effects
are known to be caused by 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT).

(C) Mango
Botanical Name: Mangifera indica
Characteristics Features: Mango is an evergreen plant with a height of about 90 ft. It has large
panicles of small pink colored flowers. The fruit is a fleshy drupe with a thick yellowish-red skin
and a large seed. The fruit comes in various size, shape, and quality. The pulp of the fruit is
orange or yellow in color, and in ripened state it has a rich, luscious, aromatic flavor with a
perfect blending of sweetness and acidity. Unripe fruits are fibrous and very acidic in nature.
History and Origin: It is the native of South East Asia and has been cultivated in India for more
than 4000 years. It holds an important place in Hindu mythology, religion, ritual and customs.
Garlands of mango leaves are tied on doors as decoration in almost all Hindu festivals. By 10 th
century AD Persians brought mango into East Africa from South East Asia. Around 1700
Portuguese brought it to Brazil and Tropical Africa from India and then from Brazil to West
Indies and from there to Mexico in 1800s.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 62

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Production: In 2011, India was reported the largest producer of mangoes with a production of
15.2 million tons, followed by China (4.3 million tons), Thailand (2.6 MT), Indonesia (2.1 MT),
Pakistan (1.88 MT), Mexico (1.82 MT), Brazil (1.2 MT). The top mango exporting nations were
Mexico, Philippines, Pakistan, Brazil, and India. The biggest importer was America with 43 per
cent, followed by China with 10 per cent of global production.
Cultivation: Mangoes are cultivated allover India except the colder areas. It grows best in well-
drained soils with a pH 5.5 - 6.0. The optimum average temperature for mango cultivation is 24-
27 °C and an annual rainfall of 75-190 cm is required.
Uses: The ripe mangoes are consumed as dessert fruit and also used to make jams, jellies and
squash. Mangoes are also used in making pickles, chutneys, aam panna, aam papad and amchur.
Even the kernel inside the stone is roasted, powdered and then cooked into gruel.

2.5 NUTS
In terms of botany, nut is a one-seeded, indehiscent dry fruit with a hard or stony pericarp (shell),
(e.g. Hazelnut, filberts, sweet chestnut and acorn) but most commercial nuts such as coconut,
almond, walnut etc. and some seeds such as Brazil nut, Pine nuts do not come under this
definition. Nuts are rich in oils and fats and contain moderate amounts of carbohydrates and
proteins. They are a good source of vitamins and minerals. Nuts are eaten raw, roasted or salted.
Most of the nuts are now totally cultivated, but some, such as Brazil nut and pine nuts are still
collected from stands rather than from well-tended orchards. Almost all nuts are dicotyledonous
trees or shrubs (except coconut). Nuts can be handled and stored easily for a long period
(because of the lack of water) but cannot be harvested by machine.
The global production of nuts in 2012 was around 14 366 641 tonnes. The top three producers of
nuts were China (3625750 tones), US (1547470 t) and Vietnam (1196550 t). The three common
nuts are mentioned below in detail:

(A) Almond
Botanical Name: Prunus dulcis
Characteristic Features: Trees are small; leaves alternate, oblong, lanceolate and serrate; fruit
green drupe, 3-6 cm long, consisting of exocarp, mesocarp and endocarp; seeds flattened ovoid
or ellipsoidal; seed coat brownish.
History and Origin: It is originated in Near East and from there spread to Europe. After that it
was introduced into California (US), South Australia and South Africa.
Cultivation: Almond tree requires subtropical, warm and dry weather. It needs more than or
equal to 60 cm for a good production. It can be grown from seeds or by budding. In seven years
it starts producing fruits but reaches its full production at the age of ten years.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 63

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Production: In 2012 the global production of almonds was reported 19, 34,817 tons, the highest
contributor was US (720000 t), Spain (215100 t) and Australia (142680 t). The other small
producers were Syria, Turkey, Tunisia, Afghanistan, China, Algeria, Libya, Greece etc.

Uses: There are two main varieties of almonds, the bitter almond (Prunus dulcis var. amara) and
the sweet almond (P. dulcis var. dulcis). The bitter almond contains a poisonous glycoside,
amygdalin. During the oil extraction process the poisonous substance is eliminated and now the
oil can be used for flavouring and preparing lotions or other skin care products. The sweet
almonds are consumed raw and roasted, used in making namkeen and kheer.

(B) Cashew
Botanical Name: Anacardium occidentale

Characteristic Features: Tree small, evergreen; trunk twisted, knotted; leaves alternate, simple,
leathery, oval, rounded; flowers in clusters on lax terminal panicles at the end of the branches;
fruit consists of a soft, shiny, pear shaped, swollen, juicy basal portion or hypocarp, commonly
known as a cashew apple. At the top of the apple a kidney-shaped, single-seeded nut with a hard,
grey-green pericarp is found. Seeds are exalbuminous with a reddish brown testa, two large
white cotyledons and a small embryo. The raw nuts are inedible because the shell of the nut
contains bitter juice that causes severe irritation of the skin, resulting in painful blisters and
hence the seeds must be cooked or roasted to drive off the volatile oil before it is opened or
shelled.

History and Origin: The word ‗cashew‘ is based on the Portuguese name ‗caju‘, which was
derived from the native name ‗acanju‘. It is a native of tropical America, from Mexico to Peru
and Brazil, and also of the West Indies. The Portuguese introduced it into India from Brazil in
the 1600 to control soil erosion on the coasts.

Production: In 2012 the global production was reported around 4 million tons. The top three
contributors were Vietnam (1190900 tons), Nigeria (836500 t) and India (680000 t). Some other
producers of cashew are Ghana, Thialand, Kenya, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Maxico etc.

Cultivation: It grows under a variety of climatic and soil conditions. It is hardy and drought-
resistant, well adapted to poor soils and dry sandy areas that are not suited to other crops. It can
be cultivated up to 1220 m. Propagation is mainly done with the help of seeds, but can also be
performed by budding and other vegetative methods. It starts giving fruits in three years, but
starts giving maximum production at the age of 10.

Uses: The kerenels are eaten raw as well as fried and sometimes salted. The cashew apple is used
in making a fermented alcoholic beverage ‗caju wine‘ and jams. The phenolic nutshell oil is
widely used as a medicine, an irritant, a wood protectant, a source of resin and as a
waterproofing agent. The young leaves of cashew are used in flavoring and medicine. A yellow

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 64

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

gum obtained as an exudate is used mainly as an adhesive. The sap from the bark provides an
indelible ink.

(C) Walnut
Botanical Name: Juglans spp.

Characteristics Features: Tree tall; leaves alternate, imparipinnate, composed of 5 to 11 (rarely

13) subsessile, elliptic to oblong-lanceolate entire leaflets; flowers small, yellowish green, male
flowers occur in long pendulous catkins and females in 1-3 flowered terminal catkins; fruit drupe
with a smooth fleshy green husk, representing the exocarp and mesocarp, endocarp hard, woody,
wrinkled and two-valved; seed, edible non-endospermic, consists mainly of two large cotyledons
with numerous invaginations and convolutions. The testa in the fresh nuts has an unpleasant
bitter taste but can be peeled off. The seed coats, however, lose their bitter taste on drying.

History and Origin: Various varieties of walnut are present but the most popular is Persian or
English walnut (Juglans regia L.), which is a native of Persia and now also cultivated in
throughout southern Europe, China, some parts of Asia and United States. Two other varieties of
walnut namely the black walnut (J. nigra L.) and the butternut or white walnut (J. cinerea L.) are
commonly planted for its hard wood and nuts respectively.

Cultivation: They grow best in the moderate western climates. They are grown as ornamental as
well as commercially useful plants.

Production: In 2012 the total global production of walnuts is 3.4 million tons. The top three
producers are China (1700000 tons), Iran (450000 t) and US (425820 t). The other walnut
producing countries were the Ukraine, India, Chile, France, Romania, Greece, Egypt, Belarus,
Germany, Serbia, Afghanistan, Poland, Czech Republic and Pakistan.
Uses: Its kernels are eaten during winters entirely as a dessert nut. It is commonly used in
confectionery, ice creams, in preparing of an Indian sweet kaju katli. Walnut oil is used for
edible purposes, and also for making printing inks, artist‘s oil colours, varnishes and soaps. The
tree bark, known as dundasa in India, is used by women for cleaning their teeth or for chewing to
redden the lips. Walnut timber is used for furniture, carving and making butts of guns and
cabinets of the highest quality. The young green whole fruits, gathered before the nut hardens,
are pickled in vinegar.

2.6 SUMMARY

Plants have been the most important part of the human life since the beginning of the human life
on this planet. Plants are being used in various forms by human population such as fruits,
vegetables, cereals and millets etc. Plants provide almost all the necessary and sufficient
nourishment to the body such as vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates and proteins. After the

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 65

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

agricultural revolution humans started relying on plants for their nutritional needs and that
continues till now with a touch of genetic engineering and molecular biology to increase the
production of crops for meeting the needs of rising number of population.

Cereals are the important component of human diet. Cereals were the first plants ever to be
domesticated and cultivated in agricultural lands. Roughly every civilization, whether it is
Ancient Egypt, Greece, Inca, Indus valley, Mayan, Mesopotamian and Roman was based on one
or another species of the cereals. True cereals belong to the family Poaceae also known as grass
family. The most commonly used cereals are wheat, rice, corn, barley and oats. On the other
hand there are some other crops which are used to make flour but these species do not belong to
the family Poaceae. These plants are called as pseudocereals for example buckwheat
(Fagopyrum esculentum), quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa), Amaranthus spp. etc. The cereal grains
are very nutritious, with a high percentage of easily digested carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
They are chief ingredient of cake, pastries, bread and beverages. Wheat flour has good baking
qualities and be used in various forms. Rice flour is used in confectionery, ice creams, puddings
and pastry. Rice starch has broad industrial potential in the cosmetic industry, as a thickener in
calico printing, in the finishing of textiles and for making dextrins, glucose and adhesives.
Alcoholic beverages such as ‗sake‘ in Japan and ‗wang-tsin‘ in China are made from rice
through fungal fermentation. About 90 per cent of rice is eaten as plain boiled rice with cooked
pulses, curd, vegetables, fish or meat.

Pulses are the chief source of protein to the vegetarian population. Protein is present in the large
proportion then carbohydrates and fats. All the pulses belong to the family Leguminosae
(Fabaceae). The characteristic feature of this family is the presence of a special kind of fruit, a
legume, which is a pod that opens along two sutures when the seeds are ripe. Out of the 11,000
known species of legumes, majority of them have industrial, medicinal, or nutritive value. Pulses
contain niacin, thiamine, carotene, riboflavin and ascorbic acid. Pulses are rich in calcium and
iron. Pulses are consumed in different forms e.g. whole or de-husked splits (daal), fried or puffed
grain products, fermented preparations, germinated seeds and flour. In India, more than 75 per
cent of pulses are consumed as daal (dehusked splits). Legumes are also used as fodder.

Millets are also a good source of nutrients in human diet. The flour obtained from millets are
very nutritious and used for making bread, cake, puddings and fermented beverage. Millets also
used as the feed for birds.

The vegetable is edible seeds, roots, stems, leaves, bulbs, tubers or non-sweet fruits of any of
numerous herbaceous plants. Vegetables are a vital part of the human diet worldwide especially
in the tropical areas. They are the main source of essential vitamins and minerals. Vegetables are
significant because they grow rapidly and produce a maximum quantity of food for the area
planted. On the basis of part of the plant used as vegetable they can be classified as root crops,
leafy vegetables and fruit vegetables.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 66

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

The fruits are the easily available source of minerals, organic acids, vitamins, pigments and
tannins. Fruits have high water content but they are low in proteins and fats. The classification of
fruits can be done according to the (i). Number of ovaries involved in fruit formation and (ii).
Climatic adaptation.

The nut is a one-seeded, indehiscent dry fruit with a hard or stony pericarp (shell), (e.g.
Hazelnut, filberts, sweet chestnut and acorn) but most commercial nuts such as coconut, almond,
walnut etc. and some seeds such as Brazil nut, Pine nuts do not come under this definition. Nuts
are rich in oils and fats and contain moderate amounts of carbohydrates and proteins. They are a
good source of vitamins and minerals.

2.7 GLOSSARY

Alluvial soil: Alluvium is loose, unconsolidated soil or sediment that has been eroded, reshaped
by water in some form, and redeposited in a non-marine setting.
Berry: Fleshy fruit without a stone produced from a single flower containing one ovary.
Carbohydrates: A carbohydrate is a biomolecule consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1.
Caryopsis: a dry one-seeded fruit in which the ovary wall is united with the seed coat, typical of
grasses and cereals.
Culm: A culm is the aerial stem of a grass or sedge.
Endocarp: The innermost layer of the pericarp which surrounds a seed in a fruit.
Exocarp: The outer layer of the pericarp of a fruit.
Loam soil: Loam is soil composed mostly of sand, silt, and a smaller amount of clay.
Pericarp: The part of a fruit formed from the wall of the ripened ovary.
Pome: A pome is an accessory fruit composed of one or more carpels surrounded by accessory
tissue.
Pseudocereals: A pseudocereal is one of any non-grasses that are used in much the same way as
cereals.
Spikelets: The basic unit of a grass flower, consisting of two glumes or outer bracts at the base
and one or more florets above.

2.8 REFERENCES
 archive.india.gov.in
 Hill Albert F. (1937) Economic Botany. Mcgraw-Hill Publications.
 http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/agriculture/millets_kudiraivali.html
 http://www.fao.org/3/W1808E/w1808e0k.htm
 http://www.fao.org/3/y4765e/y4765e0b.htm

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 67

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

 https://hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Wheat.html
 Kochhar S. (2016) Economic Botany: A Comprehensive Study. Cambridge University Press.
doi:10.1017/9781316286098.003
 krishijagran.com
 www.cerealsdb.uk.net
 https://www.google.com
 Shutterstock.com

2.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

 Kochhar S. (2016) Economic Botany: A Comprehensive Study. Cambridge University Press.

doi:10.1017/9781316286098.003
 Hill Albert F. (1937) Economic Botany. Mcgraw-Hill Publications.

2.10 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

2.10.1 Multiple choice type questions

1. Major food crops of the world belongs to the family:
(a) Gramineae (b) Cruciferae
(c) Leguminosae (d) Solanaceae

2. Cereals belong to family:

(a) Gramineae (b) Cruciferae
(c) Solanaceae (d) Leguminosae

3. Major cereals are:

(a) Millets, Wheat and Rice (b) Rice, Wheat and Maize
(c) Barley, Rye and Maize (d) Rye, Barley and Wheat

4. The centre of origin of wheat is:

(a) Mexico (b) South-East Asia
(c) South-West Asia (d) Asia Minor and Afghanistan

5. Rice is a crop of:

(a) Clayey loam soils (b) Wet areas
(c) Irrigated areas (d) All the above

6. Maize evolved in:

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 68

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

(a) Mexico and Central America (b) Asia Minor and Afghanistan
(c) U.S.A. (d) Brazil

7. The most common cereal millet crop grown in arid climate is:
(a) Sorghum (b) Maize
(c) Pearl millet (d) Paddy

8. Which vegetable has long storage life?

(a) Spinach (b) Tomato
(c) Onion (d) Brinjal

9. The fruit of banana is botanically a-

(a) Pepo (b) Berry
(c) Pome (d) Drupe

10. Which of the following is the edible part of Litchi:

(a) Pericarp (b) Kernal
(c) Fleshy aril (d) Thalamus

11. A fruit is:

(a) Ripened ovule enclosing one or more seeds
(b) Ripened ovary enclosing one or more seeds
(c) Ripened endosperm enclosing one or more seeds
(d) Ripened nucellus enclosing one or more seeds

12. The edible fleshy part of mango is called:

(a) Percarp b) Mesocarp
(c) Endocarp d) Epicarp

13. The water of coconut is:

(a) Liquid mesocarp (b) Liquid endocarp
(c) Degenerated liquid endosperm (d) Liquid nucellus

14. Almond belongs to family:

(a) Musaceae (b) Rosaceae
(c) Annonaceae (d) Moraceae

2.10.2 Fill in the blanks:

1- Mushrooms, morels, truffles and puffballs grouped under………
2- Spirulina, Chlorella are grouped under …………………

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 69

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

3- Chilgoza is obtained from …………

4- Sago is obtained from ………………………..
5- The term ‗cereals‘ is derived from a ……………………… Cerealia.
6-Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa), Amaranthus spp are
grouped under ………….
7-On the basis of the number of chromosomes present in their reproductive cells, all the wheat
species can be classified ………, ……… and …..
8- The ………….. were the first to cultivate rice.
9-Pulses are the chief source of …………… to the vegetarian population.
10- ………….. are the excellent fertilizer and greatly increase the nitrogenous content of the soil.

2.10.3 True and false:

1-Angiosperms are the most dominating plant group in obtaining food products.
2-Wheat, rice and soybean grouped under cereal crops.
3-Pseudocereals belong to family Poaceae.
4- The first cultivated cereal was wheat.
5-Legumes are also used as field and forage crops.
6-All the species of pulses not belong to the family Fabaceae
7-The vegetable is edible seeds, roots, stems, leaves, bulbs, tubers or non-sweet fruits of any of
numerous herbaceous plant
8-Carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, is abundant in carrots.
9-Thiamine, niacin and riboflavin is not occur in succulent vegetables and legumes.
10-Subtropical fruits are either deciduous or evergreen, and are usually able to withstand a light
frost.

Answer Key:
2.10.1: 1-(a), 2-(a), 3-(b), 4-(c), 5-(d), 6-(a), 7-(c), 8-(c), 9-(b), 10-(c), 11-(b), 12-(b), 13-(c),
14-(b)
2.10.2: 1. Micro-fungi, 2. Algae, 3. Pinus girardianana, 4. Cycas revolute, 5. Greek festival, 6-
Pseudocereals, 7. diploid, tetraploid and hexaploid, 8. Chinese, 9. Protein, 10.
Legumes
2.10.3: 1- True, 2- False, 3-False, 4- True, 5- True, 6-False, 7- True, 8- True, 9- False, 10- True

2.11 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

2.11.1 Short answer type questions:
1-Explain the differences between cereals and millets?
2-What is a true fruit?
3- Mention the differences between true and pseudo fruits?

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 70

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

4 -Explain the various types of maize?

5- Name five common fruits of India?

2.11.2 Long answer type questions:

1- Write in detail about three major cereals and millets?
2- Write in detail about three major fruit and nut crops?

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 71

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

UNIT-3 EDIBLE OILS, SPICES AND CONDIMENTS

Contents
3.1-Objectives
3.2-Introduction
3.3-Edible Oils
3.3.1- Soyabean Oil
3.3.2- Sunflower Oil
3.3.3- Ricebran Oil
3.3.4-Peanut Oil
3.3.5- Mustard Oil
3.3.6- Corn Oil
3.3.7-CoconutOil
3.3.8-Palm Oil
3.4-Spices and Condiments
3.4.1. Spices and Condiments obtained from Roots
3.4.2. Spices and Condiments obtained from Stem
3.4.3. Spices and Condiments obtained from Bark and Leaves
3.4.4. Spices and Condiments obtained from Flower and its parts
4.4.5. Spices and Condiments obtained from Fruits
3.5-Summary
3.6-Glossary
3.7-Self Assessment Question
3.8-References
3.9-Suggested Readings
3.10-Terminal Questions

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 72

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

3.1 OBJECTIVES
After studding of this unit, you will be able to understand the characteristics of edible oil, spices
and condiment yielding plants in special reference to-
 General account on Edible oil
 Types of edible oils.
 Botanical characteristics of commonly used Edible oil yielding plants and their uses.
 Botanical characteristics of some important Spices and Condiments yielding plants with their
uses.

3.2 INTRODUCTION
Besides food and fiber, the edible oils, spices and condiments played have an important role in
all the ancient civilizations. Edible oils, spices and condiments have been considered as essential
ingredients in the culinary art for flavouring foods. Edible oils and fats contain important and
essential nutrients to mankind, and enhance the taste and flavour of food. Majority of edible oil
are originated from plant crops. Spices and condiments are plant products or their mixture, used
for seasoning, enhance flavour, imparting aroma and colour in food. Our country, India is
blessed with varied agro-climatic and cultivate majority of the edible oils and spices.

3.3 EDIBLE OILS

Edible oils are most often plant based oils. The vegetable oils and fats are considered as an
important part of human food and used as cooking medium. The major proportion of edible is
derived from seeds of plants i.e., mustard, groundnut, sunflower, soyabean, linseed, palm,
ricebran, coconut etc. There are many types of edible oils, and their consumption depends on
consumer preference and availability. Edible oil is extracted by pressing and solvent extraction
method. The obtained crude oil then refined, bleached and deodorized to remove pigments and
non-triglyceride material. Edible oil is liquid at room temperature and contains high amount of
unsaturated fatty acids. Vanaspati is refined hydrogenated vegetable oil and solid at room
temperature, as during hydrogenation, the fatty acids get saturated.
Fat have many important functions in our body-
 Fat is a major source of energy (provide 9 calories energy per gram of fat combustion) and
nutrients, and help to keep body warm and maintain body temperature.
 Fats help in absorption of minerals and fat-soluble vitamins (vit. A, D, E and K) from food
materials, boosts the immune system and help to the cells and organs for their proper
functioning.
 Fats help to supports balanced hormones production that helps the body to work properly.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 73

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

 Fat is also critical to building cell membranes, the important lining of each cell which
promotes homeostasis and protects the cell.
Chemically, the plant derived edible oils have along hydrocarbon chains with a terminal
carboxylic acid group. The carboxyl group makes the oil edible, and provides a site for enzymes
to the breakdown of chain in a process called beta-oxidation. The length or number of
hydrocarbon chains define whether the oil is saturated or unsaturated in cis or trans confirmation,
which determine how easily it metabolized and become healthy or unhealthy as part of our diet.
Edible oils categorized into three categories-
Saturated oils are saturated fatty acids and have only single bond between their carbon atoms,
and solid at room temperature. Saturated fats tend to have higher melting point than
corresponding unsaturated fats and considered relatively unhealthy.
Monounsaturated oils are fatty acids have one double bond and liquid at room temperature but
begin solidify in the refrigerator. e.g. Olive oil, Coconut oil
Polyunsaturated oils are fatty acids have two or more double bond and liquid at room
temperature or when chilled. e.g. sunflower oil, walnut oil.
On the basis of ability of oil to absorb oxygen, vegetative oils are classified into
following categories-
I- Drying oil- These oils readily form a dry thin elastic or solid film after a period of exposure to
air. These oils are rich in unsaturated fatty acids, especially linotic and linolenic acid. Drying oil
hardens through polymerization and have a high iodine number (>130). Drying oils are a key
component of oil paints and varnish industries. e.g. Linseed oil, Tung oil etc.
II- Semi-Drying oil – Semi-drying oils absorb atmospheric oxygen slowly and produce a soft
film even after a long exposure. These are fairly rich in linoleic and saturated acids but do not
contain linolenic acid. Oils with an iodine number ranges between100-130 are considered non-
drying oils. e.g., Cotton seed oil, Sunflower oil, Corn oil etc.
III- Non-drying oil–Non-drying oils do not absorb atmospheric oxygen and fairly rich in
saturated acids and oleic acids. These oils does not harden and unable to forming elastic films
even after long exposure to atmospheric oxygen. Oils with an iodine number less than 100 are
considered non-drying oils. e.g., Groundnut oil, Olive oil etc.
IV- Vegetable fats – These fats are rich in saturated fatty acids and semi-solid at ordinary
temperature. Vegetable fats having a low iodine number (8-50) in comparison to drying, semi-
drying and non-drying oils. e.g., Coconut oil, Cocoa butter, Palm oil etc.

Extraction of Vegetable Oil

Oil and fats are deposited in seeds as reserve food and within other cells of plant tissue. The seed
coat is usually remover before oil extraction, with the help of specially decorticating machines.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 74

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

The separated seed kernel is reduced to a paste. The oil from plants can be extracted in several
ways including mechanical expression and solvent extraction.
(a) Mechanical expression: Mechanical expression involves mechanical pressure to the oil
seeds or oil bearing tissue, to squeeze out the fat. The mechanical pressure is applied through
either by hydraulic pressing or screw pressing. The expression may be of cold or hot type. The
cold expression involves mere pressing of the kernel without steam, whereas in case of hot
expression precooking of kernel usually done with steam, to facilitate oil flow. The oil is than
passed through filter presses to refine oil.
(b) Solvent extraction: The Solvent extraction is done by using many solvent including
benzene, gasoline, petroleum ether, chlorinated hydrocarbons etc. The plant tissues containing
fatty oil are feed from extracting by distillation processes using solvent. The produced oil is
subjected to refining process to remove the impurities. The solvent extraction is often practiced
on the press cake to extract the oil left. The Solvent extraction method can extracted even low
proportion or content of oil form the oil bearing tissues.
Some of the important cultivated and commercially known vegetative oils commonly used as
edible oil are described as follows-
3.3.1. Soyabean Oil
Botanical name : Glycine max (L.) Merr.
Family : Papilionaceae
Eng. Name : Soyabean
Hindi name : Bhat
Botanical characteristics: Soyabean is one of the oldest crop and largest oil seed crop;
contribute 22% of total fat production in the world. The soyabean is an erect, herbaceous, annual,
leguminous and fast growing plant. The soyabean plant is usually an erect bush with woody stem
and grows upto 1m height. Roots bear nodules resulting from Bradyrhizobium japonicum
infection. The leaves are trifoliate, alternately arranged and leaflets are oval to lanceolate. The
fruit are pods and with 2-4 seeds per pod, containing yellow, round seeds with a helum colour.
Soyabean oil is low in saturated fats without any trans-fat and contains high amount of poly &
mono-saturated fats.

Uses: Soyabean oil is the most widely used edible oil. Soyabean oil has good emulsifying ability
and also used in mayonnaise, salad dressing and baked goods. Syabean oil is the principal source
of omega-3 fatty acids and commercial source of Vit. E, has an array of incredible health
benefits. Soyabean oil are abundant in ‗good‘ unsaturated omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, it
slow down LDL (low density lipoprotein- deposited & clog blood vessels and interface with
blood circulation leading to heart attacks or strokes) accumulation and reduce the risk of
hypertension and heart diseases. Soyabean oil is rich in Vit. E and K, also have antioxidant and
anti-inflammatory properties, boosts bone health and vision. Soyabean oil is used in the
manufacturing of candles, varnishes, paints, soap and rubber substitutes.
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 75
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

3.3.2. Sunflower Oil

Botanical name : Helianthus annuus L.
Family : Compositae (Asteraceae)
Eng. Name : Sunflower
Hindi name : Surajmukhi

Botanical characteristics: Sunflower is an important source of edible oil and oil content
ranges between 46-52%, and has non-cholesterol and anti-cholesterol properties. Sunflower is a
large annual herb, has an erect rough hairy stem, grow upto 3m in height. The leaves are broad,
coarsely toothed and alternate. The inflorescence of sunflower is capitulum or pseudanthium or
composite. The center of the flower of the head is made up of disk flowers, surrounded by ray
flowers. The disk flowers mature into fruit. Sunflower oil consists of low saturated oil and high
amount of vit. E. sunflower oil are two types- Linoleic i.e., common cooking oil with low level
of trans fat (11% saturated fatty acids, 20% monosaturated fatty acids and 69% polyunsaturated
fatty acids) and Oleic (12% saturated fatty acids, 84% monosaturated fatty acids and 4%
polyunsaturated fatty acids).

Uses: The Sunflower oil is used for cooking purposes at low to extremely high temperature. It is
a good source of Vitamin A, B and E. Unrefined Sunflower oil is a traditional salad dressing.
Sunflower oil is also use as biodiesel. Sunflower oil is directly applied to the skin for joint pain,
dry skin and arthritis as massage oil. Sunflower oil does not raise total cholesterol and LDL
cholesterol in blood and used by heart patients.

3.3.3. Rice-bran Oil

Botanical name : Oryzae sativa Linn.
Family : Poaceae
Eng. Name : Rice-bran Oil
Hindi name : Rice-bran Oil
Botanical characteristics: Rice-bran oil is extracted from the paddy husk i.e., hard outer
brown layer of rice, called chaff.The term bran includes pericarp, seed coat, nucellus and
aleurone layer of seed with some part of endosperm. When paddy is milled, the germ and bran
layer separate from the endosperm and result in the milling residue which is commonly called
Bran. Rice-bran oil is, therefore, a byproduct of rice milling. Rice-bran with about 15-30% lipids
is a good source of protein, minerals, vitamins etc. Rice is an annual plant, growing 1-1.5 m in
height. The leaves are long, slender, flattened, 30-50 cm in length and 2-2.5 cm broad. The
flowers are arranged in a branched arching to pendulous inflorescence. The seed is a grain,
known as caryopsis. Rice-bran oil is distinctive for antioxidant γ-oryzanol (2%of crude oil
content). Rice-bran oil has nearly 25% saturated fats (chiefly contain 21.5% Palmitic acid)
and75% unsaturated fatty acids with an even balanced of monounsaturated (38% oleic acid) and

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 76

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

polyunsaturated fatty acids (34.4% linoleic acid& 2.2% α-linolenic acid). In recent years, the oil
has gained worldwide attention due to the presence of several health beneficial components such
as oryzanol and other high-value compounds including tocotrienols and squalene.

Uses: The Rice-bran oil is used for cooking purposes at low to extremely high temperature. The
Rice-bran oil help to lower cholesterol, promote weight loss, boost the immune system and
improve skin health. Rice-bran oil reduces LDL and can help to reduce condition like
atherosclerosis and subsequent afflictions like heart attacks and strokes. Rice-bran oil is
hypoallergic in nature and can also prevent hypersensitivity to other unusual allergies. Rice-bran
oil is rich source of antioxidants, vitamin E and oryzanol, which reduces changes of developing
of cancer. Due to the presence of vitamin E rice-bran oil help to protect and improve skin health.

3.3.4. Peanut Oil

Botanical name : Arachis hypogaea Linn.
Family : Fabaceae
Eng. Name : Groundnut, Peanut
Hindi name : Mungphali
Botanical characteristics: Groundnut is a low growing annual herb with cylindrical or
angular, rough hairy stem, grow0.3-0.6m in height. The leaves are quadrifolate with two pairs of
leaflet on a slender, grooved petiole and flowers are borne in the axils of leaves. The fruit is an
elongated, oblong pod containing 2-4 seeds. Groundnut grows in warm region of tropical and
sub-tropical regions, and prefers well drained sandy loam soil. Groundnut oil contains 17%
saturated fatty acids, 46% monosaturated fatty acids and 32% polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Uses: Groundnut oil is used for cooking purposes and in making margarine. The oil is rich in
phosphorus and Vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin and niacin). Groundnut oil is high in
monosaturated fat and low in saturate fat, and help to prevent heart disease and lower
cholesterol. It is used for the preparation of ‗vegetable ghee‘ by hydrogenation. Groundnut oil is
directly applied to the skin for arthritis, joint pain, dry skin and scalp crusting. The oil is
medicinally used as laxative, emollient and in ointments.

3.3.5. Mustard Oil

Botanical name : Brassica compestris L.
Family : Cruciferae (Brassicaceae)
Eng. Name : Mustard, Yellow sarson
Hindi name : Sarson
The genus Brassica includes various species and many of them are used as oil resources. Some
of the important species of Brassica, extensively used for oil extraction are-
B. juncea L. (Lahi)

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 77

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

B. campestris var. sarson (Pili sarson)

B. campestris var.dichotoma (Bhuri sarson)
B. campestris var. toria (Lahi)
B. napus (Kali sarson)
Botanical characteristics: Three species of B. campestris var. sarson, dichotoma and toria
are collectively called as rape, and B. juncea is known as mustard. Sarson oil is a popular
vegetable oil, cooking medium and obtained from seeds of mustard. Mustard plant is an annual
herb, slender, erect, branched and attains a height upto 1.5 m. The leaves are lyrate, lobed and
arranged alternately and inflorescence is corymbrose racemes. The fruit is a siliqua with small,
spherical and yellow or brown seeds on maturity. The seeds have marked reticulation on their
surface, and contain 20% protein and 30-45% oil. The characteristic pungency and flavor of
mustard oil is due to allyl-iso-thiocyanate. Mustard oil has about 60% monosaturated fatty acids
(42% erucic acid & 12% oleic acid), 21% polyunsaturated fats and 12 % saturated fats. Erucic
acid is the main fatty acid of mustard with other fatty acids.

Uses: Mustard oil is prominent edible oil and used for food, pickle and snacks preparation, but
also widely used for other therapeutic uses. Mustard oil act as appetizer and is a very strong
stimulants. It can stimulate digestion by the production of bile and gastric juice from liver and
spleen. Mustard oil used for massaging and stimulate circulation very effectively. Mustard oil
due to presence of fatty acids i.e., linoleic acid & oleic acid, makes an effective hair vitaliser and
also enhance blood circulation of scalp. The lower grade oil is used in soap industry and also
used as lubricant of machineries. Mustard oil also used as an ingredient in many Ayurvedic
medicated oils for liniment preparation and massage to strengthen nervous system.

3.3.6. Corn Oil

Botanical name : Zea mays L.
Family : Gramineae (Poaceae)
Eng. Name : Corn
Hindi name : Makai
Botanical characteristics: Maize is annual, herbaceous, attaining a height upto 3 m, stem
unbranched and differentiated into nodes and internodes. Leaves are long and grow from node
and leaf size upto 4 feet in length and 4 inch in width. The maize plant is monoecious, and the
male inflorescence (tassel) found at the apex of stem while the female inflorescence commonly
called husk is tightly enveloped by several layers of ear leaves. The fruit is the corn kernel and
called caryopsis. Corn oil is extracted from seeds obtained from ears. Maize plant is cold
intolerant and most sensitive to drought and prefer well drained, fertile, heavy loamy soil and
humus rich soil.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 78

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Uses: The refined Corn oil is mainly use in cooking and bakeries. Corn oil can help to control
inflammation and excess cholesterol due to low amount of saturated fats. Corn oil is a key
component of some margarines or flavouring agent. Corn oil is also used in soap, skin care and
low grade paint industries.

3.3.7. Coconut Oil

Botanical name : Cocos nucifera L.
Family : Palmaceae (Arecaceae)
Eng. Name : Coconut
Hindi name : Nariyal
Botanical characteristics: The coconut palm is important oil yielding plant and obtained from
the kernel of its fruit. It is a perennial tall plant growing upto 30 m in height, and bearing a
cluster of 4-6 m in long pinnately compound leaves at the apex. Coconut fruit is a fibrous drupe
fruit with a tough, greenish exocarp, a brown coloured fibrous mesocarp and the kernel- a fairly
thick coating of white milky flesh. The coconut palm prefers shoreline area with abundant
sunlight and regular rainfall with humid climate, and thrives on sandy soil. It has tolerance to
salinity. Coconut oil has about 82 % saturated fatty acids, 6% monosaturated fatty acids and 1-
2% polyunsaturated fats. Lauric acid (44-50%) is the main constituent of coconut oil.

Uses: The refined Coconut oil is used in form of edible oil culinary purposes. Higher content of
saturated fats in coconut oil provide incredible benefits if taken in limited quantity and it also
lead to healing capabilities. Coconut oil is use as a feedstock for biodiesel. Coconut oil is being
rich source of myristate acid and is a good binder and emollient for cosmetics. Coconut oil is
used in cosmetic and soap preparations. Coconut oil is the directly applicable and easily
available remedy for any kind of skin infection due to its anti-fungal and anti-bacterial property,
and used in cracked heal, shedding skin, diaper rashes, skin and hair massage.

3.3.8. Palm Oil

Botanical name : Elaeis guineensis Jacq.
Family : Palmaceae (Arecaceae)
Eng. Name : Oilpalm
Hindi name : Palm
Botanical characteristics: The oil palm is perennial, tall, monoceious plants grow upto 20 m
in height, and leaves are pinnate and 3-5m long. The fruit is a large plum, oval drupe, reddish,
grows in large branches with a single seed. The fruit is made up of an oily pericarp or fleshy
outer layer and a seed. The mesocarp of fruit i.e., fiberous pulp of the drupe, is the source of
palm oil. Palm oil has about 49% saturated fatty acids, 37% monosaturated fatty acids and 9%
polyunsaturated fatty acids and contain large amount of –carotene.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 79

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Uses: Palm oil is used as cooking oil. Palm oil is rich source of vit. E. It is also used in the
manufacturing of margarine, non-dairy creams and ice-creams. Palm oil used in the manufacture
of lubricants, candles, soaps and detergents. Palm oil used in pharmaceutical, cosmetics and
personal care.

3.4 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS

India is known as ‗Land of Spices‘ from since time immemorial land has a diverse variety of
spice. Spices are often dried natural plant products derived from different parts of plants viz.
bark, leave, rhizome, stigma, seeds etc. and used whole or crushed, used in minute quantity
during food preparation to enhance flavour, colour or aroma. Spices cannot be classes as food,
for they contain of little value. Spices give an agreeable flavour and aroma to food. The value of
spices and condiments is due to the presence of the essential oils, and occasionally due to other
aromatic principles. The aromatic value is due to presence of essential oil in spices. The
medicinal value of spices is not so great as was thought during the middle ages, but a
considerable number of them are still official drugs. Spices stimulate the appetite and increase
the secretion and flow of gastric juice. In addition, spices have antimicrobial and antioxidant
properties. Spices are also used in cosmetic, beverages, pharmaceutical, perfumery products and
preservation of food. Spices are mainly used for-
 To enhance colour (e.g. Turmeric) and flavour (e.g., Cinnamon, ginger)
 Used as preservative agent to enhance the life of food.
 Many of the Spices are known for their antioxidant and antimicrobial compound, and well
known for home remedies and Ayurvedic medicine to cure different diseases.
Condiments are dishes seasoning ingredients i.e., including spices, sauces, mixture of
spices or salt pepper that mainly added to food immediately prior to serve or before
consumption, to contribute specific flavour or enhance flavour. Condiments are used to enhance
colour and flavour e.g.- Barbecue sauce, soy sauce, ketchup, mustard, chili sauce, garlic sauce,
tomato catchup.
The classification of spices is difficult and no sharp differentiation between the various
groups, because all the plant products contain essential oils. Spices are hard and hardened parts
of plants, usually used in pulverized state. Whereas Condiments are spices or other flavouring
substances that have a sharp taste and usually added after cooking. Savory seeds are small fruits
or seeds that are used whole. Essences are aqueous or alcoholic extractions of the essential oils.
In order to difficulty of distinguishing between spices, condiments and other flavouring
materials, it seems best to consider on morphological basis (nature of plant part utilized). On the
basis of the plant part, from which spicesand condimentsare derived, Spices and Condiments are
categories as follows –
Dried fruit or seeds- Fennel, mustard, nutmeg, black pepper
Arils- mace (part of nutmeg plant)

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 80

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Barks- cinnamon and cassia

Stigma- saffron
Roots and rhizomes- turmeric, ginger
Resins- asafoetida
Some of the important plants, which plant parts commonly used as spices and condiments, are
described under this section with plant description and their uses.

3.4.1- Spices and condiments obtained from roots

3.4.1.1. Asafoetida
Botanical name : Ferula asafetida L.
Family : Umbelliferae (Apiaceae)
Eng. Name : Asafoetida
Hindi name : Hing
Parts used : root
Botanical characteristics: Asafoetida is the dried latex or oleo gum resin exuded from the tap
root of many species of Ferula plants. The roots are carrot shaped, massive, thick, and pulpy, 5-6
inches in diameter, with a circular mass of 10-15 inch long leaves with characteristics umble
inflorescence. The fruits are oval in shape, flat, thin, reddish brown in colour. Ferula asafetida is
a perennial herbaceous herb of family Umbelliferae. Asafoetida plant can grow to 1.5-2 m in
height. The leaves .Ferula plant can grow in all types of soil but prefer well drained moist soil.
Asafoetida contains about 40-60% resin, 25% gum and 10% of volatile essential oil with other
compounds. Asafoetida resin mainly contains the esters of ferula acid.

Uses: Asafoetida, is also known as devil’s dung, has a powerful pungent odour and a bitter
taste, due to the presence of sulphur compounds in it. Hing is a spice used as a digestive aid, in
food as a condiment and in pickles. The gum resin is antispasmodic, carminative, expectorant,
laxative and sedative. Asafoetida also thins the blood and lower blood pressure. Asafoetida is
uses in traditional medicine as antimicrobial, and used for treatment of respiratory disorder i.e.,
whooping cough, bronchitis and asthma. In Ayurveda, asafetida considered for treatment of vata
and kapha dosha, and relieves flatulence and colic pain.

3.4.2- Spices and condiments obtained from underground stem

3.4.2.1. Ginger
Botanical name : Zingiber officinale L.
Family : Zingiberaceae
Eng. Name : Ginger
Hindi name : Adrak
Parts used : rhizome

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 81

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Botanical characteristics: Ginger is underground stem or rhizome of annual herbaceous

aromatic plant. Ginger is a slender, 30-50 cm tall pseudo stem with palmately branched rhizome
bearing leafy shoots, used as raw or processed and valued as spice. Ginger grows on a wide
range of soil and prefers laterite loam soil with well distributed rain fall during growing season.

Uses: Ginger is used in culinary and pickle preparations. Dried ginger is used for flavouring of
foods and preparations of extracts i.e., ginger oil. Ginger is also used for flavouring
confectionary, brewages, soft drinks, liquors, tea etc. Ginger is widely used in pharmaceutical,
ayurvedic and unani drug preparations as well as traditional remedies.

3.4.2.2. Turmeric
Botanical name : Curcuma domesticasyn.CurcumalongaL.
Family : Zingiberaceae
Eng. Name : Turmeric
Hindi name : Haldi
Parts used : rhizome
Botanical characteristics: Turmeric plant is a herbaceous perennial, 0.5-1m high, a short
pseudo stem formed by leave sheath and 7-12 tufted alternate leaves, arranged in two rows. The
inflorescence is a central spike of 10-15 cm length with 25-30 flowers. Turmeric is the boiled,
cleaned, dried and polished rhizomes of the plants. Turmeric is a tropical cultivated crop grown
in warm and moist regions and prefers well drained fertile loam and alluvial soils.
Uses: Turmeric is a key ingredient and specifically valued for its flavour, colour and aroma.
Turmeric is used to flavour and colour the food stuffs. Turmeric used as a powder of dried
rhizomes to impart golden yellow colour and preferred as an essential gradient of curry powder.

3.4.2.3. Allium
Botanical name : Allium cepa L.
Family : Liliaceae
Eng. Name : Allium
Hindi name : Piyaz
Parts used : bulbs/rhizome
Botanical characteristics: Onion is an herbaceous, herb, biennial plant but usually treated as
an annual because harvested in its first growing season, and cultivated for its edible bulb. The
plant is attain a height upto 0.5m with stem having a flattened disc at the base and tubular leaves
form a pseudo stem where their sheaths overlap. The leaves are erect or oblique and 4-8 per
plant. The bulb is oval to spherical in shape and made up of several layers, each corresponding to
a leaf. Onion prefers well drained, organic matter rich, clay or silt loam soil.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 82

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Uses: Onion is spicy, pungent and lachrymatory and chopped onion used as an ingredient in
various dishes. The stem and leaves are eaten and can also put to culinary uses. Onion can be
used by baking, boiled, grilled, fried, roasted or eaten raw in salads. Onion is the basic of most
sauces and gravies.

3.4.2.4. Garlic
Botanical name : Allium sativum L.
Family : Liliaceae
Eng. Name : Garlic
Hindi name : Lahsun
Parts used : bulbs/rhizome
Botanical characteristics: Garlic is a herbaceous, annual, bulbous plant grow upto 0.5m in
height with short, woody central stem or a softer pseudostem made up of overlapping leaf sheath
and possess long and blade like leaves. The compound bulb of Garlic consists of several bulblets
or cloves. Garlic can grow in different types of soil, however well drained, organic rich, sandy,
silt and clay loamy soil are recommended for cultivation.

Uses: Garlic is widely used as a spice or condiments in form of fresh garlic, garlic powder and
garlic oil, and known for its pungent, aroma and spicy flavour. The green part of garlic is also
edible and often chopped and stir-fried or cooked in soups. Garlic is also used in different kinds
of breads, usually in medium of butter.

3.4.3- Spices and condiments obtained from bark and leaves

3.4.3.1. Cinnamon
Botanical name : Cinnamomum tamula Nees. & Eberm.
Family : Lauraceae
Eng. Name : Cinnamon
Hindi name : Tejpat, Dalchini
Parts used : Bark, Leaves
Botanical characteristics: Cinnamon is an evergreen tree attains a height of 6-12 m and
having 12-15 cm long and highly aromatic leaves. The bark of Cinnamon has a sweet and
agreeable taste. The bark, its powder and leaves are used as spices and removed periodically.
Cinnamon is a hardy plant can grow under wide range of climatic conditions and soil; prefer well
drained sandy loam soil with rich humus.

Uses: Cinnamon is aromatic, astringent, stimulant and carminative. It possesses the property of
checking nausea and act as an anti-emetic. The powerded cinnamon used for flavouring cakes,

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 83

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

sweets, candy, chocolate, curry powder, perfumes etc. the leaf oil is also use for preparation of
low grade soaps, toothpaste, face creams and hair oils.

3.4.3.2. Curry leaf

Botanical name : Murraya koenigii (L.) Sprengel
Family : Rutaceae
Eng. Name : Curry Leaf
Hindi name : Barsanga, Mitta Neem
Parts used : Leaves
Botanical characteristics: Curry leaf is a spicy leafy vegetable, deciduous herb or a small
perennial tree, and having aromatic properties. The plant is a deciduous shrub or a small tree
grow 1-6 m in height, with ovale, lanceolate, imparipinnate leaves and white coloured, terminal
corymbose flower. It is hardy and temperature tolerant plant, and can grow in different types of
soils with proper drainage while prefers red sandy loam soil for better growth.

Uses: Curry leaf is a slightly pungent, bitter and feebly acidic taste, and leaf retain their flavour
ever after drying. Curry leaf used in culinary preparations, to enhance the flavour and taste of
food. Curry leaf is used as a natural flavouring agent to corries, chutneys, sambar etc. the leaves,
bark and roots of curry leaf plant indigenously used as a tonic, syrup, stimulant and carminative
in medicine.

3.4.4- Spices and condiments obtained from flower and its parts
3.4.4.1. Clove
Botanical name : Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & Perry
Family : Myrtaceae
Eng. Name : Clove
Hindi name : Laung
Parts used : flower bud
Botanical characteristics: Clove is an important tree spices and the fully grown, unopened
and dried flower bud of Syzygium aromaticum used as spices. The Clove is 7-15m tall, evergreen
tree with simple, exstipulate, and glabrous leaves. The inflorescence is shortly pedunculate and
carries 3-50 flowers. The fruit is usually a single seeded drupe, but sometimes also contain two
seeds. Cloves, the unopened buds, are produced on the terminal shoots of the twig. Clove plants
grow well warm and humid climate, and prefers humus rich loam, black and laterite well drained
soil.

Uses: Clove is valued as a spice and for its essential oil. The clove is majorly used in flavouring
domestic culinary, gravies, ketchup, spice mixtures, pickles, sauces, deserts, confectionery,

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 84

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

puddings etc. The clove and its oil used as a constituent of medicines, tonics, syrups, ointments
etc., and used for cure of different diseases viz., as appetizing, galacto-purifier, diuretic,
carminative etc. The clove oil, because of antiseptic property of eugenol (principal constituent of
clove oil), is an ingredient in chewing gums, toothpaste, mouth fresheners and mouthwash.

3.4.4.2. Saffron
Botanical name : Crocus sativus L.
Family : Iridaceae
Eng. Name : Saffron
Hindi name : Kesar
Parts used : Stigma
Botanical characteristics: Saffron is the dried tri-lobed stigmas and world‘s most expensive
spices, obtained from flower of Crocus. Saffron is a small bulbose, 15-20 cm in height,
perennial, with an underground corm and the flowers are large, blue or vilot coloured and arising
directly from corms. The flowers have tri-lobed orange coloured stigma used as spice and is the
part of commerce. Crocin is the chief colouring while sarranal is the main flavouring agent.
Saffron can grow well drained sandy to clay loam, and tolerate frost and snowfall.

Uses: Saffron is used for medicinal, flavouring and colouring purposes. Saffron is an important
ingradient of Ayurvedic and Unani medicine. Saffron is popularly known as stimulant, used in
urinary, digestive and uterine trouble.

3.4.4.3. Coriander
Botanical name : Coriandrum sativum Linn.
Family : Umbelliferae/Apiaceae
Eng. Name : Corainder
Hindi name : Dhaniya
Parts used : fruit and leaves
Botanical characteristics: Coriander plant is an annual herd, attain a height 30-80 cm, with
conspicuously enlarge nodes and hollow internodes. The leaves are pinnately compound with
umbel inflorescence. The fruit is a schizocarp, globular to oval, yellow in colour, size about 2-
4mm and having aromatic properties. Coriander prefers humus rich, well drained loamy soil with
high water holding capacity.

Uses: Coriander is an important aromatic crop, and both the leaves and fruit used as spices and
flavouring agent. The leaves of coriander are rich sources of Vitamin C and A. The fruit and
powder of dried fruit of coriander used an important ingredient of curry powder, sausages and
pickle spices. Coriander fruit is diuretic, antispasmodic and stimulant. The young plant is used in
the preparation of sauces, soups, chutneys, bakery, beverages products and curries for flavouring.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 85

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

3.4.5- Spices and condiments obtained from fruits

3.4.5.1. Black pepper
Botanical name : Piper nigrum L.
Family : Piperaceae
Eng. Name : Black Pepper
Hindi name : Kali Mirch
Parts used : Mature fruit
Botanical characteristics: Black Pepper is the most important, popular and widely used spice
of world, and known as ‗king of spices‘ and native to Western Ghats of South India. Black
Pepper plant is a perennial woody climber evergreen plant, growing to a height of 5-9 m in
length and the vines branches form the nodes. The black pepper leaves are simple, round or
obtuse, alternate, smooth, lanceolate and varied in leave shape. The inflorescence is spike type,
3-15 cm long with 60-150 minute white to yellow flowers, and the fruit is a one seeded berry,
sessile, globose to oval in size and matured within 6 months. Black Pepper is a crop of humid
tropics with adequate rainfall and humidity, avoid sun-scorching (planting towards the eastern
slopes) and prefer well drained humus rich laterite or alluvial soil.

Uses: Black Pepper has extensive culinary used for flavouring and preserving preserved food,
and medicinal value. Black Pepper used in medicine i.e., as a carminative and febrifuge, for
digestion and common cold cure for home remedies. The alkaloid piperine is major constituent
responsible for bitter taste of black pepper and the other pungent alkaloids are chovicine and
peiperidine.

3.4.5.2. Red pepper (Red chillies)

Botanical name : Capsicum annuum L.
Family : Solanaceae
Eng. Name : Chillies
Hindi name : Lal Mirchi
Parts used : green or ripe dried pod (fruit)
Botanical characteristics: Chili is an annual sub-shrub or perennial shrub; attain a height
upto 1m. The flowers of Capsicum are borne singly and fruit usually pendent which provide red
peppers, cayenne, paprika, and chillies and sweet pepper (bell pepper) a wild from with large
inflated fruits. Red chilli is the dried ripe fruit of Capsicum and grinded to powder, which is
famous due to its pungency, taste and flavour and extensively used as curried dishes and
seasonings of dishes.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 86

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Uses: Capsicum a tonic and carminative action, helps in digestion and it develops blood and is a
very rich source of Vitamin C, which helps in developing immune system. Capsicum used in
medicine as a counter irritant in lumbago, neuralgia and rheumatic disorder.

3.4.5.3. Allspice
Botanical name : Pimento dioica (L.) Merr.
Family : Myrtaceae
Eng. Name : Allspice, Pimento, Jamaica Pepper
Hindi name : Gandamenasu
Parts used : Mature fruit
Botanical characteristics: Allspice is an aromatic spice, in form of berries and peppery in
taste. Allspice used both in whole and ground form and commercially known as ‗pimento‘. The
Allspice is evergreen dioecious tree attain a height upto 10 m. with small, white colour and
peculiar aromatic flowers. The fruit has two kidney shaped seeds and grow in cluster, and ready
to harvest when they are green, matured but in unripening state. The plant grows in all types of
soil with proper drainage but prefers humus rich laterite soil.

Uses: The pimento berries and its oil are used as a condiment and flavouring ingredient in
ketchup, sauces, pickles, soups, gravies, pudding, preservatives etc. Allspice is used as
flavouring agent for liquor, pharmaceutical, perfumery and soap industry. Pimento is used in
digestive trouble, diarrhea and flatulence as well as an adjuvant to tonics and puratives.

3.4.5.4. Cumin
Botanical name : Cuminum cyminum L.
Family : Apiaceae/Umbelliferae
Eng. Name : Cumin
Hindi name : Jeera
Parts used : Ripe fruit
Botanical characteristics: The ripe fruit of Cumin is one of old spices. Cumin is an annual,
slender, small herb; grow upto 50 cm in height with branched, angular stem bearing 2-3 linear
leaves. The inflorescence is compound umbel with white coloured flowers. The commonly
known cumin is schizocarpic fruit contains single fruit. Cumin grow I tropical and sub-tropical
climate, and flourish well in mild cold climate. It grows in all types of soils, and prefers humus
rich, sandy loam or loamy soil.

Uses: Cumin is known for its aromatic order due to the presence aromatic alcohol- ‗Cuminol‘,
and a spicy bitter taste. Cumin is an essential ingredient of all spices and curry powder to various
dishes. Cumin used for enhance the flavour of soups, pastries, pickles, cheese, and for seasoning
of bakery products. Cumin seeds are Ayurvedic medicines as stimulant and carminative.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 87

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

3.4.5.5. Nutmeg
Botanical name : Myristica fragransL.
Family : Myristicaceae
Eng. Name : Nutmeg
Hindi name : Jaiphal
Parts used : seed and aril
Botanical characteristics: Nutmeg is an evergreen tree10-20 m tall with dense foliage and the
leaves are oblong to oval in shape. The inflorescence is cymes with a number of small, pale
yellow and bell shaped flower. The fruit is fleshy and globous in shape, containing single brown
seed with a brittle shell over by fragile and aromatic aril (reticulate membrane) known as mace.
Nutmeg grows on humus rich loamy soils of river bank or hill valleys. Nutmeg yields two types
of spices viz. one is Nutmeg it‘s the kernel which is hard and brown enclosed in thin brittle shell;
second is the mace obtained from aril.

Uses: Mace is used as spice and flavouring agent for culinary dishes. The fresh husk of ripe fruit
can be used for jelly making. The nutmeg medicinally acts as a stimulant, astringent and
carminative. The nutmeg oil used in flavouring bakery items, toothpaste and chewing gums.

3.4.5.6. Small Cardamom

Botanical name : Elettaria cardamomum Maton
Family : Zingiberaceae
Eng. Name : Small Cardamom, Malabar Cardamom
Hindi name : Choti Elachi
Parts used : Fruit (dried capsule)
Botanical characteristics: The Small Cardamom, popularly known as ―Queens of Spices‖, is
indigenous to evergreen rainforest of Western Ghats of southern India. Small Cardamoma tall
growing perennial, herbaceous, shade loving plant with branched subterranean rhizomes. The
leaves are 35 cm long and 10 cm wide, linear, lanceolatein shape with short petioles. The
inflorescence is racemose type arise from the underground rhizome and the fruit is a trilocular
and globose capsule borne on panicles at the base of the plants and contains 15-20 seeds. The
green cardamoms grow well in well drained, organic rich, loamy laterite soils with high and well
distributed rainfall.

Uses: Green Cardamomis used in spices and for flavouring purposes. Green Cardamom has a
unique intensely aromatic aroma and fragrance, and used for flavouring different drinks,
brewages and food. Cineole is the main constituent, responsible for camphoraceous odour.

3.4.5.7. Fenugreek
Botanical name : Trigonella foemum-graecumL.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 88

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Family : Fabaceae
Eng. Name : Fenugreek
Hindi name : Methe, Methi
Parts used : seeds
Botanical characteristics: Fenugreek is cultivated as a leafy vegetable, and used as spices and
condiment. Fenugreek is an annual herb, grow 30-90 cm in height, and has pinnately trifoliate,
light green leaves. The plant produces 8-12 cm long, slender pods, contains 10-20 small, hard,
oblong and yellow colour seeds. The dried seeds are bitter in taste and possess a distinct flavour.
Fenugreek is fairly frost tolerant plant grow in the tropics and temperate regions and can be
cultivated in all types of well drained and humus rich soils.

Uses: The green and dry leaves of Trigonella sps. are used as herb and vegetable, while seeds
are used as spices, and added nutritive values. The dried leaves of Fenugreek are commercially
used as Kasuri Methi. Fenugreek seeds are an important ingredient for curisines, vegetable
dishes, while grinded seeds are used for pickles preparation.

3.4.5.8. Vanilla
Botanical name : Vanilla fragrans syn. V. planifiolia Andrews
Family : Orchidaceae
Eng. Name : Vanilla
Hindi name : Vanilla
Parts used : fruit/beans/pods
Botanical characteristics: Vanilla is a spicy orchid, and the dried or cured pods are used
commercially. Vanilla is cultivated for its fruit- pods, has a sweet scent due to aromatic
compound known as Vanillin and used to flavour different products. V. planifiolia is a
herbaceous, fleshy, perennial vine, climbing upto 10-15 m by means of adventurous roots up
onto trees or other support. The stem is monopodial, simple or branch, long, cylindrical, brittle
with 5-15 cm long internodes, while leaves are upto 20 cm long, fleshy, subsessile and alternate,
oblong-elliptic to lanceolate. The inflorescence is axillary, racemose and borne towards the top
of vine with waxy, fragrant and pale-greenish flowers. The fruit is pendulous, narrowly
cylindrical in shape, obscurely three-aged 10-15 cm long capsule, known as ‗bean‘, with very
minute seeds.Vanilla prefers humid and moisture climate and well drained humus rich loamy soil
with gentle slopes.

Uses: Vanilla is used to flavour to confectionary items, ice cream, chocolate, beverages, cake,
liquoretc. Vanilla is also used in perfumery and pharmaceutical industries i.e., to flavours tonic,
syrup, tablet etc.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 89

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

3.6 SUMMARY
Edible oil containing fats and oil are recognized as a source of essential nutrients and energy in
human diets. Edible oil is mainly derived from plant products, and known as vegetable oil. India
having a wide range of oilseeds crops grow in different agro-climate zones. Groundnut, mustard,
soyabean, sunflower, safflower and linseed are the major traditionally cultivated oilseeds.
Coconut is important among the plantation crops, while rice bran oil and cotton seed oil are
popular among the non-conventional oil crops. Vegetable oils are a group of fats, extracted from
seeds, nuts, cereal grains and fruits. Vegetable oils are mainly triacylglycerols (92-98%), polar
lipids (phospholipids and galactolipids), monoacylglycerols, diacylglycerols with minor amount
of free fatty acids. Some oil are refined before use to remove undesirable materials i.e.
phospholipids, monoacylglycerols, diacylglycerols, free acids, colour, pigment, trace materials
etc. During the refining process, minor valuable component i.e. antioxidant, vitamins such as
carotenes, tocopherols etc. may also remove. The demand for vegetable oil increased rapidly in
past decade due to higher consumption for edible oil and increasing for industrial uses including
biodiesel. Nowadays there is a clear shift from a traditionally healthy high fiber, low fat diet to a
mechanized lifestyle with high fat and calorie dense, which is specifically high in trans fats. The
increased amount of trans fats are responsible to cause many diseases i.e., heart disease, certain
types of cancers, asthma, allergies etc. However, excessive consumption of fats increase LDL
cholesterol in blood, and a major cause of cardiovascular diseases. The consumption of edible oil
after repeated frying resulted change in physical and chemical properties of oil and responsible
for adverse health concern.
Spices and condiments are vegetable product or mixtures, free from extraneous material,
added to foods as whole spices, as ground spices, as essential oil, as oleoresins or as prepared
and filtered vinegar infusion, added flavour, taste and aroma. Spices are used for colourent,
preservative, beverages, liquors, perfumery and cosmetic industries. In India, 55-60 spices crop
grow or cultivated out of the 109 spices recognised by International Organisation for
Standardization (ISO) of World. Besides adding flavour and aroma, spices can be used for
pharmacological and health promoting product. The active components in the spices are
phthalides, flavonoids, monoterpenes, triterpenoids, polyacetylenes, phenolic acid and serols,
and they are used for promoting health wellness through antioxidant, antidiabetic, anti-
hypercholesterolemic, antiinflammatory, antimicrobial and anticancer properties of active
components. Majority of the spices have antimicrobial properties. Gingerol present in ginger is
an intestinal stimulant and promoter of bioactivity of drugs. Spices are natural antioxidant and
play an important role in defence against cardiovascular disease, certain epithicial cancer,
arthristis and asthma. Phenolic compound such as flavonoids (black pepper & thyme) might be
help to prevent against cardiovascular and intestinal cancer diseases. Capsaicin in chilli pepper is
used as a counter irritant. Garlic, onion and fenugreek are used to lower cholesterol level.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 90

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

3.7 GLOSSARY

Absolute: An ethanol extract of a concrete or a resinoid which generally contains the odoriferous
components together with very small proportion of colouring matter and is free from any solvent
used in the process.
Absolute Oils: Refers to the steam volatile part of an absolute.
Antioxidant: A substance that prevents oxidation or an agent that slows the formation of lipid
peroxides and free radical oxygen forms, preventing the rancidity of oils or blocking from
peroxides to the mitochondria of cells or cell membranes.
Antiphlegistic: A drug containing cure against inflammation.
Antispasmodic: A drug which counteracts spasmodic disorders.
Aromatic: A drug which is fragrant, spicy and mildly stimulant.
Bronchitis: Inflammation of the mucus membranes on the bronchi, usually caused by an
infection, sometimes by allergies or chemical irritations.
Colic: pain in abdomen due to spasmodic contraction.
Distillation: A process of evaporation and recondensation used for purifying liquids.
Essential oil: Essential oil is a volatile perfumery material extracted from a single source of
vegetation origin by a process such as hydrodistillation, steam distillation, dry distillation or
expression.
Expression: The process of extracting essential oil under pressure.
Extract: The concentrated solution obtained by treating natural perfumery material with a
solvent which is subsequently evaporated.
Extraction: The process of extracting essential oil under pressure.
Flavour: Flavour refers to the characteristics quality of a material as affects the taste.
Iodine value: Iodine number of a fat or oil is a measure of its degree of unsaturation and
declared as the number of iodine in grams taken up by 100 gms of fat or oil for saturation. For a
saturated acid glyceride, the iodine value is zero.
Nacrotic: A drug which induces deep sleep.
Perfume: A suitably blended composition of various materials of natural origin or synthetic to
give rise or impart a desired odour effect.
Perfumery compound: A concentrated base which is further diluted with or without toning.
Resin: Solid or semisolid translucent exudation from trees or plants.
Rheumatism: A conditions in which pain feels in the muscle, joints and certain tissue.
Spice or Herb oleoresin: A solvent extraction of dried spice or herb which is virtually free from
the extracting solvent. It is used as a replacement of ground spices and spices tinctures.
Steam Distillation:
Tannins: A group of simple and complex phenol, polyphenol, and flavonoid compounds, bound
with starches, and often so amorphous that they are classified as tannins.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 91

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

3.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION

3.8.1 Indicate whether the following statements are True or False:

1. Coconut oil is a vegetable fat.
2. Edible oil containing high amount of trans fats, are beneficial for human health.
3. Palm oil is considered as non-drying oil.
4. Sunflower oil contains high amount of saturated fats in comparison to unsaturated fats.
5. Vegetative ghee is manufactured by hydrogenation.
6. Saturated fatty acids contain double bond in their hydrocarbon chain.
7. Linseed oil is a drying oil.
8. Cardamom is known as ‗Queen of spices‘.
9. Savoury seeds are highly aromatic fruit belonging to family Apiaceae.
10. Black pepper is known as king of Indian spices.

3.8.2 Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Which of the following is an example of fats?
(a) Vegetative Ghee (b) Coconut oil
(c) Soyabean oil (d) Groundnut oil

2. Growth habit of black pepper is

(a) Small bushy plant (b) study erect plant
(c) Climbing evergreen plant (d) none of the above

3. Indian Institute of spice research is located at

(a) Calicut (b) Hyderabad
(c) New Delhi (d) Lucknow

4. The biting taste of black pepper is due to the presence of alkaloid

(a) Piperine (b) Chovicine
(c) Peiperidine (d) All of these

5. Cinnamon belongs to family

(a) Anacardiaceae (b) Poaceae
(c) Rosaceae (d) Lauraceae

3.8.3 Fill in the blanks:

1. Mustard oil is obtained from ....................
2. Vanilla is obtained from .........................
3. Cinnamon of commerce is obtained from the bark of ................................

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 92

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

4. Asfortida is a gum resin obtained from ........................

5. Saffron is the dried stigma of .........................
6. Black pepper (Piper nigrum) belong to family ...................................
7. Cinnamon belongs to family………………………..
8. They yellow pigment present in the rhizome of turmeric is...............................
9. Clove of commerce are dried unopen floral buds of ...............................

Answer keys:
3.8.1: 1-True, 2-False, 3-False, 4-False, 5-True, 6-False, 7-True, 8-True, 9-True, 10-True
3.8.2: 1-(a), 2-(c), 3-(a), 4-(d), 5-(d)
3.8.3: 1-seeds, 2-Fruit, 3- Cinnamomum zeylanicum, 4-root, 5- Corcos sativus, 6- Piperaceae,
7- Myrataceae, 8- Curcumin, 9- Synzium aromaticum

3.9 REFERENCES
 Ankri, S. and Mirelman, D. (1999). Antimicrobia properties of Allicin from Garlic.
Microbes. Infest. 2:125-129.
 Arvind, Talukder, S., Kandeepan, G. and Shukla, V. (2016). Indian Spices: Taste of Foods.
Beverage and Food World 43(1): 46-49.
 Chadha, K.L. and Retrinam, P. (2010). Plantation and Spices Crops, In. Advances in
Horticulture, Mahotra Publ. House, New Delhi, India. pp. 293-345.
 Farroqui, A.A. and Sreeramu, B.S. (2005). Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic crops,
University Press Ind. Ltd., Hyderabad.
 Hamm, W., Hamilton, R.J. and Calliauw, G. (2013). Edible Oil Processing (IInd Ed.) Willey-
Blackwell, UK. pp. 340.
 Nayik, G.A., Majid, I., Gull, A. and Muzaffar, K. (2015). Rice bran oil, the future edible oil
of India: A mini review. Rice res.: Open Access 3(4):1-3.
 Peter, K.V. (2001). Handbook of herbs and spices. Woodhead Publishig Ltd., Cambridge,
England. pp. 332.
 Sanjay, M.R., Arpitha, G.R., Naik, L., Gopalakrishna, K. and Yogesha, B. (2016).
Application of Natural fibers and its composites: An overview. Natural Resources 7:108-
114.
 Savita, D.P., Suvarna, C.V., Kanchanashri, B. and Niveditha, S.B. (2017). Pharmaceutical
Perspectives of Spices and Condiments as alternative antimicrobial remedy. 22(4): 1002-
1010.

3.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 93

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

 Pandey, B.P. (2011).Economic Botany. S. Chand Pub., New Delhi. pp. 680.
 Verma, V. (2009). Textbook of Economic Botany. Ane Books Pvt. Ltd. pp. 352.
 Singh, V., Pandey, P.C. and Jain, D.K. (2014). Economic Botany. Rastogi Pub., Meerut. pp.
204

3.11 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

3.11.1: Short answer type Questions

1- Write a short note on Saffron.
2- Discuss in short about the extraction of vegetable oil.
3- Write about the uses of Nutmeg.
4-What are spices? Discuss about any one spices.

3.11.2: Long answer type Questions

1. What are edible oils? Write a brief account on with botanical description and uses of important
edible oil yielding plants in India?
2. Describe any five edible oil yielding plants with botanical description and their uses.
3. Describe botanical description and their uses of any four edible oil yielding plants under
drying oil.
4. Write a detailed account/an essay on Spices and Condiments.
5. Write short notes on any four of the following.
(a) Plam oil (b) Mustard oil (c) Soyabean oil
(d) Coconut oil (e) sunflower oil

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 94

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

BLOCK-2 PLANT RESOURCES: DIVERSE VALUE

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 95

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

UNIT-4 MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS

Contents

4.1 Objectives
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Distribution of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
4.4 Cultivation
4.5 Sustainable Collection
4.6 Conservation
4.7 Important Medicinal and Aromatic plants
4.7.1 Medicinal Plants
4.7.2 Aromatic Plants
4.8 Processing
4.8.1 Medicinal Plants
4.8.2 Aromatic Plants
4.9 Summary
4.10 Glossary
4.11 Self Assessment Questions
4.12 References
4.13 Suggested Reading
4.14 Terminal Questions

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 96

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

4.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you should be able to:

• define the medicinal and aromatic plants;
• outline the importance of medicinal plants;
• identify the sources of availability of these groups of plants;
• explain the importance of conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants and
• differentiate between medicinal and aromatic plants of India.

4.2 INTRODUCTION

Medicinal and aromatic plants play an important role in the life of the people. In Indian
traditions, all the plants on this earth are considered as medicinal [Jivak in Astanga Hriday
(Sutra: 9-10)]. No exact definition of Medicinal plant is possible.

However, the medicinal plants could be defined in the simplest way as the plants which are used
in official and various traditional systems of medicines throughout the world. Alternatively, the
medicinal plants are those that provide people with medicines- to prevent disease, maintain
health or cure ailments. In one form or another, they benefit virtually everyone on the earth.
Aromatic plants are a special class of plants used for their aroma and flavour. Many of them are
exclusively used also for medicinal purposes in aromatherapy as well as in various systems of
medicine. Similarly, a number of medicinal plants also produce essential oils as well as being
used for perfumery e.g. valerian (Valeriana jatamansi), tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) etc. In this
chapter, we shall deal these special classes of plants together as medicinal and aromatic plants
(MAPs).
India has one of the richest, oldest and most diverse cultural traditions associated with the use of
medicinal plants. Plants and plant based products have been used traditionally in India from the
time immemorial. Different references of the healing power of plants are depicted in Rig -Veda
(4000-1500 B .C.), Atharvaveda (1500 B.C.), Upanishada (1000 B.C.) and Mahabharata and
Puranas (700-400 B.C.). Charaka Samhita and Susruta Samhita- the two important compendia on
medicinal plants were also published between 1000 and 600 B.C. The invasion of Greeks and
Muslims had a considerable influence on the use of plant based medicines. The rise of Buddhism
also gave an impetus to the study of herbal medicines in ancient India. At present, many systems
of medicines such as Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Homeopathy, Tibetian, tribal medicines, folk
medicines, etc. constituting the Indian systems of medicines (ISM) are practiced in India.
Medicinal plants as a group comprise of about 8000 species. About 50 per cent of all the higher
flowering plant species in India are considered as medicinal plants. Medicinal plants are used by
majority of rural population in self help mode for their primary health care requirements. In
recent years, demand for herbal medicines and cosmetic products is increasing globally. It has
created a quantum jump in volume of plant material traded within and outside the countries.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 97

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Various plant parts like roots, bark, wood, stem and the whole plant in case of herbs are used for
preparation of various medicines and related products. As a result, destruction harvesting is
followed in many species by uprooting plants. Overharvesting of some species may threaten their
survival in the nature.

4.3 DISTRIBUTION OF MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS

About 70 per cent of India's MAPs are found in natural habitat of tropical forests of Western and
Eastern Ghats, the Vindhyas, Chotta Nagpur plateau, Aravalis and the Himalayas. A large
percentage of known MAP occurs in the dry and moist deciduous vegetation area compared to
evergreen and temperate regions. Habit-wise classification shows that about 33 per cent are trees,
32 per cent herbs, 20 per cent shrubs, 12 per cent creepers and 3 per cent others.

4.4 CULTIVATION

Cultivation of MAPs is different than that of other agricultural crops. These plants are grown for
secondary metabolites. Secondary metabolites are responsible for the therapeutic or aromatic
properties of the crops. Alkaloids, steroids and essential oils are some of the examples of
secondary metabolites. As MAPs are used for preparation of medicines, even a small quantity of
pesticides or heavy metal is harmful. Therefore, the World Health Organization (WHO) has
recommended development of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) for MAPs to guarantee quality
of raw drug and to facilitate the standardization of quality of ISM drugs for acceptance to science
led world. A large number of laboratories in State Agricultural Universities, Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR) and Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) are
engaged in developing GAP for MAPs. However, the cultivation is not gaining due momentum
in the country due to prevailing unorganized marketing arrangements.

4.5 SUSTAINABLE COLLECTION

Medicinal plants come under the group of Non- Timber Forest Products (NTFP). Collection of
NTFP, which includes about 90 per cent of the traded medicinal plants, is also associated with
the livelihood of tribal and communities in and around the forests of India. Since the prices paid
by the traders often are very low, collectors or gatherers usually over-harvest or over-extracts to
generate more income. Several MAP species have fallen in endangered, threatened and
vulnerable categories due to indiscriminate harvesting and also absence of sustainable collection
or harvesting methodology.

General strategies and basic methods for small- and-large-scale collection of fresh medicinal
plant materials should follow the Good Collection Practices (GCP). GCP Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants Planning and Management of Horticulture Crops should, ensure the long term

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 98

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

survival of wild populations and their associated habitats. Management plans for collection
should provide a framework for setting sustainable harvest levels. It must describe appropriate
collection practices that are suitable for each medicinal plant species and plant part used (roots,
leaves, fruits, etc.). Collection of medicinal plants raises a number of complex environmental and
social issues that must be addressed locally on a case-by-case basis. It is recognized that these
issues vary widely from region to region and cannot be fully covered by these guidelines.

4.6 CONSERVATION

Conservation of MAP is necessary for the posterity of the future generation. Following two
methods of conservation are in practice.
1. In-situ conservation: It means conservation of plants within their natural habitats. Forest
departments play an important role in in-situ conservation of medicinal plants. Reserve forests,
sanctuaries, biospheres are some important examples of in situ conservation.
2. Ex-situ conservation: It means conservation of plants away from their natural habitats. Some
of the examples are herbal garden, seed gene bank, cryopreservation, botanical gardens, etc.
Cultivation of medicinal plants also reduces the stress of collection pressure on their natural
habitats and is considered as an effort of ex situ conservation.

4.7 IMPORTANT MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS

4.7.1 Medicinal Plants

1- Isabgol (Plantago ovata Forsk.)
The species belongs to the family Plantaginaceae. Seed coat is known as isabgol husk under
trade. The swelling property of the seed coat or husk after absorption of water is the cause of its
use as a famous medicine against constipation and gastrointestinal irritations. In addition, it is
used in food industries for the preparation of ice creams, candy, etc. India is the leader in Isabgol
production and largest exporter of husk. Country earns on an average Rs. 200 crores annually
from its export.
It is a cultivated species of North Gujarat, adjoining Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh over an area
of about 1,00,000 ha. A number of high yielding varieties are available in the crop for
cultivation. It is an annual herb grown during the rabi season. Seeds are sown in the middle of
November. About 3-4 irrigations are given. Nutrient requirement of the crop is very low (30 Kg
N and 25 kg P/ha). Crop matures in the last week of March and harvested plants are threshed
with tractor. Seed coat (husk) is removed by specially fabricated machines. Average seed yield
of the crop is about 10-15 quintal (q) per ha.

2-Senna (Cassia angustifolia Vahl)

Senna belongs to family Caesalpinaceae. It is a native to Yemen and parts of Pakistan. Dried
young leaves, flowers and 3-5 days old pods are used as source of raw drug. It contains
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 99
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

sennosides which is responsible for the purgative action. In European countries, it is used as
herbal tea. In world market, there are two sources of senna raw drug, one is Tinnevelly Senna,
which has gone from India and the other is Alexandrian senna that has gone from Arabian
Countries. The former species is Cassia angustifolia and the latter is Cassia acutifolia.
In India, the species is cultivated both as irrigated and rainfed crops in Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan
and Gujarat. Seeds are used for propagation. Sowing is done in September/ October in Tamil
Nadu and in June- July in Western India. Fertilizer requirement is N: P: K @ 80:50:50 which
may vary depending upon the soil fertility level. Crop is ready for harvest after about 130- 150
days. The harvested leaves and pods are dried under shade for about 3-5 days. Leaf yield is about
15-20 q/ha and pod yield is about 7-10 q/ha.

3-Aloe (Aloe barbadensis Mill)

Aloe- a member of the family Liliaceae is indigenous to African countries and naturalized in
India. The plant is perennial herb with fleshy leaves and condensed stem. Flowering occurs in
winter and the inflorescence stack is about 90-150 cm long with orange coloured flowers. Leaves
contain gel (polysaccharides) and leaf exudates contain aloins which are commercially useful.
Gel has a cooling and moisturizing action and hence used in cosmetic industries and the leaf
exudates contains aloins and aloe emodine which are used as pain killer and purgative.

The crop is under cultivation in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Raw
material is collected both from wild and cultivation for the industry. Suckers are used for
propagation. It is planted at a distance of 75x 75 cm in the rainy season. Irrigation is given at one
month interval depending upon the climate conditions. About 15 months old plants are ready for
harvesting. Leaves are harvested and the oozing out exudates are used for aloe in extraction and
gel scraped out from the leaves are used for cosmetic purposes. Average yield of fresh leaves of
about 20 tonne (t)/ha and dry exudates of 50 kg/ ha is obtained.

4-Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera Dunal)

It is traditionally cultivated in Madhya Pradesh near Mandsaur and Neemach. However, its
cultivation has been extended to most of the states now because of availability of new high
yielding and high quality varieties (Jwahar Ashwagandha 20 & J.A. 134). Seeds are sown at a
rate of about 12 kg per hectare after the withdrawal of monsoon. Crop is irrigated at depending
upon the availability of soil moisture. Two- weeding followed hoeing are done at 45 days
intervals. The crop is ready for harvest about seven months after of sowing. Plants are uprooted
and roots are cut, cleaned and dried. Average dry root yield of the crop is about 800-1000 kg per
hectare.

5- Safed musli (Chlorophytum borivilianum Santapu& Fern.)

Safed musli belongs to family Liliaceae. There are a number of Chlorophytum species which are
known under the trade 'safed musli' of which C. borivilianum is the commercially utilized
species. The plant is a perennial herb with condensed stem disc and a whirl of sessile leaves.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 100

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Fasciculated roots contain saponins and are medicinally important. It is used as a general tonic
and is a well known aphrodisiac. The species is naturally distributed in the forest areas of
Maharashtra, MP, Rajasthan and Gujarat. Raw drug is collected both from wild as well as from
cultivation. Unorganized collection of the species from the natural habitat has result in
endangered species status.
The plant is propagated by the stem disc with the attached fleshy roots as well as by seeds. The
crop is planted at the onset of monsoon at a spacing of 35 x 15 cm. The planting is done on
ridges or in raised beds. After the withdrawal of monsoon, regular irrigation is done at 20 days
interval depending upon the soil moisture level. Weeding and earthing up operations are done at
one month intervals. The crop is ready for harvest when the aerial portions completely dry up.
The fleshy roots are harvested, peeled and shade dried and used as raw drug. An average of 2 t/
ha of dry fleshy roots are harvested.

6- Guggal (Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari =Commiphora mukul Hook ex

Stock)
Guggal is a member of family Burseraceae. It is a perennial shrub or small size tree of about 5 m
height. It is a slow growing plant with crooked and knotty branches ending in sharp spines. The
species contains male, female and hermaphrodite plants in the population. Propagation is done
by seed as well as stem cuttings. The oleogum- resin of guggal is known to be highly effective in
the treatment of obesity, arthritis and several other diseases in Indian system of medicine. The
species is included in the Red data book (IUCN) as over exploited species in the country. Africa
and Asia are the centers of origin of Commiphora spp. In India, Guggal is distributed in dry areas
Gujarat, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. Guggal gum usually called in trade is a mixture of 61
per cent resins and 29.3 per cent gum, in addition to 6.1 percent water, 0.6 per cent volatile oil
and 3.2 per cent foreign matter. Guggulosterol and guggulosterone are the important active
ingredients of the gum resin. The plant is propagated by rooted stem cuttings as by true seeds. It
is normally not under regular cultivation and grown as hedge plants. A five year old plant is
ready for Guggal gum extraction. Lateral incisions are made on the stem at bark-depth and
allowed the resinous gum to ooze out and collected. An average of about 250- 300 gram (g) per
plant of gum is harvested at a time.

7- Tinospora (Tinospora cordifolia Miers ex Hook f. and Thorns.)

Tinospora is a member of family Menispermaceae. It is a deciduous perennial climber and is
distributed throughout tropical India. The species produces a lot of aerial roots. It is propagated
by stem cuttings as well as by seeds. The stem and leaves are medicinally used as raw drug.
Tinospora stem is a common constituent of a number of ayurvedic vital tonics for the treatment
of general debility, dyspepsia, fevers and urinary diseases. Starch is present in the stem along
with alkaloids main characteristic.
Leaf also contains a number of alkaloids. Leaf is used for the treatment of gout, jaundice and
rheumatism. Raw drug is mainly obtained from the wild habitats of the species.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 101

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

The plant is not under regular cultivation and is grown as a climber on trees in the wild. One year
old plants are ready for use as raw drug. The stem is collected from the wild and dried and used
for starch extraction. However, it can be propagated by seeds as well as by stem cuttings.

8- Shatavary (Asparagus racemosus WilId.)

It is a member of Liliacaeae family. Shatavary is a perennial spiny climber and is distributed
throughout tropical and subtropical India. Cladodes are in tufts of 2-6 and leaves are reduced to
spines. Fasciculated roots are medicinally important. It contains saponins and is used for the
treatment of dysentery, tumours, rheumatism and kidney and liver disorders. Powdered roots are
a common ingredient of a number of vital tonics, which are believed to cure sexual weaknesses,
leucorrhoea and increase lactation in feeding mothers.
Seeds are used for propagation. Planting is done in the rainy season. Seedlings are planted at a
spacing of 90 cm. Regular irrigation; weeding and hoeing at an interval of one month are done
for better crop growth. Crop is ready for harvest after about 18-24 months. Fleshy roots are
harvested, peeled and shade dried and used for the drug preparations. Yield varies from the crop
age and an average of about 10-15 t/ ha fresh root is obtained if harvested in the second year.

9-Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri( L.) Pennel)

It is a member of family Scrophularaceae. Brahmi is a creeping, branched succulent perennial
herb distributed in wet and marshy lands throughout India. It is propagated from stem cuttings.
The whole herb is the source of the ayurvedic drug 'Brahmi'. It is used in improving memory and
intelligence and also in the treatment of dermatosis, anaemia, diabetics and insanity. Bacoposide
is considered as the major active ingredient in this plant.
Raw drug is mainly collected from the wild. It can be cultivated as a perennial crop. Plant
cuttings are used for propagation and are planted at a spacing of 40 x 40 cm. Planting is done
coinciding with monsoon and 10-15 t/ ha FYM is applied at the time of land preparation. During
dry periods, irrigation is given at weekly intervals. First harvesting is done in the month of
October/ November. The herbage portion including stem and leaves are harvested and shade
dried and used for drug preparations. Annual dry herbage yield of about 100 q/ ha is obtained.

10- Mandookaparni (Centella asiatica L.)

Mandookaparni is a member of family Umbelliferae and is a prostrate slightly aromatic,
perennial herb commonly found as a weed in crop fields. The species is widely distributed in
India. It is propagated both by stolons as well as by seeds. It is used for the treatment of leprosy,
skin diseases and for improving memory. It is also used against cholera, ulcers, bronchitis,
leucorrhoea and kidney troubles. Asiaticoside, indocentelloside, thankuniside are the major
glycosides responsible for the medicinal properties.
The plant can be cultivated by using runner stocks. Humus rich soil and partial shade are suitable
for cultivation. Field is made weed free at the initial stages. Irrigation is given in biweekly
intervals. Herbage can be harvested from six month onwards. The harvested herbage is shade
dried or used afresh for raw drug purposes.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 102

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

11-Kalmegh (Andrographis paniculata Nees)

Kalmegh about 30-100 cm tall is a branched annual herb of family Acanthaceae the species is
distributed in India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Malaysia. In India, it is found in the plains of
Himachal Pradesh to Assam and Mizoram and also in Peninsular India. The whole herb is
medicinally useful. Andrographolide is the active component having the therapeutic action. The
herb is used for treating diabetics, bronchitis, pile, jaundice and fever. It is considered as a blood
purifier and used for the treatment of skin diseases.
It is cultivated as kharif season crop in Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh,
Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Seeds are sown in the nursery in May and seedlings are
transplanted at the onset of rain. Seedlings are planted at a row spacing of 30 cm and plant
spacing of 15 cm. Irrigation, weeding and hoeing are done once in a month. The crop is ready for
harvest in the month of October-November after about 120 days of growth. The plants are cut
above the ground level and shade dried and used as raw drug. Average dry herbage yield of the
crop is about 2.5 t/ha.

12- Chirayita (Swertia chirayita (Roxb.ex Flem.) Karst.)

The plant belongs to family Gentianaceae. It is an erect annual herb which is distributed in
temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Bhutan. The plant is propagated by seeds. It grows well in
moist, temperate forests of Himachal Pradesh. Dried herbage portion is used as raw drug.
Flowering occurs in July to October and the raw drug is collected when the capsules are fully
formed. The drug is extremely bitter in taste. Chirayita is also known as brown or white chirayita
to distinguish it from 'green chirayita' which is the dried herbage of Andrographis paniculata.
The bitter tonic made from the few drug improve bile secretion and used for the treatment of
bronchial asthma, liver disorders, and anaemia. The active ingredient of the raw drug includes
ophelic acid, glucosides, etc.
Cultivation has been initiated in the species. It requires cold temperate climate. Nursery raised
seedlings are used for propagation. Planting is done in the rainy season. Regular weeding and
hoeing are done in one month intervals. Irrigation is required during dry periods at one month
intervals. Six to eight month old plants are ready for harvesting. The herbage is harvested and
shade dried and used for the medicinal preparation.

13- Kauch (Mucuna pruriens Bak.)

The species is a pubescent annual climber. The fruit (pod) is covered densely with stinging hairs.
It is distributed almost throughout India and also cultivated in limited areas. The seeds are used
to treat, Parkinson disease, sexual disorders, cholera, urinary troubles and liver and gall bladder
diseases. L-dopa present in the seeds is the active ingredient responsible for therapeutic action.
Seeds are used for propagation and sowing is done at the onset of monsoon at a spacing of 60x60
cm. Land preparation is made with the addition of FYM at 10 q/ ha. Since it is a climber, support
is required and irrigation is given during the dry season at 30 days intervals. Flowering starts
after 40 days of growth and pods picking is done 3-4 times per season. An average of 35 q/ ha
seeds are harvested.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 103

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

14-Indian Gentian (Gentiana kurroo Royle)

The plant is a small perennial herb of family Gentianaceae and is a native of North- Western
Himalaya. The dried rhizome and roots are known under the trade name 'Indian Gentian' and is
used as a bitter tonic. Gentiopicrin and tannins are present in the raw drug. Rhizome is used as a
gastric stimulant and improves appetite. The raw drug is mainly collected from the wild. It is also
used for the treatment of fever, abdominal pains and for the purification of blood.

It is propagated by seeds as well as rhizomes. The species is not yet in regular cultivation.
However, efforts are made under the All India Coordinated Research Project on Medicinal Plants
for its successful cultivation in Himachal Pradesh.

15-Indian valerian (Valeriana jatamansi DC)

The species belongs to family Valerianaceae and is a perennial herb of about 45 cm height and
rootstock including rhizome is thick, nodular and aromatic. The species is distributed in the
Himalayan region. Roots of the species are useful in diseases related to eye, blood, liver and
spleen. Leaves are used for the treatment of headache. Roots are also used in aromatic industry.
Raw drug is collected mainly from the wild since cultivation is not yet popularized.

Since it is a temperate plant, it requires cold weather for proper growth. FYM is added at the rate
of 15-20 t/ha at the time land preparation. It is propagated by the root stocks or seedlings.
Planting is done either after autumn or in summer. Row spacing of 30 cm and plant spacing of 40
cm is maintained. The crop requires 2- 3 irrigations during dry periods. Weeding and hoeing are
done at monthly intervals. A two year old crop yields about 2.5 t/ ha. The harvested rhizomes
and roots are shade dried and used for medicinal and aromatic purposes.

16-Bankakri (Podophyllum hexandrm Royle= P. emodi)

The plant is an erect, succulent herb with creeping perennial rhizome bearing numerous roots
belongs to the family Berberidaceae. The species is distributed in the inner ranges of Himalayas
from Kashmir to Sikkim at an altitude of 3000- 4200 m. The rhizome and the root constitute the
raw drug source of resin, podophyllin or podophyllin resin. Podophyllotoxin is the active
ingredient of podophyllin. The raw drug is used for the treatment of ulcers, cuts and wounds. It is
a purgative and is used in curing skin diseases and tumor growth. Podophyllin has acquired
special attention during recent time due to its action against cancers. The raw drug is collected
mainly from the wild since the cultivation has not gained omentum. The underground rhizome
remains dormant during winter.
Seeds and rhizome are used for the propagation. The species grows well in temperate climate at
about 2500-4000 m. Rhizome cuttings are planted in May to July at 30 x 15 cm spacing. Seeds
are sown in rainy season. FYM is applied at the rate of about 20-25 t/ha at the time of land
preparation. The crop is irrigated during the dry period. Hoeing and weeding are done at monthly
intervals. Two to four years old crop is ready for harvest and an average yield of about 3 tonne
dried rhizome and root is obtained. However, commercial cultivation has not yet been popular.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 104

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

17- Madhunasini (Gymnema sylvestris Retz.)

The plant is a member of family Asclepiadaceae.1t is a woody climber distributed in hill regions
of Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and southern parts of India. The leaves when chewed
temporarily cease one's ability to sense sweet taste. The species have gained importance, as it is
used to cure diabeties. Leaves are used for the treatment of diabeties. Gymnemic acid present in
the leaves is believed to reduce blood glucose level. Leaves and roots are also used to treat
headache, polyuria, leprosy, wounds and prurutis. The raw drug is mainly collected from the
wild.
Cultivation can be done by rooted stem cuttings. At the time of land preparation, FYM is applied
in the pits at 5 kg/ pit. Pits are made at a distance of 1 m. Plantation raised using supports.
Weeding and hoeing are done at one month interval. Irrigation is given at 20 days interval during
the dry periods. It is a perennial crop and leaf picking can be started from one year old
plantation.

18-Atis (Aconitum heterophyllum Wall.ex Royle)

It is a perennial herb of family Ranunculaceae with fleshy roots commonly distributed in
Himalayan ranges. Roots are used for medicinal purposes. It is used in diarrhoea, dysentery and
gastric pain. It is used as a bitter tonic to combat debility after malaria and other fevers. It is also
used against hysteria, dyspepsia, vomiting and cough. Wild habitats are the sole source of the
raw drug since the plant is not in cultivation. Price of the raw drug is also very high (about Rs
2000 per kg) since the collection from the wild is also very difficult due to the inaccessibility of
the wild habitats. Alkaloids (Heterophyllisine, atidine and atisine) present in the rhizome are the
active ingredients.

The crop requires cool climate and 'organic rich soil‘ for cultivation. It can be propagated by
seeds, tubers or stem cuttings. Planting is done in the monsoon. In dry periods, irrigation is given
at one month interval. Regular weeding and hoeing are also done. The crop is ready for harvest
after about 5-6 years. An average yield of about 6 q/ ha is obtained per crop.

19- Behda (Terminalia bellerica (Gaertn.) Roxb.)

Behda is a member of family Combretaceae and is a deciduous tree that grows upto 40 m height.
The species is distributed throughout the greater part of India in plains and lower hills. In India,
it is mostly distributed in humid areas. The fruit of the species is commercially known as
myrobalan or belliric myrobalan and is medicinally important. It is anti-cancerous and used
against heart diseases, anaemia and rheumatism. Beta sitosterol, gallic acid and bellericanin are
the major active ingredients of the raw drug.
The species is propagated by seeds. The species is not under regular cultivation and the raw drug
is mainly collected from the forests. The dried fruits are used for different drug preparations.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 105

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

20- Harde (Terminalia chebula Retz.)

Harde belongs to family Combretaceae and is a about 15-24 m tall tree distributed throughout the
greater part of India. In combination with Emblic myrobalan (Emblica officianalis) and belliric
myrobalan (Terminalia bellirica), under the formulation 'Triphala' (three fruit), T.chebula is used
extensively in a number of ailments. The main purgative ingredient of thriphala is harde and the
purgative ingredient is in the pericarp of the fruit, which is a glycoside similar to sennoside A of
Senna (Cassia angustifolia). Chebulin, chebulinic acid, tannic acid and behinic acid are the
major active ingredients of the raw drug.
The species is not under regular cultivation and forests are the main sources of raw drug
collection. The collected fruits are dried and used for the preparation of various drugs.

21- Amla (Emblica officinalis Gaertn. = Phyllanthus emblica L.)

It is a member of family Euphorbiceae. The plant is a small to medium sized deciduous tree. The
species is a native of India, Sri Lanka, China and Indonesia. In India, the plant is found wild as
well as in organized cultivation. Flowers are unisexual. Flowering mostly occurs during March
to June and fruits ripen in the coming winter. The fruit commonly known as amla or emblic
myrobalan is a highly reputed drug of Indian Systems of Medicines. It is one of the richest
source of vitamin C. The fruits are used for the treatment of vomiting, biliousness, urinary
discharges, constipation, leprosy, piles and diseases related to eyes. Triphala, an ayurvedic
formulation includes amla as one of the three constituents.
Grafted or budded plants are used for cultivation. A good number of high yielding varieties are
available. Pits are made ready for planting in the month of May/ June at a distance of about 4.5x
4.5 m. About 15 kg FYM per pit is added along with one kg of super phosphate. Planting is done
in the rainy season and irrigation at 15 days interval is required in the initial years in the dry
months. The plant is manured every year with 1 kg each of urea and super phosphate and 1.5 kg
of Muriate of Potash (MOP) in two equal splits. The plant bears fruits after about 5 years. An
average yield of about 20-25 t/ ha is obtained.

22-Long pepper (Piper longum L.)

Long pepper is a member of family Piperaceae and is a slender aromatic perennial herb
distributed in Central Himalayas, Assam, Khasi hills, Bengal, Western Ghats and Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. Ripened green fruits and roots are used as the raw drug. India imports a large
quantity of raw drug from Malaysia and Singapore. The fruits are used as spice also. It has a
pepper like taste. Piperine and piplartine are the two important alkaloids responsible for the
therapeutic action. In addition, the raw drug also contains a number of essential oils.
Raw drug is collected both from the wild and cultivated areas: The crop is under cultivation in
parts of Maharashtra, Kerala, Assam and Tamil Nadu. Stem cuttings are used for the propagation
of the species. At the time of land preparation, FYM is applied at 20 t/ ha. Planting is done in pits
3x 2.5 m spacing. It is a perennial crop and each year of the crop, manuring has to be done.
Irrigation is done in the drier months and in the first year regular weeding and hoeing are
required at one month interval. From 8th months onwards fruits are ready for harvesting and in

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 106

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

the third or fourth year entire plants are uprooted and thicker stem parts and roots are also
harvested. The harvested products are sun-dried and used. An average of about 22q of dried
fruits and 500 kg of roots are obtained per crop.

23-Bala (Sida cordifolia)

Bala is an annual herb of family Malvaceae. There are four different varieties viz. bala, atibala,
nagabala and mahabala of which bala is most widely used. Sida cordifolia is considered as the
source of raw drug bala in north India while in south India Sida rhombifolia is accepted as the
source of the raw drug. All the Sida species are widely distributed as a weed in the tropical and
subtropical regions of India. Cultivation in limited scale has been initiated in the species in some
parts of India. The root of the species is used as the raw drug for the treatment rheumatism. It
imparts strength to the body and is useful in the treatment of facial paralysis, general debility,
sciatica, headache, uterine disorders, etc.
Commercial cultivation has yet to gain momentum. The plants can be grown by seeds. Seeds
usually germinate in the rainy season and usually come as natural in the uncultivated areas.

24-Vasaka (Adhatoda vasica Nees= A. zeylanica Medic.)

It is an evergreen, perennial shrub of family Acanthaceae and grows well in waste lands and also
used as a hedge plant. The species is a source of a well-known raw drug 'vasaka' which is mainly
used for the treatment of bronchitis, asthma, cold, cough and whooping cough. Fresh or dried
leaves are used mainly as the raw drug. It is used in the form of fresh juice, decoction, infusion
or powder. The leaf juice is also used to cure dysentery, diarrhoea and glandular tumour. A
number of alkaloids are present in the raw drug of which vascine and vasicinone are important. It
is not commercially cultivated, however, in south India it is grown as hedge. The plants can be
grown by stem cuttings. Leaves are collected and shade dried and sold in the local market.

25- Asoka (Saraca asoca (Roxb.) De Wilde)

It is a medium size, evergreen tree. Flowers are orange- yellow with bronze coloured tender
shoots. It is distributed throughout India particularly in humid areas. The plant is considered as
sacred tree of Hindus and Buddhists. Asoka bark is widely used in Indian medicines for the
treatment of uterine disorders. Flowers are also used for the treatment of bleeding piles and skin
diseases. The activity of the drug is due to the presence of steroidal component and calcium salt.
Bark also contains tannins. It is propagated by seeds and is also cultivated as an ornamental
plant. The increased demand of the raw drug in recent years has caused overexploitation of the
species in wild habitats. It is one of the flagship species identified by National Medicinal Plant
Board and targeted for wide scale cultivation in south India. Commercial cultivation is rare.
Seedlings are used for planting and are planted at a distance of 4x4 m spacing. 2 kg FYM per pit
is applied and planting is done at the onset of monsoon.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 107

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

26- Sarpagandha (Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth.ex. Kurz.)

Sarpagandha is a perennial under-shrub belongs to family Apocynaceae, distributed throughout
India. The species attain a height of about 75-100 cm with inflorescence arranged in cymes with
deep red flowers. Roots contain alkaloids (reserpine, desrpidine and reseinarnine) which a
sedative and used to control high blood pressure. It is also used for the treatment of insomnia,
asthma and acute stomachache. Government of India has prohibited its collection from the wild
due to ruthless collection of the species from its wild habitats. .
The crop is, under cultivation and propagated mainly by seeds. Tropical humid climate' is better
for a better crop growth. Seedlings are transplanted during the rainy season 45x30 cm at spacing.
At the time land preparation, 'l-0tJ ha FYM is applied. During dry period, irrigation is given at
20-30 days intervals. Two to three weeding are required in the first year along with two hoeings.
The crop is ready for harvesting after about 18 months. An average dry root yields 20-25 q/ha.
The harvested roots are cleaned and cut into small pieces, dried and stored.

27- Periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus (L) GDon).

Periwinkle is an erect annual or perennial herb of family Apocynaceae. The plant bears white or
pink flowers. It flowers throughout the year with profuse flowering mainly during rainy season.
It is a native of Madagascar and brought to cultivation in a number the tropical countries
including India during eighteenth century. All parts of the plant, especially roots contain
alkaloids. Leaves are used to treat menorrhagia and the plants are also used to treat diabeties in
Ayurveda. However, the alkaloids vincristine and vinblastine present mainly in the roots of the
plant is used to treat a various types of cancers including leukaemia in modem medical systems.
The plant is mainly cultivated for its alkaloids and sometimes as an ornamental plant.
The major cultivation areas are Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Assam and Karnataka. It is
propagated mainly through seeds. Seeds are sown directly or seedlings are raised in nursery and
transplanted in the field. An average spacing of about 45x15 cm is maintained. Irrigation is given
during the drier period at one month interval. The crop is harvested after about 6-8 months. An
average yield of about 65 kg root/ ha and 1200 kg/ha foliage is obtained.

28- Bhui amla (Phyllanthus amarus Schuin. & Thom.)

It is a small herb of about 60 cm height. The species is distributed throughout India and grows as
weed in the cultivated lands. The whole herb is used for the medicinal purposes. It is bitter in
taste and is used mainly for the treatment of jaundice. It is also used in dyspepsia, diarrhoea and
dysentery. The herbage portion contains the bitter phyllanthin which is responsible for the
therapeutic action.
The species is not under regular cultivation and the raw drug mainly grows as wild. However, the
plant can be propagated by direct sowing to the field. Field is prepared by adding 15-20t/ ha
FYM and seeds are sown in lines at 30 cm apart. The plant can be raised as a rainfed crop. Five
months old plants are harvested and dried and used as raw drug.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 108

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

29- Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum L.)

It is an erect highly branched aromatic perennial herb of family Lamiaceae. Two plant types are
commonly available; one is with green leaves and the other purple leaves. It is also under
cultivation throughout India. Leaves, flowers and occasionally the whole plant are medicinally
used to treat heart diseases, leucoderma, asthma, bronchitis and fever. The leaves and tender
parts of the shoots are economically important and the essential oils obtained have immense
value in aroma industry. The chemical constituents of the essential oils are monoterpenes,
sesquiterpines and phenols with their alcohols, esters, aldehydes, etc. Propagation is mainly done
both by seeds and seedlings.
Seedlings are used for cultivation. Nursery has to be raised in the first week of April and
transplanting will be at 4-5 leaf stage of the seedling at the onset of monsoon. A basal application
of 15,t/ha FYM is applied. Seedling will be transplanted at a spacing of 60 x 60 cm. A total of
12·015, irrigations are required per year.
First harvest is.done at the full bloom stage of the plant after that at two months interval. The
crop can be cut ar15-20 cm above the ground. Generally, bright sunny days are preferred for
harvesting and iris advisable not to harvest the material if there was rain on the previous day.
Freshly harvested material is distilled for oil extraction. An average fresh herbage yield of 30t/ha
and 40 kg oil per ha are obtained.

9.7.2 Aromatic Plants

1- Muskdana (Abemoschus moscatus Medic.)

The plant belongs to family Malvaceae. It is an erect perennial herb with fruits similar to lady
finger but smaller in size. It is distributed throughout peninsular India and Himalayan foot hills.
The plant is in cultivated in limited areas of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
Seeds are used commercially both in medicine as well as perfumery. Seeds are musk scented and
are used to flavour food and as a substitute of musk. It is used to treat intestinal problems,
stomatitis and heart diseases. In Unani, it is also used to treat dyspepsia, urinary discharges,
gonorrhoea, leucoderma and itching.
Seeds are used for the propagation of the crop. FYM is applied at the time of land preparation at
the rate of 20-25 tonne/ ha. Seeds are sown at a distance of 100 x 60 cm during monsoon NPK.
Fertilizer is applied at the rate of 150: 25: 25. Two-weedings followed by hoeing are done at 30
days interval. After the rainy season, irrigation is given at 20 days interval of which irrigations at
flowering and seed formation stages are crucial. Harvesting starts after about 150 days of crop
growth the matured dried fruits are harvested and seeds are threshed out of the fruits. The seeds
are shade dried and used for oil extraction. Seed yield of the crop is about 15q/ha.

2-Lemongrass (Cymhopogon jlexuosus Nees ex. Steud Wats.)

The plant belongs to family Poaceae. There are three species of lemongrass such as
Cymbopogonie., C.flexuosus, C.citratus and C. pendulus, commonly grown in India. The odour
of the oil extracted from the leaves are lemon scented and hence the name 'lemongrass'. C.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 109

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

flexuosus and C. citratus are under cultivation. The species are about 2 m long perennial grass
with profuse tillering habit. C. flexuosus (East Indian lemongrass or true lemongrass) is more
preferred by the industry due its superior oil quality. Lemongrass is distributed commonly in
tropical and subtropical Asia, Africa and America. C. flexuosusis present in wild state in Western
Ghats, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. Citral extracted from the oil is of commercially
importance. The oil is used in flavouring and medicinal industry and also for production of
Vitamin A and synthetic violets. India is one of the major suppliers of lemongrass oil in the
world market. A large number of high yielding varieties are available for cultivation.
Traditionally, it is grown in the areas receiving well-distributed high rainfall. Commercial
cultivation of the species is spread to Kerala, Assam, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat. C.
pendulus is distributed naturally in West Bengal, Sikkim, Assam and Madhya Pradesh and
cultivated in parts of Jammu. The crop can be planted after winter (February-March) or during
rainy season (June-July). The crop is propagated through seed or slips. In north-eastern hilly
regions, close planting (30 x 30 cm) is done while wide spacing (45 x 60 cm) is practiced in the
northern plains. In general, 100 kg nitrogen, 30 kg phosphorous and 40 kg potash are applied for
1 ha land. It is generally grown as rainfed crop and no irrigation is required in the areas receiving
well-distributed rainfall. However, 2-3 irrigations during hot summer months and one irrigation
after each harvest are applied to get higher yield. One or two times weeding after planting and
one more weeding within 30 days after first harvest are recommended. Under good rainfall areas,
first harvesting can be done at 3-4 months after transplanting. Thereafter, the crop can be
harvested at a regular interval of 55-60 days. A total of 2- 3 harvests in the first year and 3-4 in
subsequent years are possible. Oil in the herbage is distilled by hydro-distillation. Fresh herbage
yield of 25-40 tonnes per ha area is obtained per year. An oil yield of 80-100 kg per ha is
expected.

3- Palmarosa (Cymhopogon martini Stapf. Var. Motia)

Palmarosa or Rosha grass is a tall perennial herb of family Poaceae. It is distributed in most parts
of subtropical India. Distillation of herbs with the flowering parts yields sweet scented oil which
is rich in geraniol. The oil has high demand in perfumery, soap, cosmetics and blending tobacco
products industries. The species is under cultivation in central, western and southern states of
India.
Areas where moist and warm climate persists throughout the year are favorable for its
cultivation. The plantation cart is raised by directly broadcasting of seed in row at a seed rate of
8 to 10 kg/ha after the land is saturated with two or three monsoon showers. The nursery raised
seedlings are planted during monsoon season from late June to mid August (depending upon the
locality) at a spacing of 45 x 30 cm and 60 x 60 cm. The irrigation requirement is about 16-18
light irrigations during a period of 15-18 months where the average annual rainfall is 55-60 cm.
Two weeding –cum-hoeing operations are recommended; the first at 40 days after transplantation
and a second 30 to 40 days after first weeding. It is harvested when it is of about 4 months age
and in full bloom stage. Generally, two cuttings made during first year planting. From second

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 110

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

year onwards, three cuttings are possible. Palmarosa plantations remain productive for about 4
years. An oil yield of about 220-250 kg per hectare may be obtained from second year onwards.

4- Geranium (Pelargonium graveolens L. Herit.)

The geranium of trade is the common name given to a number of species Pelar gonium species
.of family Pelargoniaceae. The major species that is cultivated for the commercial geranium oil is
P. graveolens L'Herit. The crop is grown as rainfed crop in hilly areas and as irrigated crop in
plains. There are two types of P. graveolens i.e., Algerian or Tunisian and Bourbon or Reunion.
The former is with dark pink flowers, not suitable for wet conditions and cultivated in higher
elevations and the latter is with light pink flowers, suitable for wet conditions and cultivated in
plains. Egyptian type is another strain identified for cultivation in plains, which is rich in
geraniol and resistant to wilt compared to Bourbon. The plant is bushy in nature growing to a
height of 1 m. Stem is cylindrical, green when young and turned to brown when matured.
Flowering is more profuse in higher altitudes. Rose scented essential oil, extracted from its
leaves and tender shoots are commercially important. The crop is propagated by stem cuttings
and root suckers. Geranium oil contains 60- 70 per cent alcohols like, citronellol, geraniol; 20-30
per cent esters like, geranyl tiglata, geranyl acetate, citronellyl acetate and the rest aldehydes and
ketones, etc.

The crop is grown as rainfed in hilly areas and as irrigated in plains. Nursery developed rooted
stem cuttings are used for sowing. Generally, the crop grows well intemperate, subtropical and
tropical climates. The field is prepared by adding FYM at 15t/ ha. Planting is done on the ridges
at a spacing of 60x 60 cm. A light irrigation is given immediately after transplanting. Application
of NPK at 120: 30: 60 kg per hectare is applied. Under irrigated condition, the crop is irrigated
daily for 3-4 days immediately after transplanting, subsequently on alternate days for 10-15 days
interval and there after twice in a week. The crop is kept weed free by regular weeding for the
first 1-2 months and thereafter at about 45 days interval. After each harvest, hoeing is done
followed by irrigation. The crop becomes ready for harvest four months after transplanting. The
crop is perennial and a total of three harvests per year is obtained for about 3-4 years. The
harvested fresh herbage is distilled by steam distillation. An average fresh herbage yield of about
30 t / ha and 25-30 kg oil per year is obtained.

5- Patchouli (Pogostemon patchouli Pellet. = P.cablin Benth.)

The plant is a perennial erect or ascending herb of family Lamiaceae. Commercial cultivation in
India was first attempted by Tata Oil Mills in 1942. Oil distilled from shade dried leaves is used
in perfumery to give a solid foundation and lasting character of other fragrances since it has a
fixative property to prevent the rapid evaporation of perfumes. The oil is generally blended with
other essential oils like geranium oil or clove oil before use. The oil is also used in major food
products as a flavouring agent. Currently, India is producing only a part of its annual requirement
and about 20 tonnes of patchouli oil is importing to meet the requirements. It is propagated by

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 111

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

shoot tip cuttings. Common strains available for cultivation are Singapore, Johore, Indonesian,
Java and Malaysian strains.
Patchouli is propagated through rooted cuttings. However, tissue cultured plants are also
available for cultivation. Patchouli grows at its best in hot and humid climate with even
distribution of rainfall. This is a shade loving plant and hence partial shade will enhance the crop
growth. July-March with assured irrigation is recommended. Once planted, the plants can
provide economic yield up to three years. Since the herbage is harvested at three to four times a
year, to maintain a good crop stand the recommended dose of 150: 100: 100 kg of NPK per ha is
applied in four splits. The crop is irrigated at 3-4 days interval immediately after planting and 10-
12 days afterwards. In summer months frequent irrigation may be given depending upon the soil
water availability. The crop requires weeding at early stages of its growth. The plots should be
kept weed free during the first 2 to 3 months. During the hoeing operations, care should be taken
to avoid the damage to roots. A good crop may yield 3 to 5 tonnes per hectare per year dry
herbage and about 60-100 kg oil per hectare. The harvested shoots are shade dried and used for
oil distillation.

6. Mint (Mentha arvensis L.)

Mentha or mints includes a number of aromatic perennial herbs such as Mentha arvensis var.
piperascense (Japanese mint), M. piperita (Peppermint), M. spicata (Spearmint) and M. citrata
(bergot mint) of family Lamiaceae, common cultivated species of Mentha. Japanese mint has
high percentage of menthol and is used in cold and cough drops, mouth washes, cosmetics,
tobacco flavouring. Pepper mint oil is carminative, antiseptic and gastro-stimulant properties and
used in confectionaries, alcoholic drinks, dental creams and mouth washes. Spear mint oil is rich
in carvone and has digestive and gastro-stimulant properties; it is used in confectionary, chewing
gum and tooth pastes. Bergamot mint oil is rich in linalyl acetate and linalool and mainly used in
cosmetic industry. Mints were first introduced to India in 1952 by the Regional Research
Laboratory, Jammu. The herbage of the plants is economically useful which yields essential oils.
The chief chemical constituents of the essential oils are menthol, carvone, linalyl acetate and
linalool and are in great demand in pharmaceutical, food flavour, cosmetics, beverages and
related industries. A number of high yielding varieties are now available for cultivation.
At present, the crop is mainly cultivated in Tarai regions, Indo-Gangetic plains, Punjab and in
north western India. At the time of land preparation 25-30/t/ha FYM is added. An optimum
fertilizer requirement of 150:50:50 kg of NPK per ha is applied. Weeding and hoeing are done at
40 days intervals. During dry periods, irrigation is given at every 15 days interval. First
harvesting is done at 110 days of maturity and after that at about 90 days interval. An average of
about 30 t/ha of fresh herbage and about 150 kg/ ha oil are obtained from M. arvensis.

7. Rose (Rosa damascena Mill.)

Rose has a reputed position because of its colour, fragrance and economic benefits. It is a
perennial hardy shrub of about 2.5 to 3 m height. Half opened flowers have more fragrance and
oil yield than the fully opened flowers. In India about 1500 to 2000 hectares of land is under rose

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 112

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

cultivation which is mainly located in Uttar Pradesh. Other commercially important Roses are R.
centifolia L., and R. bourboniana Desp. (Edward Rose). Different perfumery products obtained
from rose are rose attar, Gulkhand, Gul-roghan, Punkhuri and Otto rose. Propagation of roses is
mainly done by stem cuttings.
Rooted cuttings are used for cultivation. FYM is applied at 30tJ ha at the time of land preparation
and planting is done at a spacing of l x l m. About 10-12 irrigation are required per year. A
fertilizer requirement of 200:50:25 kg of NPK per ha is applied. Pruning is important for good
yield and first pruning is done at a height of 50 cm from the ground level after two years of crop
growth in the month of December. After each pruning, irrigation, weeding and hoeing are
essential. In the month of January and February, at least three weeding and hoeing are done. The
main flowering season is March to April. Flowers which started opening are harvested before
sun rise by hand picking. The harvested flowers should be distilled immediately. An average of
about 30 q/ha flower is obtained ill an year after third year of plantation:

8. Jasmine (Jasminum sambac L.)

It is a more or less scandent shrub with highly fragrant flowers. It is commonly known as French
Jasmine. The species is originated in Indo-Burman region in the foothills of Hirnalayas. Other
important species of the genus are J. grandiflorum, J. auriculatum and J. odorotissimum. The
essential oils obtained from the flowers are used in perfumery and are export oriented also. Plant
starts blooming in the first year of planting and full yield will be in the third year and the crop
sustains up to 15 years. Good varieties for higher production are available in south India.
In India, organized cultivation of the species was started in Tamil Nadu. Plant is propagated by
stern cuttings. Once planted, a well maintained crop continues for about 15 years. Planting is
done at a distance of 2 x 1.8 m. Fertilizer application of 100: 150: 100 g, NPK per plant is
optimum for a good yield. Weeding is done every month and pruning is done in December at 90
cm from the base level. After each pruning, irrigation, weeding and hoeing are done. The fully
mature floral buds are harvested between 3.00 AM and 8.00 AM and allow for opening and
immediately used for oil extraction. An average flower yield of 5q/ ha in the first year, 5t1 ha in
the second year and 10 t/ha from third year onwards is obtained. Yield of Jasmine concrete is 25-
30 kg/ha depending upon the variety.

9. Vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash.)

It is a tall perennial grass of about 1.5 to 2.0 m height. In India, it is widely seen in wet and damp
places; however, it tolerates extreme conditions. The species is used against soil erosion because
of its roots' soil binding property. The aromatic roots are traditionally used for making mats,
fans, door-screens which produce fragrance imparting a cooling effect during extreme summer
when sprinkled with water. The roots on distillation produce volatile oils, which are used in
perfumery, cosmetics and toiletries and also as a fixative for blending of other delicate
fragrances. It is also medicinal and used against flatulence and colic pains. Sugandha and
Nilambore are the two high yielding varieties available for cultivation.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 113

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Commercial cultivation is mainly confined to the southern states of India. The crop is raised by
root slips. FYM is applied at the time of land preparation at 15t/ha. Planting is done in the rainy
season at a spacing of 60 x 25 cm. First weeding cum hoeing is done after 30 days of planting.
Two more intercultural operations are done during the initial stages of crop growth. A maximum
of eight irrigations are given for the total crop growth period of 15-18 months. A light irrigation
is given for the easier uprooting of the plants. The aerial portions are cut off from the ground
level and the root stocks are dug up, cleaned, roots are separated our, shade dried and used for oil
distillation. An average of 2-3 t/ha of root yield is obtained.

4.8 PROCESSING

4.8.1 Medicinal Plants

Appropriate measures of primary processing are dependent on types of material. These processes
should be carried out in conformity with national or regional quality standard norms.

Drying
Medicinal plants can be dried in a number of ways such as in the open air under shade, wire
screened rooms, by direct sunlight, drying ovens or rooms, solar drier, indirect fire, microwave,
infrared device, etc. depending upon material and requirement.

Specific processing
Some medicinal plants require specific processing such as peeling of roots or rhizomes, boiling
in water, steaming, soaking, pickling, distillation, fumigation, roasting, natural fermentation,
treatment with lime and chopping.

4.8.2 Aromatic Plants

Hydro-distillation
There are three basic types of essential oil hydro-distillation. The first is the simple and ancient
method of water distillation which is least economical. Second is the water and steam distillation
which utilizes both water and steam. Plant material is placed within the steel chamber in a grill
that separated them from water below. The steam produced by heating the water only comes in
contact with the material. This is the best type for leafy herbal material.

Third type is the steam distillation which is the most cost effective hydro-distillation and has the
highest rate and production capacity. Plant material is placed in a chamber. Steam is generated in
a boiler and pumped into the chamber having plant material. The steam separates the volatile oils
from the plant cells when the boiling point is reached.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 114

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

In all these processes, condensation of the extracted volatiles oil in gaseous form is passed
through a condenser which is cooled by running cool water.

Solvent extraction
This method is used where total extractions are need e.g. oleoresins extraction of ginger,
cardamom, pepper etc. and concentrates and absolutes of jasmine, rose, etc. After extractions the
solvents are totally removed.

4.9 SUMMARY

Medicinal and aromatic plants are very important natural resources. They not only provide cure
of several diseases of human being and also provide livelihood to a large number of forest
dwellers. Medicinal and Aromatic plants are of different types such as trees, shrubs, herbs,
creepers, etc. A large number of MAP species are harvested from forests and therefore, their
conservation by in situ and ex situ methods is an important concern. Good Agricultural Practices
(GAP) need to be followed to ensure medicines and ISM drugs prepared from MAPs free of
pesticides and heavy metals.

4.10 GLOSSARY

Aromatic Plants: Refer to a special class of plants used for their aroma and flavour.
Ex-situ Conservation: Refers to conservation of plants away from their natural habitats.
Good Agricultural: Guarantee quality of raw drug and to facilitate
Practices (GAP) for MAP: the standardization of quality of ISM drugs for acceptance to
science led world.
ISM: Indian Systems of Medicines.
In-situ Conservation: Refers to conservation of plants within their natural habitats.
Medicinal Plants: Refer to those plants that are used in official and various traditional systems
of medicines throughout the world.
MAPs: Medicinal and Aromatic Plants.
WHO: World Health Organization.

4.11 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION

4.11.1 Multiple choice Questions

1- Botanical name of mint is-
(a) Mentha arvensis (b) Abemoschus moscatus
(c) Pelargonium graveolens (d) Vetiveria zizanioides

2- Cymhopogon martini belongs to family-

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 115

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

(a) Lamiaceae (b) Poaceae

(c) Orchidaceae (d) Malvaceae

3- Common name of ‘Chlorophytum borivilianum’-

(a) Ashwagandha (b) Jasmine
(c) Tulsi (d) Safed musli

4- ‗Madhunasini‘ is used in the treatment of –

(a) Diabetes (b) Vomiting
(c) Leprosy (d) Cough

5-Asoka is a –
(a) Herb (b) Shrub
(c) Tree (d) Climber

Answer Key:
4.11.1: 1-(a), 2-(b), 3-(d), 4-(a), 5-(c)

4.12 REFERENCS

 Chopra, RN., Nayar, S.L. and Chopra, 1.c., (1996) Glossary of Indian Medicinal
 Plants. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi.
 Chadha K.L. and Gupta, R (1969) (ed.) The Wealth of India, Council of Scientific
 and Industrial Research, New Delhi.
 Chadha, K.L. (ed.) (2006) Advances in Horticulture, Vol l l (Eds.), Malhotra
 Publishing House, New Delhi. 935p.
 Kirtikar, K.R and Basu, B.D. (2006) Indian Medicinal Plants, 49, lenght volume
 Leader Road Allahabad, India.
 Parotta J.A. Healing plants of Peninsular India, (2001) CABI Publication, of 44 p.
 Sivarajan, v.v. and Balachandran, Indira (1994) Ayurvedic Drugs and their Plant
 Sources. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt., New Delhi, 570p.
 Websites
 http://www.nmpb.nic.in1
 http://www.indianmedicine.nic.inlhtmllplantslplants.htrn
 http://www.frlht.org.inImeta/
 http://www.cabi.org/ AbstractDatabases.asp ?SubjectArea=&PID=51
 http://www.nrc-map.org:8080IWEBPAGES_CODEIDHMAPlHome.jsp

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 116

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

4.13 SUGGESTED READING

 Chopra, RN., Nayar, S.L. and Chopra, 1.c., (1996) Glossary of Indian Medicinal
 Plants. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi.
 Chadha K.L. and Gupta, R (1969) (ed.) The Wealth of India, Council of Scientific
 and Industrial Research, New Delhi.
 Chadha, K.L. (ed.) (2006) Advances in Horticulture, Vol l l (Eds.), Malhotra
 Publishing House, New Delhi. 935p.
 Kirtikar, K.R and Basu, B.D. (2006) Indian Medicinal Plants, 49, lenght volume
 Leader Road Allahabad, India.
 Parotta J.A. Healing plants of Peninsular India, (2001) CABI Publication, of 44 p.
 Sivarajan, v.v. and Balachandran, Indira (1994) Ayurvedic Drugs and their Plant
 Sources. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt., New Delhi, 570p.
 Websites
 http://www.nmpb.nic.in1
 http://www.indianmedicine.nic.inlhtmllplantslplants.htrn
 http://www.frlht.org.inImeta/
 http://www.cabi.org/ AbstractDatabases.asp ?SubjectArea=&PID=51
 http://www.nrc-map.org:8080IWEBPAGES_CODEIDHMAPlHome.jsp

4.14 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

4.14.1 Short answer type of Questions:

1- Define medicinal plants.
2- Define aromatic plants.
3- Why is conservation of MAPs important?

4.14.2 Long answer type of Questions:

1- What are the habit wise different types of medicinal and aromatic plants?
2- Give few examples of tree medicinal plants.
3- Why is conservation of the MAPs important? What are different methods used Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants for the processing of medicinal and aromatic plants?
4- Discuss any 3 medicinal plants given in your syllabus.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 117

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

UNIT-5 FODDER AND FIBRE CROPS

Contents

5.1 Objectives
5.2 Introduction
5.3 General Account
5.4 Important Fibre crops
5.4.1 Cotton
5.4.2 Coconut
5.4.3 Sunhemp
5.4.4 Jute
5.4.5 Kenaf
5.4.6 Hemp
5.4.7 Flax
5.5 Fodder Crops
5.5.1 Oat
5.5.2 Sorgum
5.5.3 Pearl millet
5.5.4 Maize
5.5.5 Berseem
5.5.6 Lucerne
5.5.7 Cow-pea
5.6 Summary
5.7 Self Assessment Questions
5.8 References
5.9 Terminal Questions

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 118

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

5.1 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 enumerate the region of origin of fibre crops;
 discuss about the different type of fibres;
 describe the important fibre crops of the world;
 describe the morphology, cultivation, varieties and uses of major fibre crops.
 Discuss about fodder crops

5.2 INTRODUCTION
Earlier units in this course have provided information about uses of various crop plants. Crop
plants have been cultivated since ancient times for various uses such as food, wood and
medicines. Plants have been cultivated in different parts of the world for getting cereals, pulses,
spices, fibres, oils, beverages and timber. This present unit will provide you information about
the important Fodder and fibre yielding crops grown in different parts of the world.

5.3 GENERAL ACCOUNT

The use of fibre obtained from plants for clothing has been recorded since prehistoric times.
Early humans obtained fibre from plants which later on was spun and weaved to get threads by
interlocking strands. Fibre consists of long narrow cells having thick walls but narrow lumen.
The cells are non-living but impart strength and rigidity to the plant body. They occur singly or
in groups/bundles closely cemented to each other. Many plant species are rich source of
vegetable fibre. Vegetable fibres are mainly composed of cellulose which forms its main
structural component. This macromolecule is made up of many glucose units. Plant fibres have
been classified into different types depending upon the morphological nature and structure. They
are mainly classified into three types- 1) soft stem or bast fibres, 2) hard leaf or structural fibres
and 3) surface fibres.
Bast fibres - These fibres are found associated with the phloem, pericycle and cortex. They are
found mostly in dicotyledonous plants. They are durable and capable of resisting bleaching.
Commercial bast fibres are produced by plants mainly- flax, jute, hemp, kenaf.
Structural fibres - They include strands of small, short lignified cells ensheathing xylem and
phloem. They are mainly found in leaves of monocotyledonous plants. They are highly lignified
and coarser.
Surface fibres - This type of fibres are produced on the surface of stems, leaves, fruits and
seeds. The fibres arise as epidermal outgrowths of the seeds or inner wall of fruits. Cotton is the
main plant in this category. According to their use the fibres are classified as textile fibres, brush
fibres, filling fibres, natural fibres and paper making fibres. The fibres that are used in the

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 119

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

manufacture of fabrics are called textile fibres. For manufacture of fabrics, the fibres are twisted
together into threads or yarn and woven. Cotton, along with some quantities of flax, ramie and
hemp are used for this purpose. Some fibres are used in the manufacture of brushes. These
include sisal and istle (hard fibres), broomcorn (inflorescence of Sorghum vulgare) and strong
and stiff fibres of piassava (fibres from palm leaves and stem). Flat strands or strips are woven
into hats, baskets and roof of houses. Some fibres are used for filling of cushions and mattresses.
These include cotton, jute, hard fibres and several grasses. Various wood fibres, grasses and
sedges are used for making paper.
Fodders crops are cultivated plant species that are utilised as livestock feed. Fodder refers
mostly the crops which are harvested and used for stall feeding. Fodder crops are the plant
species that are cultivated and harvested for feeding the animals in the form of forage (cut green
and fed fresh), silage (preserved under anaerobic condition) and hay (dehydrated green fodder).

5.4 IMPORTANT FIBRE CROPS

The major fibre yielding species include cotton, coconut, jute, hemp, flax, kenaf etc.

5.4.1 Gossypium
Family: Malvaceae
Vernacular name: cotton
n = 13, 26

The cotton has been cultivated in South East Asia and Central America since ancient times. India
has been the most primitive center of cotton from where it was introduced to China and Egypt
around 600 B.C. In the nineteenth century its cultivation spread in tropical, subtropical and warm
temperate parts of the world. Its cultivation has been noted throughout India, Myanmar,
Malaysia, China, Korea and Japan. India and Africa are the largest producers of cotton mainly of
C. arboreum. The four cultivated cotton species with large number of varieties and hybrid forms
are classified into two types i.e. i) American or the new world cotton represented by G. hirsutum
and G. barbadense, ii) the Asiatic or the old world cotton consisting of G. arboreum and G.
herbaceum.

G. arboreum (Ceylon cotton)

The plants are annual or perennial shrubs with the height up to three meters. The leaves are five
to seven lobed (Fig.7.3). The fruits or bolls are tapering structures profusely pitted having
prominent glands in the pits. The fruits open widely when ripe. They contain up to 17 seeds per
loculus. The seeds are covered with grayish green or rust colored short hairs called fuzz.

G. herbaceum (Levant cotton)

n=13

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 120

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

The species is native to tropical Africa, Middle East and grown in China, Indonesia, India,
Pakistan, Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Greece. The plants are shrubby, reaching a height of 1 m. The
leaves are three to five lobed. The incisions in the leaf extend to half the length of the lamina.
The bracteoles are widely flaring and boll is three celled, rounded, beaked and smooth surfaced
(Fig. 7.2). The fruit opens at maturity with three to four loculi each having up to 11 seeds. The
seeds bear two coats of hairs, long lint hairs and short fuzz hairs.

G. barbedense
n=26
The plant is native of South America. It is known for its lint length and fineness of the lint. It has
two varieties – Sea Island cotton and Egyptian cotton. Sea Island cotton is one of the finest
varieties of cotton and largely grown in West Indies, Fiji and islands of the coast of Florida,
Georgia and Southern Carolina. The fine spun yarn is used in the manufacture of laces, cambric
and fine hosiery. Egyptian cotton is grown under irrigated conditions of Nile river valley of
Egypt and Sudan. The fibre is durable and hence used in the manufacture of goods that require
huge strength such as automobile tyre fabric and high quality hosiery. The plants are tall, annual
shrubs reaching a height up to three meters. The plant bears few ascending vegetative branches.
The leaves are three to five lobed. The corolla is bright yellow in color with red to purple spots
near the base. The bolls are usually large, dark green and prominently pitted with oil glands. The
bracteoles are large divided at the apex with 10-15 long acuminate teeth. The fruit is three to four
valved each having five to eight seeds having fuzzy ends. In Sea Island cotton, the fibres are
white, light/cream coloured, soft and lustrous.

G. hirsutum (upland cotton)

n=26
The cotton is native to Mexico and Central America. It is grown in most parts of the world. It
constitutes 95 per cent of the world production. Besides United States it grows in Brazil, Uganda,
Africa, Iraq, China, Turkey, Greece, India and Pakistan. Most of the world‘s cotton comes from
USA, China, India, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Turkey, Brazil, Turkmenistan, Greece and Australia.
India ranks third in the production of cotton. The major cotton producing states in India are
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Punjab, Haryana and Madhya Pradesh. On
the basis of length of staple its two varieties are recognized which include American upland short
staple cotton with the length of about 16 to 27mm and American upland long staple cotton with
the length of 28 to 38 mm.

Morphology
The plants are generally shrubs or trees with vegetative branches. The main stem of the plant is
monopodial in growth and possesses spirally arranged leaves. The leaves bear two kinds of buds-
axillary and extra axillary. The plant shows dimorphic branching. The vegetative branches are
monopodial while the fruiting branches are sympodial. The vegetative branches develop from the
axillary buds of the nodes of lower stem while the fruiting branches arise from the extra axillary

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 121

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

buds of the upper nodes. Vegetative branches are morphologically similar to the main stem and
do not bear flowers. The secondary (fruiting) branches bear a flower at the tip. From the axil of
the subtending leaf, a branch develops that terminates into a fruiting point. The flowers are borne
opposite to the leaf on the fruiting branch. The leaves are large, palmately lobed (three to five
lobed) cordate, hairy. The flowers are large, showy, white or pale yellow and usually without
purplish spot at the base. The flowers are surrounded by involucres of bracts that are generally
persistent. The flowers turn pink or red on second day of blooming. The bolls are large, rounded,
green and smooth leathery capsules. The fruit consist of three to five locules or chambers (Fig.
7.4). The seeds are covered all over with a long hairs or lint or short hairs or white fuzzy coating.
The capsule cracks at maturity along the sutures and contents expand into a white fluffy mass
which is pushed outside the carpel. The cotton fibres represent epidermal elongations of the seed
coat cells. The fibres attain maturity and full length during the first twenty five days of boll
development. A mature fibre looks like a translucent, flattened twisted more or less tubular
structure with broad base and an untwisted tapering apical end. A raw cotton fibre consists of
94percent cellulose, protein 1.3 per cent, pectic substances 0.9 per cent. The fibres are classified
as long staple and short staple fibres. The long staple fibres are of American or Egyptian origin
and have length of 1 to 2.5 inches, good texture and lusture. Short staple fibres are of Indian
origin and have length of about 0.3-0.7 inches and are coarse and lustureless. Cotton bolls are
handpicked. The fibre is taken out and it is spun into yarn and woven into cloth. The fibre passes
through various processes such as ginning, baling, carding, picking and combing. Because of its
superior quality, cotton is widely used in textile industry.

Cultivation
Cotton is a tropical crop. The crop requires abundance of sunshine and a warm temperature of
21-43° C. The cultivation requires adequate soil moisture i.e. about 100 cm of rainfall during
early stages of growth and a dry season during flowering and fruiting. Harvesting is done six
months after sowing.

Uses
The fibre possesses high tensile strength and remarkable resistance. The fibre is used to make
innumerable clothing and furnishing items. The absorbent cotton (prepared by removing waxy or
oily coating) is used in bandage making and medical purposes.

5.4.2 Cocos nucifera

Vernacular name: Coconut
Family: Arecaceae
n = 16
Commercial coir is obtained from the fibrous husk of the fruits of coconut palm. The fibre is
light with high elasticity and high resistance. India is the largest producer of coir and its
products. About 40 per cent of the nuts produced are used for production of fibre. The fibre is

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 122

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

used in the manufacture of mats, rugs, carpets and bags. The fruits are harvested when still green
to obtain coir. The fruit is dehusked. The husk is then subjected to retting to remove tough
interstitial mass. After retting the husks are taken out of water and thoroughly and repeatedly
washed to remove dust. Fibre obtained from coconut has resilience, durability and resistance to
water and used in the manufacture of cordage, cables, coir fibres are used in the manufacture of
mats, cushion seating, packing material and boards. Distribution, morphology, cultivation and
uses of coconut have already been discussed in Unit 6 Oils and fats.

5.4.3 Crotolaria juncea

Vernacular name: sunhemp
Family: Fabaceae
n=8
It is a species of Asian origin and grown since prehistoric times. It is used as a source of bast
fibre in India. It has spread to other countries and grown for fodder or green manure. It is grown
as a commercial fibre crop in India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. In India, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh,
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra and West Bengal are the major sun hemp producing states.

Morphology
The plant is a tall, erect annual about 1-3 m tall with strong tap root system penetrating the soil.
The roots produce nodules which are branched and lobed (Fig. 7.5). All vegetative parts of the
plant are covered with hairs. The leaves are small, lanceolate and subsessile. Flowers are small,
yellow and borne in axillary racemes. The fruit is a long pod with pointed beak and contain
kidney shaped seeds. Out of the three varieties, green, white and Dewghuddy, white variety
produces nearly 60 per cent of the fibre.

Cultivation
The crop is well adapted to tropical and subtropical climate with light loamy well drained soils.
Sunhemp is widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical areas of the world. It is grown at a large
scale in India, Bangladesh and Brazil. The plant grows well at temperature of 18-27° C and areas
that receive rainfall below 200 mm.

Uses
The bast fibre produced by the plant consists of ribbon shaped strands which are light in grey to
yellow in color. The fibres possess great tensile strength and durability. The fibre strands are
lustrous and resistant to moisture. The fibre is used in the manufacture of ropes, twines, cords,
canvas, matting and soles for shoes.

5.4.4 Corchorus spp.

Vernacular name: Jute
Family: Tiliaceae
n=7

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 123

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

It is one of the most important sources of bast fibres. It is widely cultivated along with cotton
among all the natural fibres. The fibre is obtained from stem. The two most cultivated species are
C. capsularis and C. olitorius. It is believed that the plant derived its name from ‗Korkorus‖
which was used by Greeks. In India this fibre has been used as a sack-cloth since ancient times.
In earlier times India produced about 99 per cent of the total jute but today about 80 per cent of
the total production comes from India and Bangladesh. It has been also cultivated in China,
Thailand, Russian Federation, Vietnam and Myanmar. In India, it is mainly produced in the
states of West Bengal, Bihar, Assam and Andhra Pradesh.

Morphology
The plants are woody branched annuals which can grow up to 3.5 m in height having simple
ovate, serrate margined leaves. Flowers are solitary, or arranged in cymes. C. capsularis is tall
branched annual with ovate glabrous leaves containing a glycoside ‗corchorin‘. Flowers are
yellow, small and produce globular, wrinkled capsules flattened at the top. The plants of C.
olitorius are also tall bearing shining upper and a rough undersurface. The flowers are yellow,
large and produce long, cylindrical ridged capsule with elongated beak.

Cultivation
C. capsularis is grown as a rainy season crop which grows well on warm, humid, rich loamy soil
with annual rainfall ranging from 150-250 cm, temperature of 17-38° C and humidity around 70-
90 per cent. The plants are harvested at the stage when 50 per cent of fruiting is there because
both yield and quality of fibre is good. The fibres are separated by retting. The process usually
takes 10-30 days and time of the process depends upon the maturity of the crop, water,
temperature and depth of immersion. Generally the bundles of fibres are stacked upright in about
0.6 m of water for two to three days. The retting removes the bark.

Uses
The fibres are yellow in colour and possess silk like lustre. They are stiff, brittle and possess low
stretch ability and durability. The fibres contain about 63 per cent cellulose. The major use of
jute is in the manufacture of sacks, bags, rugs, ropes, blankets, carpets, curtains, upholstery etc.

5.4.5 Hibiscus cannabinus

Vernacular name: Kenaf, Java, jute
Family: Malvaceae
n = 18
The plant is used for fibre which is a substitute of jute. Kenaf is also known as Deccan hemp or
Java Jute. The plant is grown in many countries of tropics and subtropics such as India, Thailand,
Brazil, China, Cuba and Mexico. The fibre is extracted from the lower portion of the stem.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 124

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Morphology
The plant possesses a long, slender, unbranched stem about 2-3 m in height. The leaves are
usually cordate or palmately divided. The flowers are large, showy and arise in the axil of leaves
(Fig. 7.7). The fruit is globose capsule with a pointed tip. The fruit produces brown seeds at
maturity. The major variety is H. sabdariffa. The fibre strands are long (1-3 m), coarser, tougher
and stronger.

Cultivation
The plant is cultivated mainly in tropics and subtropics at temperature above 20° C. The plant
prefers well-drained humus rich fertile soil. The plant requires rainfall of about 57 to 400 cm and
annual temperature of 11 to 28° C for its growth.

5.4.6 Cannabis sativa (Hemp)

Vernacular name: hemp
Family: Cannabinaceae
n = 10
It is one of the oldest fibres known to mankind. It originated in central and western Asia. Later
on it spread to China and Europe. The major hemp producing countries are Romania, Hungary,
Poland, Yugoslavia, India, China, Japan, Chile, Peru, Iran and Turkey.

Morphology
The plant is a hollow stemmed annual bearing dark green palmately compound leaves. The
plants are dioecious. The female plants are shorter, robust while the male plants are taller and
slender. Male flowers are borne in axillary and terminal panicles. Female flowers are sessile and
arranged dense in a spike. The fruits are smooth, shining achene enclosed by a calyx and large
bract. The fibre is obtained mainly from the male plants. The harvesting is done at the time of
pollination. The premature harvesting can result in lower yield and weak, soft fibre. The delayed
harvesting results in harsh and brittle fibre. The plant is chopped 2 to 3 cm above ground with
the help of knife and the cut stems are spread on ground for drying followed by retting. The fibre
strands are yellowish, grey or green and possess strength and durability.

Cultivation
The plant is grown in nearly all temperate regions of the world with temperatures ranging from
170 to 270 C and rainfall of about 75 cm per annum.

Uses
The fibre is used in the preparation of canvas, cables, webbing, twine, rope and artificial
sponges. Hemp is used in the manufacture of carpet, warp, canvas, webbing sacking, rape,
cables. Hemp oil is used in making paint, varnish, soaps.

5.4.7 Linum usitatissimum (Flax)

Vernacular name: flax or linseed

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 125

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Family: Linaceae
n = 15

The plant has been cultivated since prehistoric times. The presence of flax has been noted since
old European and Egyptian civilizations. Nowadays it is cultivated in temperate parts of Europe.
The leading producers are France, Russian Federation, Ukraine, Czech Republic and Egypt.

Morphology
The plant is an annual herb with slender stem bearing alternately placed small ovate, or
lanceolate leaves. The flowers are white or blue present in loose, terminal leafy racemes or open
cymes. The fruit an indehiscent globular capsule enclosed in a persistent calyx. Flax fibre is
essentially a crop of temperate climate. The fibres occur in discrete groups or aggregates of many
of cells in the pericycle (bast or stem fibres). The number of fibrous bundles is about 30 with
each bundle consisting of ten to forty individual fibres. The fibres after extraction are dried in
sun and subjected to the process of rippling, steeping, retting and hackling. The fibres obtained
from leaves and stem are subjected to rippling while the fibres obtained from small branches are
subjected to retting by immersing them in water tank for several days.

Cultivation
The plant grown well in sandy, loam soil and cool temperate climate.

Uses
The fibres are fine, durable and flexible. The fibres are used in the preparation of cambrics,
damasks, sheetings, laces for apparels and household furnishings. The coarser grades are used in
the manufacture of canvas, ducks, toweling, twine, bagging and industrial sewing threads.

5.5 FODDER CROPS

Fodder crops are the plant species that are cultivated and harvested for feeding the animals in the
form of forage (cut green and fed fresh), silage (preserved under anaerobic condition) and hay
(dehydrated green fodder). Forage or fodder crops provide the bedrock to sustainable
agriculture. Defined as the edible parts of plants, other than separated grain, that provide
feed for grazing animals or that can be harvested for feeding forages play an important role
in beef cattle industry while also enhancing crop diversity, wildlife habitat, and soil
ecosystem services.

Forage crops can be an important tool for producers, provided the right crop is selected
careful management is required to ensure that the crop is fully utilized in its most
productive and nutritious phases of growth. Pests and diseases must also be managed to
minimize their impact on productivity. A well-considered grazing strategy is important in

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 126

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

maximizing the productive potential of a fodder crop. Forage crops can either be grown
exclusively for hay or silage production or grazed before being set aside for fodder
conservation. The timing of both grazing events and the cutting for hay or silage are critical
to ensuring that the quality and quantity of conserved fodder are optimized.

Most of the dairy animals in India are reared on crop residues. Availability of cultivated fodder,
dry fodder and concentrates is deficient by 36%, 40% and 44% respectively. It is therefore
necessary to increase area of cultivation under fodder crops. In rain fed crops Maize, Sorghum,
Millet, Anjan, Cow-Pea, Pawna, Marvel. In The Rabi Season Oat, Burseem, Lucern, Maize and
again in summer, depending on type of soil Sorghum, Cow-Pea, Maize can be taken. Some are
discussed below-

5.5.1-Oat (Avena sativa)

Oat is one of the most important cereal fodder crops of rabi season in North, Central and West
Zone of the country. It provides soft and palatable fodder rich in crude protein (10-12%). The
chemical composition of green fodder varies with the stage of harvest. Oat is also used as straw,
hay or silage. Its grain makes a good feed particularly for horses, sheep and poultry.
Climatic requirement: Oats are well adapted to cooler environment. Its optimum growth is
attained in sites with 15-25° C temperature in winter with moist conditions. Although, it can
tolerate frost up to some extent but its fodder yield and quality is reduced due to hot and dry
conditions.
Soil: Oat grows the best in loam to clay loam soil with adequate drainage. They produce
satisfactory yields on heavy or light soils with proper moisture. It can be grown under moderate
acidic or saline conditions also.
Seed rate and sowing: A seed rate of 60-70 kg/ha is recommended for uniform stand in oats.
Low tillering varieties should be sown with 20-25 cm row spacing while higher tillering type
should be sown 30 cm apart. Sowing of seed should preferably be done in line with seed drill or
pore/kera behind the plough. Sowing time varies from one location to other. Normally, oat
sowing should be started in early October to end of November in North-West to East Zone of the
country. For regular supply of fodder from December to March, scattered sowing is also
advocated.
Manures and fertilizers: The requirement of oats for manures and fertilizers is less as compared
to other rabi cereals. It depends upon number of cuts taken. In general, addition of 20-25 tonnes
of farmyard manure (FYM) before 10-15 days of sowing with the application of 80 kg N, 40 kg
P2O5/ha to single cut and a dose of 120 kg N, 40 kg K2O/ha to multicut varieties attains good
crop growth. In double and multicut varieties, top-dressing of 40 kg N/ha after first cut and two
equal split doses of 40 kg N/ha after first and second cut should be done respectively.
Irrigation: Oats require 4-5 irrigations including the pre-sowing irrigation. If soil is dry, first
irrigation is given before preparing the seedbed. Subsequent irrigations are given at intervals of

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 127

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

about one month mostly after each cut. Timely irrigation improves the tillering remarkably,
which contributes to higher forage yield.
Weed control: Oat is infested with winter season grassy and broad-leaved weeds mostly found
as in wheat. Effective control of weeds in oats can be obtained with weeder cum mulcher at 4
week crop stage followed by application of 2, 4-D @ 0.37 kg a.i./ha at 6 weeks crop stage.
Harvesting: Proper stage of harvesting determines the herbage yield and quality of Oat. The
harvesting of single cut oat varieties is done at 50% flowering (about 50-55 days of sowing). In
double cut varieties, first cut should be taken at 60 days followed by second cut at 50%
flowering stage. However, in multicut varieties, first cut is recommended at 60 days, second cut
at 105 days and third cut at 50% flowering. For seed production, the crop should be left for seed
after the first cutting, which should be taken 50-55 days after sowing. For good re-growth, first
cut should be taken 8-10 cm above the soil surface.
Yield: The average green fodder yield from single, double and multi-cut varieties of oat ranges
from 30-45, 40-55 and 45-60 tonnes/ha respectively. If crop is left for seed, 25 tonnes/ha green
fodder from first cut and 2.0-2.5 tonnes/ha seed and 2.5-3.0 tonnes/ha straw is obtained.

5.5.2-Sorgum (Sorghum bicolor)

Sorghum as a green foliage is very popular in most parts of north India and nearly 2.5 million ha
area is planted during kharif. In summer, under irrigated conditions, multicut sorghum is very
popular. Forage sorghum is characterized by quick growth, high biomass accumulation, and dry
matter content and wide adaptability beside drought withstanding ability. It is also suitable for
silage and hay making.
Varieties: There are improved varieties and hybrids capable of yielding on an average 50
tonnes/ha in single cut varieties and up to 70 tonnes/ha in multi cut varieties. The dual-purpose
varieties and hybrids, CSV 15 and CSH 13 are suitable for both forage and grain production. A
promising dual-purpose kharif variety SPV 1616 was released as CSV 20 for the states of
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and parts of Gujarat. It
has distinct superiority in fodder yield. An early high-yielding hybrid SPH 1290 has been
released as CSH 23 for kharif season for the Zones 2 and 3 during 2005. This hybrid matures
early (103 days) and is superior to the early checks, CSH 14 and CSH 17 for grain and fodder
yields. It is also relatively less susceptible to shoot fly, stem-borer and grain mold compared to
the checks. A forage sorghum hybrid CSH 20 MF was released in 2005 by GBPUA&T,
Pantnagar, for tan, dark green heavy foliage with green midrib. This has medium thick juicy
stem and resistant to foliar diseases.
Field preparation and sowing: Normally 2-3 harrowing are required before taking up planting
as rainfed crop and sown with the onset of monsoon. Seed rate of 12-15 kg/ha for singlecut and
20-25 kg/ha for multicut sorghum is required. Optimum spacing is 45 cm between rows for
multicut sorghum and 30 cm for single cut sorghum. As regards fertilizer application 100 kg N
and 60 kg P2O5/ha for multicut sorghum and 80 kg N and 40 kg P2O5 /ha for single cut sorghum
is recommended. In forage sorghum, the mixed cropping is also practiced with fodder legumes,
viz. cowpea and cluster-bean, in 2:1 ratio to improve fodder yield and quality.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 128

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Harvesting: Since HCN is present in sorghum especially in early stages up to 40-50 days, proper
care has to be exercised during harvesting for avoiding HCN poisoning. Single cut varieties are
harvested at 50% flowering to full bloom stage and in multicut varieties the first harvest is taken
at 55 days after sowing and subsequent cuts at 40 days interval.

5.5.3-Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum)

Pearl millet is the fourth most important grain crop next to rice, wheat and sorghum. The crop is
cultivated for grain as well as fodder in the semi arid tropical regions of Africa and Asia
including India. In India, annual planting area is around 10 million ha producing nearly 7.5
million tonnes of grains. It is grown mainly in Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh,
Haryana, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
Pearl millet traditionally is an indispensable component of dry farming system. With the advent
of pearl millet hybrids in mid sixties, its cultivation doubled. The crop is mainly confined to low
fertile water deficit soils. Because of its remarkable ability to withstand and grow in harsh
environment, reasonable and assured harvests are obtained. The crop responds to nitrogen,
cultural management, and water harvesting.
Soil and climate: The crop is mostly grown in kharif season from June to October. Crop grows
on a wide range of soils from very light soils from sand dunes in Rajasthan to red loams of
Karnataka and Maharashtra.
Seed rate and sowing: The recommended spacing is 45 cm between rows and 10-12 cm between
plants within row. The seed rate of 8-10 kg/ha for single cut and 12-15 kg/ha for multicut is
required to obtain desired yields.
Manures and fertilizers: It responds well to applied nutrients. Besides recommended dose of
fertilizers, application of 8-10 tonnes of FYM is also helpful as it conserves moisture. An
application of 20-40 kg N/ha in 2 split doses is recommended in Rajasthan, while in Gujarat,
Haryana and Maharashtra, 60-80 kg N/ha is recommended as optimum. Application of 20 kg
ZnSO4/ha enhanced grain and fodder yields. Also foliar application of ZnSO4/ha at tillering and
pre-flowering stage increased grain and fodder yield. Maximum grain yield was recorded in
plots of dust mulching when trial was conducted to mitigate the adverse effect of drought stress
under rainfed condition. Spray of 0.1% thiouorea at tillering and flowering stages also helped to
mitigate drought stress.
Inter-cultivation and weed management: The fields should be maintained free from weeds for
the first 30 days as it is very important to ensure good crop growth. Two inter-cultivation and
one hand weeding is necessary to minimize weed competition. Chemical weed control with
Atrazine @ 0.5 kg ai/ha given as pre-emergence spray is also useful.
Diseases and pest management: Crop is comparatively less prone to pests and diseases.
However, downy mildew among diseases, shoot fly and root grub among pests are prevalent in
many states. Choice of diseases resistant variety is an important step in effectively managing the
diseases. A seed treatment with Apron 35 SD @ 2 g a.i./kg seeds followed by Ridomil 25 WP
(1,000 ppm) spray 20-25 days later will effectively check the disease. Rotation of different

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 129

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

varieties and hybrids in alternate years is also effective in arresting spread of downy mildew.
Seed treatment with neem oil 5 ml/kg seed + spray of 5% (neem-seed-kernel extract (N.S.K..E.) at
50% flowering was found effective in controlling pests. Plant-protection measures are essential
for white-grub and shoot fly. White-grub infestation is managed by mixing of Phorate 10G or
Quinalophos 5G @ 12 kg /ha with seed and applying in furrows at sowing. Four varieties, MH
1336, MH 1364, MH 1392, and Pusa 383, were found to be resistant to smut ergot and blast.
Pearl millet-based cropping systems: In Rajasthan, intercropping of pearl millet with cluster
bean or moth bean or cowpea or green gram in 2: 1 proportion is followed. This not only covers
the risk due to failures of monsoon but also provides the grain legumes which help in better
nutritional security and as source of additional income. In most parts of north India, Andhra
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka, intercropping of pearl millet with pulses is
followed, viz. red gram/ green gram/ cowpea/ horsegram/ clusterbean.
Harvesting and storage: When grain moisture is around 20%, pearl millet is harvested as the
grains are prone to spoilage during storage. It is very important to bring down moisture to 12%
or less for safe storage. Improved storage structures, viz. metal bins made out of GI sheets, are
suitable for safe storage of grains. The stover is a valuable feed for cattle.

5.5.4-Maize (Zea mays)

Maize in India ranks fifth in total area and third in total production and productivity. The level of
production has to be raised because of substantial demand as food, feed and poultry feed. Maize
can successfully be grown as kharif, rabi and zaid crop. Presently, the maize crop is grown in 20-
30% irrigated conditions only.
Varieties: Mostly maize is grown during rainy season. Some cultivars require 60-70 days to
mature; others require 100-110 days to mature. Grain colour also varies from yellow to orange to
white. Mainly flint types are preferred.
Soil: Very sandy soils rapidly respond to management practices than those that are fine textured.
Intermediate texture of loam to silt loam in surface horizon and little higher content of clay as
silt loam to silty clay loam in subsoil is the most ideal. Soil pH of 7.5-8.5 supports good crop
growth, as the crop is grown under rainfed conditions it is important that soil must have good
water holding capacity, with proper drainage system to avoid water logging conditions.
Seed rate and sowing time: About 50-60 kg seed would be needed to sow one hectare. Seed
should be grown 5 cm deep into soil for good germination, seedling growth and vigour.
Transplanting should be avoided as the plant cannot cope up with main crop stand. It is preferred
to sow 10-15 days before start of rain which will give 15% higher yield.
Manures and fertilizers: A balanced application of 60-12 kg N, 40-60 kg P and 40kg K/ha is
recommended. Early maturing varieties require less quantity than full season maturity crops. It is
also advisable to apply 20 kg zinc sulphate /ha along with basal dose of fertilizer. One-fourth of
nitrogen and entire quantity of phosphorus, potassium and zinc should be applied 5-7 cm deep
before sowing. The rest of the doses are applied at knee-high stage and after emergence of flag
leaf but before tassel emergence.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 130

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Plant population: A population of 65,000-70,000 plants /ha at harvest is optimum for realizing
higher yields. For attaining desired level of plant density, a row to row and plant to plant spacing
of 75 cm × 18 cm or 60 cm × 22 cm should be maintained.
Irrigation: To ensure high and stable yield, it is desirable to give 1 or 2 irrigations at critical
stages. Flowering and grain-filling stages are most critical; the crop should be irrigated at these
stages, if rain fails.
Intercropping: Short-duration varieties of pulse crop, oilseed crop and vegetable can
successfully be grown as intercrop. A ratio of 2 rows of maize with 1 row of other desired crop
can be adopted.
Harvesting: In absence of irrigation, crop can be harvested at any stage, at pre-flowering it can
be used as fodder and at dough stage green ear and stover may be used for cattle. For fodder
purpose, the milk to early dough stage is preferred for higher yield and protein content. For
silage, late dough stage is preferred.

5.5.5-Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum)

Berseem is the prominent legume fodder crop of rabi in entire North West, Zone, Hill Zone and
part of Central and Eastern Zone of the country. Berseem makes most digestible and palatable
green fodder to the cattle and especially milch animals are very much benefited with berseem. It
provides fodder with high tonnage over a long period from November to May in 5 - 6 cuts. It has
20-24% crude protein and 70% dry matter digestibility. It is very good soil builder and adds
about 0.38-0.46% organic carbon, 15 -26 kg available phosphorus and 45 kg available nitrogen
to the soil.
Climatic requirements: Berseem prefers dry and cool climate for its proper growth. Best
productive crop can be obtained between 15-25° C temperatures. Its regenerative growth is
retarded during severe cold or frosty period or at temperature above 40°C. It can be grown
successfully in areas which receive annual rainfall of 150-250 cm or even lower but the
irrigation must be assured.
Soil: Berseem can be grown on all types of soils except very light sandy soils. Well-drained clay
loam soils rich in calcium and phosphorus are ideally suited for its cultivation. The crop can be
grown successfully on alkaline soils having good water retention capacity. The crop can tolerate
mild acidity also.
Field preparation: The seeds being very small, berseem requires a fine seedbed. One deep
ploughing with soil turning plough and 2 harrowings are essential. The field may be laid out in
to smaller beds of convenient size according to topography and source of irrigation water.
Sowing time: After the arrest of rains, sowing of berseem can be done from last week of
September to first week of December in North West to Eastern and Central India. The time of
sowing berseem is ideal when mean day temperature is 25° C, which is recorded mostly in the
first to third week of October in north India.
Seed rate: The optimum seed rate is 25 kg/ha, which may be increased up to 35 kg in early or
late sown conditions. For yield compensation in first cutting, 1.5 kg mustard should be sown

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 131

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

along with berseem. For elimination of chicory weed (kasani), the seed should be poured in 1%
common salt. Floating chicory seed should be taken out and remaining seed of berseem should
be sown.
Seed treatment: Seed treatment with Rhizobium culture is essential, when the berseem crop is to
be grown first time in the field. Before treating the seed, it should be first soaked into fresh water
for about 8-12 hours. For better sticking of culture with seed, the culture is prepared with
jaggery. About 1.5 litres of water is mixed with 150 g of jaggery and boiled. After cooling, 2.5
packets of berseem culture are mixed with it and then seed is well mixed and dried in a cool
shady place.
Sowing method: There are two methods for sowing of berseem i.e. dry and wet bed. For
satisfactory germination and good plant stand, wet method is better. Seed should be sown in beds
of convenient size by broadcast method after flooding the beds with 5-6 cm deep water. Before
sowing seeds, the water in the beds should be stirred thoroughly with the help of puddler or rake
so as to break the clods and capillary to avoid leaching during successive irrigations. The crop
should be re-irrigated after 5-6 days of sowing when germination is complete.
Manures and fertilizers: Berseem, being a legume crop, requires less nutrient replenishment in
the soil. For obtaining good yield, 20 kg N and 80 kg P2O5/ha should be applied as basal dose. In
saline or light textured soil, addition of 20 tonnes of well-decomposed FYM is beneficial. FYM
may be excluded if the previous crop of the rotation was liberally manured and fertilized.
Irrigation: The depth and frequency of irrigation is decided by soil type, number of cuttings and
nature of berseem crop, i.e. sole or mixed. First two very light irrigations (4-6 cm depth) should
be given at 5-6 days interval. Subsequent irrigations may be given at an interval of 10 days in
October, 12-15 days in November to January, 10-12 days in February-March and 8-10 days in
April-May. Thus, about 12-15 irrigations will be needed during the entire crop season. Normally
the crop should be irrigated after each cutting.
Weed control: Chicory, the associated weed of berseem should be eliminated for higher herbage
and good quality fodder. Application of Fluchloralin @ 1.2 kg a.i./ha at pre planting stage
controls the chicory and other weeds effectively. However, floating of berseem in 10% common
salt is effective against chicory only.
Harvesting: The first cutting should be taken at 50-55 days after sowing of crop. The subsequent
cuttings should be taken at 25-30 days interval. The number of cuts depends upon rate of growth
and temperature during the life cycle of the crop.
Yield: A good berseem crop can give 100-120 tonnes/ ha green fodder and 15-20 tonnes/ha dry
fodder.

5.5.6-Lucerne (Medicago sativa)

Lucerne is a valuable leguminous forage and hay crop which is generally grown in areas where
water supply is inadequate for berseem. Its deeper root system makes it very well adaptable to
dry areas with irrigation facility. It grows well as rainfed or unirrigated crop in high water table
areas. It is an important winter fodder crop in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and parts of Tamil Nadu,

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 132

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Kerala and in Leh area of Laddakh. It is perennial (3-4 years), persistent, productive and drought
tolerant forage legume which contains 15% crude protein with 72% dry matter digestibility. It
supplies green fodder for a longer period (November - June) in comparison to berseem
(December - April).
Climatic requirements: Lucerne is adapted to relatively dry conditions and it may tolerate heat
as well as cold. It cannot be grown under humid conditions with high temperature. It has wide
ecological amplitude and can grow at 2,500 m asl to hot summer with 49°C with adequate
moisture available in the soil.
Soil: Lucerne needs sandy loam to clayey soil but heavy soils need an efficient drainage system
as the crop does not tolerate water logging. It cannot thrive on alkaline soils but can be grown on
acid soils with liberal application of lime. Lucerne prefers a fertile soil which is rich in organic
matter, calcium, phosphorus and potash.
Field preparation: Like berseem, lucerne also needs very fine seedbed, as the seeds are very
small. One deep ploughing with 2-3 harrowings followed by planking is sufficient.
Sowing time: The best sowing time of the crop is mid-October to early November. However,
sowing date may spread from early October in the North to late December in the East and South
Zone. In the temperate zone, spring sowing is done in March.
Seed rate and seed treatment: The seed rate depends upon method of sowing and type of the
crop, i.e. pure or mixed stands. In case of broadcast method, a seed rate of 20-25 kg/ha should be
used while line sowing needs only 12-15 kg/ha but in case of intercropping, it requires only 6-12
kg/ha. Like berseem, seed treatment with Rhizobium culture is beneficial.
Method of sowing: Line sowing is preferred over broadcasting. Like berseem, 10– 20 m long
beds should be made along with slope with irrigation channels 4-5 m apart. Water-soaked seed is
sown in shallow furrows at row distance of 30 cm by seed drill or kaira at sufficient soil
moisture.
Manures and fertilizers: Lucerne being a leguminous crop requires less nitrogen. However, due
to perennial nature of the crop, it is beneficial to add well-decomposed FYM @ 20-25 tonnes/ha
before sowing in the first year. Normally, 20 kg N and 100 kg P2O5/ha should be applied as basal
dose for good harvest. Application of molybdenum and boron may be done based on soil test. In
subsequent years, annual supplementation of 80 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O/ha should be done.
Irrigation: To attain good germination, pre-sowing irrigation is essential. The crop needs very
frequent irrigation during its early growth period at an interval of about one week but once the
plants are established, subsequent irrigations are provided at an interval of 15-20 days during
winter and 10-12 days during spring and summer seasons. Proper drainage should be ensured to
avoid water logging in rainy season.
Weed control: Lucerne takes a long time to establish and therefore heavy weed infestation occurs
up to first cutting. The sowing in lines makes weeding easier. Trifluralin, @ 4 kg/ha should be
applied before sowing for good harvest. The akasbel (Cuscuta reflexa) should be removed from
the field and burnt. The akasbel should not be allowed to set seed in any case.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 133

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Harvesting: The first cut should be taken at 55-65 days after sowing and the subsequent cuts
may be taken at 30-35 days interval. In general, annual lucerne gives 4-5 cuts while in the
perennial crop, 7-8 cuts can be taken.
Yield: Annual lucerne yields green fodder to the tune of 65-80 tonnes/ha while perennial crop
may provide 80-1,100 tonnes/ha.

5.5.7-Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata )

Cowpea is native to Africa and Asia and is now cultivated throughout the tropics and sub tropics.
It is used as pulse, vegetable fodder and green manure. It is of considerable importance in
dryland farming.

Soil and climate: It is adapted to variety of soil types, viz. red loam, black clay loam, coarse
gravel, sandy loam, light sandy soils. It is also grown in sloppy land in hilly tracts and heavy
loam soils. It is more tolerant to heavy rainfall than any other pulse crop. It suffers from water
stagnation and heavy drought. It thrives well under the temperature range of 21- 35°C.
Cropping system: The crop is usually grown as dryland kharif crop and can also be grown as
pre-monsoon and late monsoon crop. It is also grown as second crop during rabi after rice in
southern parts of country.
Cultivation: Fields should be prepared well for sowing. The crop is sown in the first week of
July in the hills and in the second fortnight of March in lower hills and in October in plains. One
hand weeding or hoeing 30-35 days after sowing or application weedicide Pendimethalin @ 1.0-
1.5 kg a.i /ha immediately after sowing helps in control of weeds. The crop requires adequate
moisture. In plains, 3-4 irrigations are required. About 120 kg N and 80 kg P/ha are
recommended. Half the nitrogen is applied as basal dose and half for top dressing. The crop
matures in 120-125 days. The row to row spacing is 30-45 cm. The recommended seed rate is
20-25 kg/ha. Seed yield up to 1.0 tonnes/ha is obtained.

Suitability and Practices of Conservation: Feeding strategies based on conserved fodder

include feeding of dry fodder (hay, dried crop residues or grazing of dried grasses), silage
(preserved green fodder or grasses) and standing hay/stover (standing mature fodder crop or crop
residue). Depending on the local availability of labour and other inputs, a particular conservation
technique may or may not be suitable on a farm. Dry feeding Straws are a major source of
roughage for ruminants, particularly after the monsoon, but also during planting and in the early
wet season.

Integrated nutrient and pest management

The fertilizer management strategies in fodder crops aim at increasing the herbage production
per unit area and time along with improvement in forage quality parameters and maintenance of
soil health. The requirement of fodder crops for nutrients particularly nitrogen is comparatively
higher. Biofertilizers, the products containing living cells of different types of microorganisms,
play important role in enhancing fodder production and also cutting down the usage of chemical
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 134
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

fertilizers. Different types of biofertilizers include nitrogen fixers (symbiotic and nonsymbiotic
bacteria) Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Azolla and blue green algae, Phosphate
solubilizers (bacteria and fungi)- Bacillus polymyxa, Pseudomonas and Aspergillus etc. ,
Mycorrhizal fungi –VAM (Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae), Sulphur and iron oxidizing
bacteria, etc., PGPR (Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria) are available now. However, a
reliable system of quality control and efficient system of storage, transportation and management
of biofertilizers is required for its wider applicability.
The requirement of fodder crops for nutrients particularly nitrogen is comparatively higher. This
is due to the fact that fodder crops are desired to produce luxuriant vegetative growth with
succulent and nutritive herbage in a short period. Thus, the fertilizer management strategies in
fodder crops aim at increasing the herbage production per unit area and time along with
improvement in quality parameters.

5.6 SUMMARY
In this unit you have studied that:
1-Many plant species are rich source of fibres. Depending upon the morphological nature and
structure, plant fibres have been classified into different types mainly soft stem or bast fibres,
hard leaf or structural fibres and surface fibres.
2-The major fibre yielding species include cotton, jute, hemp, coconut and kenaf. Cotton is one
of the most important commercial fibres crop. It has been cultivated in South East Asia and
Central America since ancient times. The four cultivated cotton species include American or the
new world cotton G. hisutum and G. barbadense and the Asiatic or the old world cotton G.
arboreum and G. herbaceum.
3-Sunhemp, jute, coconut and flax are the other fiber producing plants that are cultivated on a
large scale. Most of these varieties produce bast fibres which possess high tensile strength and
durability.
4-Commercial coir is obtained from the fibrous husk of the fruits of coconut palm. The fibre is
light with high elasticity, high resistance. India is the largest producer of coir and its products.
5- The bast fibre produced by the sunhemp plant possesses great tensile strength and durability.
The fibre strands are lustrous and resistant to moisture. Corchorus is another important source of
bast fibres.
6-Fodders crops are cultivated plant species that are utilised as livestock feed.
7-Fodder refers mostly the crops which are harvested and used for stall feeding. Fodder
crops are the plant species that are cultivated and harvested for feeding the animals in the form of
forage, silage and hay (dehydrated green fodder). The some major fodders crops are oat, sorgum,
pearlmillet, maize, berseem, Lucerne and cowpea.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 135

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

5.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

5.7.1 Fill in the blanks:

i) Fibres are mainly composed of ………………. .
ii) Soft fibres obtained from plant stem are called as …………………… .
iii) For manufacture of …………………, the fibres are twisted together into threads or yarn and
woven.
iv) Commercial coir is obtained from the fibrous husk of the fruits of ……………………… .
v) The botanical name of sunhemp is ………………………… .
vi) ……………………… plant derived its name from the word ‗Korkorus‖ used by Greeks.

Answer Key:
5.7.1: i) cellulose, ii) bast fibres, iii) fabrics, iv) coconut palm, v) Crotolaria juncea, vi) Jute

5.8 REFERENCES

 https://icar.gov.in/files/forage-and-grasses.pdf
 https://www.bighaat.com/blogs/kb/forage-crops-and-its-importance-in-agriculture
 https://edepot.wur.nl/333855

5.9 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Differentiate between bast and surface fibres.
2. Enlist the major uses of jute.
3. Describe the morphological features of the cotton plant.
4. Give brief description of morphology and uses of Sunhemp.
5. Write short notes on:
a) Kenaf
b) Coconut
c) Flax
6- What are fodder crops? Discuss in detail about any one fodder crop.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 136

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

UNIT-6 BEVERAGES AND NARCOTICS

Contents

6.1- Objectives
6.2- Introduction
6.3- Beverages
6.3.1- Alcoholic Beverages
6.3.1.1- Fermented Beverages
6.3.1.2- Distilled Beverages
6.3.1.3- Liqueurs
6.3.2- Non-alcoholic Beverages
6.3.2.1- Aerated Beverages
6.3.2.2- Non-aerated Beverages
6.4-Narcotics
6.5-Summary
6.6-Glossary
6.7-References
6.8-Suggested readings
6.9-Self assessment Questions
6.10-Terminal Questions

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 137

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

6.1 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit the students will be acquainted to the;

 Major plant species used in making beverages.
 Origin, cultivation and production of some beverages.
 Major plant species used in making narcotics.
 Origin, cultivation and production of some narcotics.

6.2 INTRODUCTION

Beverages and narcotics have been the integral part of our society since the early days of
civilization. Beverages are used by every age group of humans. Generally kids use milk and fruit
juices, adults use milk, fruit juices, soft drinks, alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks (like tea,
coffee) as beverages. Apart from beverages some plants and their parts or extracts are used for
narcotic purposes. The legal use of narcotics is not allowed due to their helucinogenic and
negative physiological effects. In the commencing sections of this chapter we are going to study
various types of beverages and narcotics (Fig. 6.1).

Fig. 6.1: Some commonly used beverages and narcotics

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 138

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

6.3 BEVERAGES

Cells of the human body have 70% of water and hence we cannot survive for longer period
without water. In the beginning of civilization humans quenched their thirst with water. After the
agricultural revolution we started domesticating animals and had a new source of liquid diet
which is milk. Apart from milk, fruits were the best source of liquid diet and are very refreshing
due to the presence of vitamins and sugars. Now in modern age we have modified the fruit juices
to soft drinks which are synthetic fruit juices with sugar, fruit acids and other flavorings. In
addition, some drinks have no nutritive value but they have made their way in our daily routine
(e.g. coffee and tea). These drinks in their own have zero nutritional value but are the vehicle for
large intakes of sugar, milk or lemon. Some drinks are used for their sense numbing qualities like
the beers and wines. The alcohol present in these fermented drinks also provides the energy.
Beverages can be broadly classified into two groups alcoholic beverages and non-alcoholic
beverages. The classification of the beverages is given is Fig. 6.2.

6.3.1 Alcoholic beverages

Alcoholic beverages are consumed to enhance sociability, escape problems, get drunk, for
enjoyment, or for ritualistic reasons but the science behind the alcohol is that it lowers the
activity of our brain. Alcoholic beverages are mistakenly believed as stimulants, but technically
they are a type of protoplasmic poison which exerts a depressant effect on the central nervous
system. Alcoholic beverages are categorized chiefly into two groups, the fermented beverages
and distilled beverages.

Fermented beverages are made by the fermentation of sugars present in the substances used to
ferment. Distilled beverages are acquired by repeated distillation of fermented liquors.

6.3.1.1 Fermented beverages: On the basis of the material used in fermentation, fermented
beverages can be classified into two groups, wines and beers.

i. Wines: These are made from fermented fruit juices. Various fruits are used in wine making
e.g. apple, black currents, grapes and pear etc.

Origin: According to the archaeological studies wine making (vinification) was started in
ancient Mesopotamia and at the coastal regions of Caspian Sea between 6000 and 4000 BC.
Almost every kind of sugar- or starch-based plant material has been used to prepare alcoholic
beverages. Chiefly the wine is made from grape fruits (Vitis vinifera). The major producing
regions are Australia, Africa, Europe and United States.

Process: Vinification is very easy process anyone can ferment grape juice for days and allow the
yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. ellipsoideus), present in the natural waxy bloom of fruit,

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 139

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

to convert sugars to alcohol although with time the process has become more elaborate. The
science of wine making is called as Oenology.

Fig. 6.2: Classification of the beverages

The grapes are crushed to produce pulp which is then transferred to a fermenting tank where
yeast‘s enzymes transform the sugar into alcohol under anaerobic conditions at around 68ºF.
Sometimes to increase the alcohol content, the cane or beet sugars may be added to the pulp a
process called chaptalization. After that the juice is separated from skin and seeds and then it
moves through two settling vats where the fining process removes impurities, it is filtered,
sometimes heated and then cooled. Now it is ready to be aged in oak barrels (aging in oak barrels
allows slow chemical changes which improves the flavor) and after the aging process the wine is
bottled.

The aroma, taste and flavor of wine constitute its quality which is due to the presence of fruit‘s
sugars, polyphenols or tannins, vitamins, minerals, organic acids, amino acids, pigments and
odiferous compounds. The alcohol content of wine ranges from 7-16 per cent. Because of the
inability of yeast to survive in the presence of high alcohol content it is impossible to produce a
wine naturally with a higher content since in the absence of yeast fermentation is stopped.

Types: On the basis of color, sweetness, alcohol content, variety of grapes, the presence of
carbon dioxide and the fermentation temperature, wines can be categorized into the following
types:

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 140

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

(a) Dry wines: These are just the opposite of sweet wines. They only have 0.2 per cent sugar
content because the fermentation is allowed to go on until almost all the sugar is used up.

(b) Flavoured wines: These wines are made by adding flavor of aromatic herbs and spices to
white wines. The examples are anise (Pimpinella anisum), cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) and
wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) etc.

(c) Fortified wines: These wines are made by adding alcohol with wines. These have high
alcohol content (18-22 per cent). The examples are Port, Sherry and Vermounths etc.

(d) Red wines: The red or purple grapes are used for making red wine. The anthocyanin
pigments, present in the grapes skin, give the red colour. The fermentation temperature is kept
between 22 to 25 °C. It has been reported that due to the presence of ‗reservatrol‘ red wine has
cardio-protective and anti-cancerous properties. It lowers blood pressure and LDL (bad
cholesterol) but tend to improve HDP (good cholesterol).

(e) Sparkling wines: The characteristic feature of this wine is the bubble formation on opening
the bottle and on pouring in the glass (e.g. in champagne). The bubbles form because the wine is
bottled before the fermentation is complete so that the carbon dioxide is released within the
bottle and cannot escape.

(f) Sweet wines: As the name suggests it contains high sugar content around 18 per cent and to
make this happen the fermentation is stopped before the sugar is completely fermented.

(g) White wines: To make white wines the skins of white grapes are separated from the pulp
prior to fermentation and then fermented at 15 to 18 °C.

ii. Beers are made from fermented cereals. The cereals used in beer making are barley, maize,
rice, rye and wheat etc.

During fermentation, in case of wines, the sugar present in the fruit juices gets converted into
alcohol and in case of beers, first the starch and other polysaccharides present in cereal seeds get
degraded into sugars and then sugars produce alcohol. The reactions are involved in the process
of fermentation are mentioned below:

Origin: Beer became a cultural thing in western Iran, Mesopotamian plains, Egypt, Roman
Empire, and Europe. The oldest proof of beer is 6000 years old Sumerian stone tablet in

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 141

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Mesopotamia portraying the people drinking a beverage through straws from a communal bowl.
In different parts of world various kinds of grains are used to make the beer for example maize
and cassava in Africa, wheat in China, rice in Japan, barley in Egypt, corn in South American
counterparts, rye in Russia and sweet potatoes in Brazil. However, barley is still the first choice
for beer production. Barley beer was known to the ancient Babylonians, Assyrians and
Sumerians as well as the Egyptians and Romans. It was a popular drink particularly during the
Middle Ages because it was much safer to drink than water. For a long time, the monasteries
remained the chief centers of the beer supply, and the monks used to add ‗hops‘ to the beers until
around 800 AD. Not only did the hops help to clear (acting as a natural filter), impart bitterness,
flavour and aroma to the beer but also acted as a preservative.

Process: Do you know that the first time beer was made as an accident? There was some rain
soaked barley grains out in the open in a clay pot and then they were spontaneously fermented by
wild yeast in the air. The basic process looks very simple but now with the advent of science and
technology the whole process has changed drastically in the last 200 years. Firstly the starch
present in cereals converted to maltose this process is called first malting process then afterwards
the brewing of maltose is performed. The commonly used plants for beer production are barley,
wheat, rice maize, millets and inflorescences of many varieties of plams. The process of beer
making is explained below in the flow chart.

The foaming of beer is because of the release of carbon dioxide. The alcohol content of beer
varies from 3-7 per cent. Apart from alcohol beer contains sugars, dextrins, various proteins,
vitamins (vitamin B6) and minerals (phosphates).

Types: The beers are mainly divided into two categories named as heavy and light beers. The
brewing temperature is responsible for the heavy and light beers. Some major beers are being
mentioned below:

(a) Ale beer: It is brewed with top-fermenting yeast, S. cerevisiae at high temperature. The
alcohol content varies from 4-7 per cent.

(b) Bock beer: It is a strong, dark beer, usually made in spring from the new malt and hops.

(c) Lager beer: It was made during 15th century in southwest Germany when they first noticed
that beer stored in the caves during the winter continued to ferment. It is produced from malted
barley and fermented at low temperatures [46°–55°F (bottom fermentation)] and these are stored
for several months in near-freezing temperature. There are two types of lagers, Pilsner and
Munich. Pilsner beer is comparatively bitter because of the strong hop component and Munich
beer is less bitter due to its week hop component. Among all the beers lagers have the lions share
(94 %) in the global beer market.

(d) Porter beer: It is dark brown beer with a slightly burnt taste, made from inferior grades of
malt. The ageing is done for 40 to 60 days.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 142

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

(e) Root beer: It consists of fermentation of infusion of different roots, sarsaparilla, ginger and
wintergreen, etc. with the addition of sugar and yeast.

(f) Stout beer: It is produced from roasted barley and inferior grades of malt. Stout beer is much
heavier, and more caramel is added to give color and body. It is aged for one year.

6.3.1.2 Distilled beverages: Distilled beverages are acquired through the distillation of
fermented fruit juices. As mentioned above that naturally high alcohol content wines cannot be
produced due to the killing of yeast in high alcohol content, so to produce higher alcohol content
beverages the fermented fruit juices are distilled. Then they are aged and given extra flavor with
essences. Here are some examples of distilled beverages mentioned below:

(a) Arrack: It is obtained from the distillation of fermented rice and molasses or fermented juice
of palms. It is largely produced in various countries of Asia.

(b) Brandy: It has the alcohol content ranging from 65-70 %. The major producers are France,
Greece, Germany, Italy, South Africa, Spain and United States.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 143

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

(c) Gin: It is made by the distillation of fermented barley malt and rye and added some juniper
oil (obtained from the fleshy cones or ‗berries‘ of Juniperus communis). The major producers are
Britain, Holland and United States.

(d) Mescal: It is obtained from the distillation of fermented Agave sap and fibrous pulp. The
major producer is Mexico.

(e) Rums: It is obtained by distilling the fermented molasses and sugarcane juice. The major
producers are Caribbean region, United States and West Indies.

(f) Tequila: It is achieved by distillation of the fermented juice of the heads of Agave tequilana.
Major producers are Jalisco and Mexico.

(g) Vodka: It is mainly produced from potatoes. The major producers are Finland, Poland and
Russia.

(h) Whisky (also spelled whiskey): It is distilled from fermented cereals. The major producers
are Canada, Ireland, Scotland and United States.

6.3.1.3 Liqueurs: Liqueurs are made by mixing the various ingredients (such as alcohol,
sugar, water and flavorings) together by the professional. Sometimes the blending of the
ingredient is so complex that it is a trade secret. A variety of fruits, spices and condiments are
used for flavoring. A myriad of liqueurs are made globally which are mentioned in the Table 6.1.

6.3.2 Non-Alcoholic Beverages

These are consumed due to the presence of alkaloids in them which show refreshing and
stimulating effects on human body. These help in reducing tiredness and increasing the mental
activity. Caffeine can stimulate the production of digestive juices and excretion of uric acid.
Non-alcoholic beverages (Table 6.2) are now become an essential element of our everyday
routine. Non-alcoholic beverages can be categorized into two broad categories, aerated and non-
aerated beverages:

6.3.2.1- Aerated Beverages: Aerated beverages are popularly known as carbonated drinks.
The global annual consumption of soft drinks is roughly about 34 billion gallons. The very first
aerated beverage was mineral water which was patented in 1809 and was called "soda water―.
This soda water was made of water and sodium bicarbonate mixed with acid to add bubbles.
Aerated beverages are chiefly made of carbonated water, sugar, and flavorings.

Based on the constituents of the products aerated beverages can be classified into three
categories Soda, Soft drinks and Energy drinks. Soda is made by mixing CO2 gas in drinking
water; Soft drinks (e.g. Coca-Cola, Pepsi etc.) are made of carbonated water, sweetener, and
natural or artificial flavouring and may also contain caffeine, colourings, and preservatives; and

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 144

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Energy drinks (e.g. Red Bull, Monster etc.) contain high methylxanthines (including caffeine), B
vitamins, carbonate water, high fructose corn syrup. The process of making an aerated beverage
is explained below in a flow chart:

6.3.2.2- Non-aerated Beverages: There are two main non-aerated beverages tea and coffee,
which are being described here in brief:

i. Tea

Botanical Name: Camellia sinensis

Characteristic Features: It is an evergreen or semi-evergreen woody cultivated shrub; Leaves

alternate, elliptic to lanceolate with toothed margins. Leaves have oil glands which give the
characteristic fragrance and aroma. Yellow-centered white or pinkish fragrant flowers are borne
in leaf axils either singly or in groups of two to four. At maturity, they produce three celled
woody capsules, each compartment of which contains a brown seed, about 1.25 cm in diameter.

Origin: It is supposed to be originated either in India or China or both. The large-leaved Indian
varieties probably originated from wild plants near the source of the Irrawaddy river in Assam or
northern Myanmar; whereas the narrow-leaved Chinese types probably had a separate origin in
China itself. The from China and India tea spread to the whole world and England is the largest
importer of tea in the west.

Cultivation: Cultivation of tea can be done in all subtropical areas and the mountainous regions
of the tropics. The plant is grown in open fields or terraced hillside where rainfall is at least 150
cm per annum, well-distributed throughout the year. An average monthly temperature of 21-
32°C is essential for vigorous growth. The bushes thrive best in deep, well-drained, acidic soils
(pH between 4.0 and 6.0) that are rich in humus, and cannot be grown in alkaline soils. It is a
shade loving plant and shows more vigorous growth under the partial shade provided by

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 145

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

leguminous trees, such as Albizia procera, A. chinensis, Dalbergia assamica, Derris robusta,
Gliricidia sepium and Erythrina spp.

Harvesting: The terminal bud containing 2-3 young leaves are plucked. The plucked leaves
must not be compressed in the basket and also should not be collected in one hand while
plucking.

Production: The total world‘s production of tea in 2012 was 48, 18,118 tones. The top three tea
producing nations were China (17, 14,902 metric tons), India (10,00,000 t) and Kenya (3,69,400
t).

ii. Coffee

Botanical Name: Coffea arabica

Characteristic Features: It is an evergreen shrub or small tree. Stem has a series of five or
sometimes six buds in leaf axils and a dimorphic pattern of branching; Leaves opposite, ovate or
elliptic with margins, sometimes undulate, opposite, glabrous and glossy with prominent
acuminate tips, and are characteristic in having inter-petiolar stipules; Flowers snow white, star-
like, borne in dense axillary clusters, short-lived; Young fruits are green, turning crimson red at
maturity, six to nine months after blossoming; Ripe fruit (coffee cherry), differentiated into
outer, thin, deep crimson exocarp, middle yellowish mucilaginous or fleshy mesocarp, and inner
hard cartilaginous parchment endocarp having two or one oval seeds (coffee beans).

Origin: It is indigenous to the tropical rainforests of Ethiopia, from their Coffee reached Europe
in the seventeenth century. In India coffee was introduced and planted by the British around
1700.

Cultivation: It is a crop of cooler and less humid climates of mountainous regions from 600-
1700 m. It grows best at 20 °C temperature and an annual rainfall of 150 cm. Coffee plantations
perform best on deep, slightly acidic, well-drained fertile loam of lateritic or volcanic origin.
Coffee plants are usually raised from seeds in nurseries and later transplanted to the field.

Harvesting: The ripe coffee fruits are picked either by hand or by shaking the coffee bushes and
then collecting the fallen berries on sheets of muslin or mats spread underneath. Before releasing
in the market the coffee beans are processed. The most common method of processing is through
the dry method. In this method the gathered cherries along with twigs are spread out in thin
layers in the open sun or in hot air driers. Then the dried skin is separated from the pulp and then
bagged and stored in warehouses. This method is applied in the processing of Brazilian coffee.

Production: The total world‘s production of coffee in 2012 was 88, 26,903 tons. Brazil was the
largest producer, accounting for approximately 3 million tons of green coffee beans, followed by
Vietnam (12, 92,389 t), Indonesia (6, 57,200 t), Colombia (4,64,640 t), India (3,14,000 t).

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 146

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Table-6.1: List of some Alcoholic Beverages

Type Products Chemical composition Source of Scientific name of

beverage source plant
Fermented Wine 86% alcohol, 12% glycerol, and Grapes Vitiis vinifera
(Sugar polysaccharides.
based) Cidar Acetic acid, Malic acid, Apple Malus domestica
Polyphenols, pectin, vitamin B
and C, and other minerals.
Perry 5-8% alcohol and contains high Pear Pyrus communis
amount of sugars (sorbitol).
Mead 5-20 % alcohol. Apple Malus sp.
Ginger 4-5 % alcohol. Ginger Zingiber sp.
beer
Sake, 9-16 % alcohol. Rice Oryza sp.
Saki
Pulque 4-6 % alcohol. Aloe Agave sp.
Chicha 3 % alcohol. Maize, Goosefoot Zea sp., Chaenopodium
plant sp.
Kava Methysticum, Piper methystichum
dihydromethysticin, kavain,
dihydrokavain, yangonin, and
desmethoxyyangonin
Palm 4 % alcohol. Borassus, Nipa, Raphia,
Wine Jubaea
Kvass 1-2 % alcohol. Hordeum, Secale
Brewed Rice 25% alcohol and remaining Rice Oryza sativa
and wine sugars.
fermented Japanese 18-20 % alcohol by volume. Rice Oryza sativa
(starch rice wine
based) Beer 4-6% alcohol by volume. Barley and hops Hordeum vulgare
Distilled Whiskey 40% and more % alcohol. Barley, corn, rye, Hordeum vulgare, Zea
and wheat. mays,
Secale cereal, Triticum
aestivum
Rum 40-50% alcohol, acetic acid, other Sugarcane Saccharum officinarum
acid and sugars.
Gin 40% alcohol and wide range of Juniper berries Juniperus communis
terpene compound.
Vodka 96% alcohol and trace amounts of Potatos Solanum tuberosum
esters, aldehydes, methanol,
acetates.
Taquila 35-55% alcohol. Blue agave Agave tequilana
Brandy 60% alcohol. White grapes Vitis sp.
Calvados 30-40% alcohol and low Apple or pear Malus domestica or Pyrus
molecular weight esters. communis
Tia 20% alcohol Coffee beans, Coffea Arabica
maria sugar

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 147

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Table- 6.2: List of some Non-Alcoholic Beverages

Source of
Chemical composition of beverage Botanical name
S.No. Type Products
beverage of source

Tea plant
Caffeine (3%) and Rich in Chemellia
Tea An evergreen
polyphenols. sinensis
shrub.
Coffee Caffeine and Alkaloids. Coffee plant Coffea arabica
Citrus sinensis,
Various sugars and organic Orange, grapes,
Juices Vitis vinifera,
Non aerated

acids. and apple

Malus domestica
1. Roselle
Hibiscus Jamaican Hibiscus
Vitamin C and anthocyanins. Hibiscus
iced tea sabdariffa

Hamazulene, α-pinene, β- Common

Pinene, ά-bisabolol, ά- Chamomile or
Chamomile Matricaria
bisabololoxide A, trans-b-
tea German recutita
farnesene and
Chrysanthenone. Chamomile
CO2 gas in drinking water
Soda - -
(Carbonated water).
Soft
drinks Carbonate water, sweetener,
Water, CO2,
(Coca cola, and natural or artificial
sweeteners, and
Pepsi, flavouring. May also contain -
flavouring
Fanta, caffeine, colourings, and
Aerated

agents.
Dew, 7 UP preservatives.
2.
etc)
Energy
drinks Contains high
(Red bull, methylxanthines (including
Monster, caffeine), B vitamins, - -
Rockstar, carbonate water, high
NOS, fructose corn syrup.
Amp).

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 148

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

6.4 NARCOTICS
In the beginning narcotics were used for pleasure, excitement or to run away from the struggle of
daily life for a little while whereas now they are also used to relieve pain, produce sleep, and
quiet anxiety and fears. Narcotics contain various chemicals which stimulate or depress the
central nervous system. Stimulants increase the functional activity of the body and do not affect
the consciousness of consumer examples are caffeine beverages, tobacco, betel and coca.
However, tobacco is more harmful and may cause mouth cancer and lung cancer.

The true narcotics (depressants) are injurious even in trace amounts and if consumed in larger
dose can cause delusions, coma, seizure, complete paralysis and death. The continuous use of
narcotics makes the user addict and deteriorates the mental, moral and physical well being e.g.
opium, morphine, heroin etc).

Classification: Based on the effects of these narcotics they can be categorized into three
groups: hypnotics, sedatives and hallucinogens. The classification of the narcotics is given in the
Fig.6.3.

Fig. 6.3: Classification of the Narcotics

i. Hypnotics: These induce artificial but normal sleep. Example: kava- kava (Piper methysticum,
family-Piperaceae), is indigenous to Fiji and other Pacific Islands.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 149

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

ii. Sedatives: These drugs produce a calming effect, bringing about a state of physical and mental
comfort accompanied by a reduction or even suspension of mental activity and finally leading to
complete suppression of consciousness, for example, cocaine and opium.

iii. Hallucinogens: They produce initial cerebral excitation or stimulation accompanied by

illusion, hallucination, fantastic colored visions, unusual amusement and fear and intense
cerebral depression later. The hallucinogens also distort the mind and even alter the personality.
The user loses all his feeling of earthly existence. His awareness of memory, powers of
observation and ability to reason are impaired. Space and time become more and more
disorganized. Owing to a misjudgment of distances, the user may tumble headlong while
negotiating steps. Examples: LSD (d-lysergic acid diethylamide), Psilocybin (4-phosphoryloxy-
N,N-dimethyltryptamine)—also known as magic mushrooms, Peyote (Mescaline)—also known
as buttons, DMT (Dimethyltryptamine)—also known as Dimitri

Major narcotic plants are given in Table 6.3. Some important narcotic plants are also describing
in detail.

i. Tobacco:

Botanical Name: Nicotiana tabacum

Characteristic features: It is an annual herb, about 1.2-2.7 m long. It appears like shrub because
of the lateral branches. Leaves are large, alternate, ovate, lanceolate and sessile. Glandular hairs
on the surface of the leaves secrete gums and oils which make the surface sticky. Flowers are
tubular, borne in a terminal panicle, pink or white. Fruit is capsule having various seeds.

Origin: Tobacco was first found by Christopher Columbus and his men on the island of Tobago
in 1492. The natives were using it to smoke chew and other various purposes. In Spain it was
introduced by a Spanish physician in 1558 and from there it was introduced to southern Europe
and the Middle East. In France, it was introduced in 1560 by a French Ambassador to Portugal
named Jen Nicot. In the honor of Jen Nicot the plant was named Nicotiana by Linnaeus. In 1565,
it was introduced into England from Florida by Sir John Hawkins. After that the Portuguese and
Spanish explorers carried tobacco to different parts.

Cultivation: It is mainly tropical crop but can be grown in varied agro-climatic conditions. It
requires very moist soil and average temperature of 27 °C. It demands well-drained alluvial,
loam and silt loam soils with a pH of 5.0 to 6.5.

Harvesting: The crop is harvested when the leaves become greenish yellow, brittle and tough.
Either the whole plant is cut off close to the ground or only the mature leaves are picked
individually by hand. Freshly harvested leaves are left to wilt overnight as they contain 75-85%
moisture.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 150

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Table-6.3: Major narcotic plants, parts use and their chemical composition

S. Name of English Local name Botanical name Part of plant to be Chemical composition of drugs
No. narcotic name of of source of source plant used for purpose
drugs source plant plant
1 Ayahuasca/ Ayahuasca - Banisteriopsis All parts of the plant. Contains beta-carboline alkaloids
Huasca caapi with monoamine oxidase inhibitor
action, mainly harmine, and
harmaline.
2 Betel nut Betal nut Supari Areca catechu Seeds Contains tannin, gallic acid, gum,
lignin, iron peroxide, magnesium
sulphate, and other salts.
3 Cocaine Coca - Erythroxylum Leaves Contains benzoylmethylechonine.
coca
4 Dhatura Jimsonweed Dhatura Datura Leaves and Spiky seed The leaves and seeds contain
stramonium pods. potent alkaloids (hyoscamine and
hyoscine) that cause
hallucinations.
5 Heroin Opium Afeem Papaver Resins and latex of Morphine is an active ingredient.
poppy somaniferum seed capsule. Heroin is a synthetic form of
Opium.
6 Marijuana/ Cannabis Bhang Cannabis sativa All parts of the plant. The most active ingredient is
Hash/Dope/ But most concentrated tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).
gunja part is flowering tops
of female.
7 Opium Opium Afeem Papaver Seed capsules Contain two group of alkaloid.
poppy somaniferum Phenanthrenes and isoquinolines.
8 Salvinorin Salvia Neela Phool Salvia Leaves Active ingredient is Salvinorin A.
divinorum
9 Tobacco Tobacco Tambaakoo Nicotiana Leaves Nicotine is a chief active
tobacum ingredient in the tobacco.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 151

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Production: In 2012, the global production of tobacco is 74, 90,661 tons. The top three tobacco
producing nations were China (3.2 million tons), India (8, 75,000 tons), Brazil (8, 10,550 tons).

Uses: It is used in two main ways chewing and smoking. Various additives (glycerine, sugar,
tannins, honey, vanilla, chocolate and rum) are used to improve the quality (aroma and taste) of
tobacco products for smoking and chewing. It is used in various forms such as Bidi, Cigarettes,
Cigar, Pipe, Hukkah etc. The alkaloid nicotine is used in agriculture as an insecticide. Tobacco
seeds are free from nicotine so the refined tobacco seed oil can be used as a substitute for
groundnut oil and can be used for illumination and in the oil paint and varnish industries. The
seed cake is used as a feed for cattle and horses. Tobacco was also used as medicine (gastro-
intestinal disorders) and sedative. On oxidation nicotine gives nicotinic acid which is used in
making of various vitamins.

ii. Cannabis

Botanical Name: Cannabis sativa

Characteristic features: The plant is a tall, robust, annual, dioecious herb; leaves are palmately
divided; flowers small, greenish yellow in color; male flowers arranged in long drooping axillary
and terminal panicles with few leaves; female flowers in short axillary leafy spikes; glandular
hairs found on whole plant surface; fruit is an achene.

Origin: It is a native of Central and Western Asia, but now extensively cultivated in both
temperate and tropical regions of the world.

Cultivation: It is a weed growing on wasteland. However if cultivated for commercial purposes

then it is recommended to be grown on a fertile well-drained soil. Since the plant is a weed there
are no specific requirements for its cultivation.

Harvesting: The first sign to identify that the crop is ready to harvest is the white hair-like fuzzy
stigmas protruding out of the seed bract on buds are turning reddish-brown. When half to three
quarters of the stigmas have turned reddish-brown then it is the time to harvest the crop. The
second sign is the color of the head of the trichomes. The trichomes are transparent in the early
stages and become milky white at maturity and turn brown at last. When the head of the
trichomes are milky white in color then the crop is ready to harvest.

Production: Since it is not legal to produce Cannabis in fields, except the areas where
government itself gives the license to cultivate it, so there is no authentic and reliable data to
present here.

Uses: Cannabis is mainly used for the narcotic purposes. It is consumed in various forms such as
bhang, ganja and charas. Bhang is made up of dried leaves, stems and flowering shoots of male
and female plants. It has low resin content and thus the drug is less potent. Its decoction in water
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 152
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

or milk is used as a beverage. It is also smoked in dry form mixed with tobacco. Ganja is the
dried unfertilised female inflorescence with full resin contents. It was used medicinally as a
sedative and hypnotic. It is also used for smoking and in beverages. Charas consists of the
undiluted, unadulterated sticky yellow exudation from the leaves, and unfertilised inflorescences
of cultivated female plants.

The resinous exudate is the most valued part of the plant because it contains the highest
concentration of physiologically active tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), an active hallucinogenic
compound. A number of other chemical compounds have been isolated from the resin. More
important among them are cannabidiolic acid, tetrahydrocannabinol-carboxylic acid,
cannabigerol, cannabichromene and tetrahydrocannabinol.

Its continuous use for longer periods leads to moral and mental depravity. Addicts are of weak
character and mentally abnormal and considered outcasts of the society.

iii. Coca

Botanical Name: Erythroxylum coca

Characteristic features: It is an evergreen, shrub or a small tree; leaves are dark green, alternate
and ovate with prominent stipules; flowers are small, white and born in axillary clusters; fruit is
small reddish orange drupe.

Origin: It is a native of the Andean highlands and is traditionally cultivated in the tropical
regions of Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru, all collectively account for more than 98 per cent of the
global land planted. It is also cultivated in other regions of the world for example Chile,
Colombia, Indonesia, Mexico, Sri Lanka and West Indies.

Cultivation: It grows best thriving best at altitudes of about 900-2750 m. It prefers loose,
humus-rich soil which is regularly supplemented with plant compost. It can be propagated by
cutting but is generally raised from seeds, the seedlings being kept shaded in the nursery for
eight to ten months.

Harvesting: Harvesting is carried out two to three years after planting. The leaves are
handpicked three to four times in a year, but collections made during April and September are
the most valuable.

Uses: Cocaine has been much used as a local anesthetic. It is also employed as a tonic for the
digestive and nervous systems, but as it is a habit-forming drug its use should be supervised by
physicians. In small doses, cocaine induces a pleasing excitation, increased physical strength,
mental alertness, increased working capacity, relief from fatigue and a reduction of hunger,
because of local anesthesia of the stomach. The stimulation is, however, short lived, and is
followed by a feeling of utter fatigue and mental depression. This prompts the user to repeat the

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 153

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

dose to restore his sense of well-being. Habituation may develop in a very short time, even
weeks. Overdoses of cocaine may lead to restlessness, convulsions and hallucination. The victim
may see imaginary insects and feel them crawling over his skin. Death may sometimes occur
because of respiratory paralysis.

Like coca chewing, cocaine is also habit-forming. The cocaine powder is called ‗snow‘ in illicit
traffic and is generally sniffed. Some addicts prefer to mix cocaine with heroin, producing what
is known as ‗speed ball‘ because of its immediate effects. Cocaine addicts soon lose their desire
for food and are likely to suffer from malnutrition. Eventually, they develop digestive problems,
muscular twitching, insomnia, mental, moral and physical deterioration, often resulting in death.

6.5 SUMMARY

Beverages are being used since the dawn of civilization to refresh and energize the body. In the
beginning the beverages were very simple such as water and fruit juices but with the
advancement of civilization and science and technology various types of beverages were
manufactured. On the basis of the chemical composition beverages are of two types alcoholic
and non-alcoholic. Beverages which contain alcohol are called alcoholic and the rest of the
drinks fall into the non-alcoholic category. Based on the method of manufacturing, alcoholic
beverages are further divided into two categories, fermented and distilled alcoholic beverages.
Fermented beverages produced by fermented fruit juices and have low alcoholic content (e.g.
beers and wines) but on the other hand distilled beverages are produced by the process of
distillation of the fermented fruit juices and have high alcohol content (e.g. Rum, whisky, vodka,
gin, brandy). Various plant species are used in the process of beverage making such as Grapes,
Apple, Rice, Barley, etc. Controlled use of the alcoholic beverages is fine but excessive and
continuous consumption may lead to addiction and finally liver failure. Today the alcohol
industry is of millions of dollars which is a positive thing for the global economy but on the other
hand alcoholic beverages also are a cause of liver problems and social disgrace.

Humans have also used plants for smoking or chewing to get pleasure or for some physiological
effect. The plants used for narcotic purposes have some stimulating effect because they possess
various alkaloids. Based on the effects they produce narcotics can broadly be classified into two
groups mild narcotics and hard narcotics. Mild narcotics does not produce much effect on the
consciousness of the consumer e.g. betel, cola and tobacco. Hard or true narcotics exhibit
detrimental effects even in small amounts and when used in large doses may lead the addict to
the lowest depths of depravity and degradation and cause stupor, coma, convulsions, and even
death e.g. cannabis, coca and opium.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 154

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

6.6 GLOSSARY

Alkaloids: Natural bases containing nitrogen found on plants.

Anesthesia: Loss of bodily sensation with or without loss of consciousness.
Beverages: Any liquid suitable for drinking.
Consciousness: An alert cognitive state in which you are aware of yourself and your situation.
Depressant: Capable of depressing physiological or psychological activity or response by a
chemical agent.
Hallucination: Illusory perception; a common symptom of severe mental disorder.
Narcotics: A drug that produces numbness, often taken for pleasure or to reduce pain; extensive
use can lead to addiction.
Stimulant: A drug that temporarily quickens some vital process.

6.7 SELF ASSESMENT QUESTIONS

6.7.1 Multiple Choice Questions

1-Botanical name of tea is:
(a) Camellia sinensis (b) Cannabis sativa
(c) Papever somniferum (d) Coffea arabica

2. Vodka is made from:

(a) Barley (b) Banana
(c) Rice (d) Potato

3. Which one is distilled alcoholic beverages:

(a) Lager (b) Ale
(c) Wine (d) Gin

4. Cocaine is made from:

(a) Cannabis sativa (b) Erythroxylum coca
(c) Cola nitida (d) Nicotiana tabacum

5. Which plant species is the major source of beer:

(a) Barley (b) Wheat
(c) Rice (d) Potato

6. Which fruit species is the major source of wine?

(a) Black grapes (b) Banana
(c) Pineapple (d) Orange

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 155

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

7. Which narcotic product is called ‗snow‘ in illicit trafficking?

(a) Cocaine powder (b) Hashish
(c) Heroin (d) Sparkling wine

8. Cocaine plant belongs to which family:

(a) Erythroxylaceae (b) Cannabinaceae
(c) Sterculiaceae (d) Solanaceae

9. Which type of beer holds the largest market share:

(a) Lager beer (b) Ale beer
(c) Root beer (d) Stout beer

10. Tequila is the popular drink of which nation:

(a) Mexico (b) Unites States of America
(c) Brazil (d) Russia

Answers Key:
6.7.1: 1-(a), 2-(d), 3-(d), 4-(b), 5-(a), 6-(a), 7-(a), 8-(a), 9-(a), 10-(a)

6.8 REFERENCES

 Kochhar S. (2016) Economic Botany: A Comprehensive Study. Cambridge University Press.

doi:10.1017/9781316286098.003
 Hill Albert F. (1937) Economic Botany. Mcgraw-Hill Publications.

6.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

 Kochhar S. (2016) Economic Botany: A Comprehensive Study. Cambridge University Press.

doi:10.1017/9781316286098.003
 Hill Albert F. (1937) Economic Botany. Mcgraw-Hill Publications.

6.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

6.10.1 Short answer type questions:

1-Write short notes on Cannabis, Beer and Tea.
2-What is the economic importance of Alcoholic beverages?
3-What is the process of beer production?
4- Explain the three types of narcotics obtained from Cannabis?
5- Name five common alcoholic beverages?

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 156

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

6.10.2 Long answer type questions:

1-Write in detail about two major non-alcoholic beverages?
2-Write in detail about three major narcotic plant species?

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 157

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

UNIT-7 TIMBER AND NON-TIMBER

Contents

7.1 Objectives
7.2 Introduction
7.3 General Account
7.4 Important Timber Yielding Plants
7.4.1 Tectona grandis
7.4.2 Dalbergia sissoo
7.4.3 Pinus roxburghii, P. wallichiana
7.4.4 Cedrus deodara
7.5 Different Uses of Wood
7.6 Non-timber forest products
7.7 Status of Non-wood forest Products
7.8 Summary
7.9 Glossary
7.10 Self Assessment Questions
7.11 References
7.12 Suggested Reading
7.13 Terminal Questions

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 158

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

7.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 list the important wood yielding plants and describe their important features;
 list the properties and characteristics of different woods and various uses;
 describe the processing of various woods for commercial use; and
 explain the process of papermaking.
 know about non-timber forest products

7.2 INTRODUCTION
By now you have studied that we use plants for various purposes such as foods, beverages and
medicines. In addition, several plant products provide us shelter and clothing. From the time
immemorial, food, clothing and shelter have been the three great necessities of mankind. Wood
is the most familiar and most important forest products. The wood has contributed a lot to the
advancement of civilization. Today, the wood is the most widely used commodity other than
food and clothing. It is one of the most important and versatile of the raw materials of the
industry. Wood is produced as a result of secondary growth in gymnosperms and dicotyledonous
plants. Woody tissues help in increasing weight of the plant. Besides timber and fuel, woody
tissues yield many useful products such as gum, resin, turpentine, paper, rayon, cork, and rubber.
Plant fibres also provide the raw material for various products such as cloth, mats, bags, and
ropes. In this unit you will study about the timber and Non-timber plants and their various uses.

7.3 GENERAL ACCOUNT

Wood has been an important and indispensable forest product used by mankind for ages.
Primitive man used it for construction of shelters, implements and utensils. Several indigenous
tree species from the natural forests are being used for various ways, as fuel, for construction,
timber products, and as raw material in the paper industry. It became an inexhaustible natural
resource because of overexploitation and decline in the forest area. Wood continues to play an
important role in our lives, hence need to be used with proper care. Despite the availability of
various metals and synthetic products, we have not been able to find substitutes for wood till
date. Judicious utilization and care is needed to keep the forest plantations alive. You will now
study about four such sources of wood which are used at commercial scale in India.
Timber plants are usually medium to large trees which are cut to extract the wood. It is also
known as ―lumber‖ in US and Canada. Timber trees are broadly classified into trees of soft,
semi-hard and hardwoods. Hardwood is derived from angiospermous (mainly dicotyledonous)
plants. They have a superior quality that last for years. Hardwood plants provide the best quality

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 159

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

wood as they possess more resistance and are used for construction of high end furniture, floors,
ceilings and even houses. Wood obtained from oak, birch, beech, is called hardwood. Softwoods
are obtained from gymnosperms (mainly coniferous. Softwood is generally used in the
manufacture of products such as crates of vegetables, crafts and even paper.
Wood used in construction, furniture and paper pulp is timber and products produced or derived
from them are timber products. The products produced from the stems are often called timber
products. Products produced/derived from woody parts of plants are termed as wood products.
Timber has a high strength to weight ratio.
Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) refers to a wide array of economic or subsistence materials
that come from forests, excluding timber. Similar terms include "nonwood," "minor,"
"secondary," and "special" or "specialty" forest products.

There are many kinds of animal and plant resources that are derived from forests, including
fruits, nuts, mushrooms, essential oils, florals, medicinal products, herbs and spices, dyes, resins,
and animal products such as honey and wild game. These products are often gathered from
natural forests. Others may be produced with varying degrees of cultivation and domestication,
either within a forest ecosystem or as part of a planted forest system such as an agroforestry or
forestry project.

NTFPs represent income opportunities from forests and forestry that do not involve cutting down
trees for wood products. In forests with low timber production potential, NTFPs represent the
major actual or potential source of income. In other cases, management of a forest for NTFPs
does not preclude the option to harvest timber, as well.

While NTFPs are traditionally used and appreciated by peoples of many cultures worldwide, the
significance of these products for sustainable economic growth, cultural endurance, and
environmental health is receiving increasing recognition by governments and other official
agencies.

7.4 IMPORTANT TIMBER YIELDING PLANTS

About 500 timber species are known whose trunk and branches provide wood. Some of the
important timber trees are Khair (Acacia catechu), Babla (Acacia nilotica), Chatim (Alstonia
scholaris), Itchri (Anogeissus acuminata), Kadam (Anthocephalus chinensis), Shimul (Bombax
ceiba), Kamdeb (Calophyllum polyanthum), Batna (Castanopsis tribuloides), Shisham
(Dalbergia sissoo), Garjan (Dipterocarpus alatus), Gamari (Gmelina arborea), Sundari
(Heritiera fomes), Telsur (Hopea odorata), Sidha (Lagerstroemia parviflora), Aam (Mangifera
indica), Tali (Palaquium polyanthum), Batna (Quercus spicata), Bhobinut (Samanea saman), Sal
(Shorea robusta), Dharmara (Sterospermum personatum), Mahogony (Swietenia macrophylla
and S. mahagony), Teak (Tectona grandis), Toon (Toona ciliata). International trade code of
flora and fauna governs the timber species suitable for commercialization and export.
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 160
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

You will now study about four such sources of wood which are used on a commercial scale in
our country.

7.4.1 Tectona grandis

Family: Verbenaceae
Common names: Teak, Rangoon or Burma teak, Moulmein teak, Singur, Sangwan
n = 12, 18

Distribution: It is native to South-east Asia and Malaya and is one of the most important
commercial timber crops of the tropics. Myanmar and Thailand have extensive teak forests. In
India, teak forests are present in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka,
Rajasthan, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh.

Characteristics: Teak is a large, deciduous tree with a probable age of over 200 years (Fig. 7.1).
Teak is a tropical, flowering tree growing up to 40 m in height and 1 m in bole diameter. The
flowers are fragrant, white, and small. Leaves are large, ovate-elliptic, papery, often hairy on the
lower surface. Fruits are globose. Teak is highly valued for its wood which is of superior quality.
Highly durable and water resistant, it is used for boat building, exterior construction, veneer,
furniture, carving, etc.

Fig. 7.1: Photograph showing teak plantations

The sapwood is white and rather susceptible to attack by termites and wood rotting fungi. The
heartwood is golden yellow to golden brown when freshly sawn, turning darker after exposure
and is relatively immune to insect attack. The wood is greasy to touch and smells like old leather.
It is hard, and does not warp, split, or crack and is thus valuable for general construction. It is
resistant to decay and termites even when unprotected by preservatives and is renowned for its
stability. Teak wood is not very difficult to work with and it takes very good polish. The grain is
normally straight, and the texture is coarse and uneven. The average weight is between 609-689

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 161

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

kg/m3 when dry. It shows distinct growth rings. The wood is ring porous and is marked by the
presence of large vessels. The vessels of early wood are distinctly larger than those of the late
wood. The pores seem to be arranged in concentric circles when seen in a transverse section.
Tyloses are quite common.
Uses: Teak ranks among the best timbers of the world. It is the chief source for railway carriage
and wagon wood of India. It is superior to oak in ship building. Its wood is used in construction
of houses; building bridges; making cabinets and boats; for carving; plywood manufacture; for
flooring; making toys, and in many other ways.

7.4.2 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb

Family: Fabaceae
Common names: Shisham, Rosewood
n = 10

Distribution: Dalbergia is a genus of tropical trees providing valuable dark timber. D. latifolia
(Indian rosewood) and D. sissoo (sissoo) are important Asian species and are amongst the finest
of India's cabinet and furniture woods. Sissoo occurs throughout the sub-Himalayan tracts to
Assam. Indian rosewood is found in central and southern India and also in sub-Himalayan tracts.
Other common Dalbergia species are D. nigra (Brazilian rosewood), D. melanoxylon (African
blackwood), D. retusa (cocobolo) and D. stevensonii (Honduras rosewood).

Characteristics: Dalbergia sissoo is a medium to large tree which grows upto 10 to 15 m

metres in height. It is a deciduous tree. Leaves are compound, with about five alternate leaflets.
Leafstalk (petiole) measures about 15 cm long, each leaflet widest at the base with a fine pointed
tip. The trees have panicles of small, yellow or white papilionaceous flowers. Flowers
occur in dense clusters on short stalks. The dry fruit is a pale brown pod, flat, thin and papery,
about 7 cm. Seed are visible from within pod. The sapwood is white to brownish, and the
heartwood is golden brown to dark brown. The pale, straw-colored sapwood is clearly
demarcated from the heartwood (Fig. 7.2).

Fig. 7.2: T.S. stem of Dalbergia showing Heartwood and Sapwood

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 162
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

It is a durable, heavy wood with an average weight of 800-850 kg/m3. In Indian rosewood the
sapwood is yellowish, but the heartwood varies from dull brown to almost purple. It is a durable
wood, especially under water. It weighs around 800-960 kg/m3. Although not easy to work with,
it carves well.

Uses: Dalbergia provides wood for high class furniture and cabinets. It is valued as a
construction and general-purpose timber and is used for railway sleepers, musical instruments,
hammer handles, shoe heels and tobacco pipes. It is good for charcoal making and is used for
decorative veneers as well.

7.4.3 Pinus roxburghii, P. wallichiana

Family: Pinaceae
Common names: Chir, Blue pine
n = 12
Distribution: In India, Pinus roxburghii (chir) and P. vallichiana (kail) are the two most popular
species of Pinus that yield timber. P. roxburghii occurs in the outer hill ranges of Siwalik and the
valleys of Himalayas. Pinus wallichiana occurs at higher altitudes. Pines are common in
Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh. Other commercial pine
timbers come from P. strobus (American yellow pine), P. monticola (Western white pine). P.
sylvestris (Scots pine), P. ponderosa (Ponderosa pine) and many more.

Characteristics: Pines are generally tall trees that bear characteristic needle-like leaves, and
distinct male and female cones. Pines have two types of branches, long shoots and short shoots,
and three types of leaves, primordial, scale, and adult. The triangular scale leaves (lance-shaped),
are borne on the long shoots of older trees. Both long and short shoots develop in the axils of the
deciduous scale leaves. The needlelike photosynthetic adult leaves, with two or more resin
canals, are borne in fascicles (bundles) of two to five (rarely, up to eight or solitary) at the tip of
each short shoot. Pine timber falls into two broad categories - the soft or white pines, and the
hard, yellow or pitch pines. The former have soft, light-colored wood-tinged pink in the
heartwood and nearly white in the sapwood. The latter have a resinous, heavy, hard, strong, and
durable wood, with a pronounced, grain pattern. The wood is light, easy to work but not durable.
The timber is straight grained and has little resin.

Soft pines, such as white, sugar, and piñon pines, have relatively soft timber, needles in bundles
of five (less commonly, one to four), stalked cones with scales lacking prickles, and little resin.
Their wood is close-grained, with thin, nearly white sapwood. The leaf sheaths of the leaf
clusters are deciduous. Hard pines, such as Scotch, Corsican, and loblolly pines, have relatively
hard timber, needles in bundles of two or three (rarely, five to eight), cone scales with prickles,

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 163

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

and large amounts of resin. Their wood is coarse-grained and usually dark-coloured, with pale,
often thick sapwood; the sheaths of the leaf clusters are persistent.

Uses
Soft pines are used for making matches, crates, boxes and rough carpentry work. Hard pine is
used in construction of buildings, bridges and ships.

7.4.4 Cedrus deodara

Family: Pinaceae
Common name: Deodar, Himalayan cedar
n=12
Cedrus has four species namely C. atlantica (Atlas cedar), C. brevifola (Cyprian cedar), C. libani
(Cedar of Lebanon), C. deodara (Deodar Cedar Tree, Himalayan Cedar). There are some false
cedars also reported from other areas. Even though false cedars aren‘t officially in the genus
Cedrus, knowing the varieties commonly identified as cedar, especially in North America. These
include Alaskan Yellow Cedar (Cupressus nootkatensis), Bermuda Cedar (Juniperus
bermudiana), Eastern Red Cedar Tree (Juniperus virginiana), Incense Cedar (Calocedrus
decurrens), Northern White Cedar (Thuja occidentalis), Port Orford Cedar (Chamaecyparis
lawsoniana), Siberian Pine (Pinus sibirica), Spanish Cedar (Cedrela odorata), Western Red
Cedar (Thuja plicata).

Distribution: The tree is native to mountainous areas of the Mediterranean region and one to the
western Himalaya. Cedar is one of the most important and strongest Indian softwood growing
mainly in the northwestern Himalayas in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab.

Characteristics: It is a tall tree about 45-60m in height. The tree has horizontal spreading
branches giving it a characteristic skyscraper appearance. Trunks are large with massive,
irregular heads of spreading branches. Young trees are covered with smooth, dark-gray bark that
becomes brown, fissured, and scaly with age. The Leaves are needlelike, three-sided, rigid and
scattered along the long shoots and clustered in dense tufts at the ends of short spurs. Female
cones are large, barrel-shaped, resinous, greenish or purplish and borne on short stalks. They are
covered by broad, thin, closely overlapping woody scales, each with a claw like projection.

Cedar wood is light, soft, resinous, and durable. Its sapwood is white in colour and the
heartwood is light yellow, turning brown on exposure to air. The timber is durable and resistant
to insects. Wood is fine and uniform in texture. True cedars are evergreen and have aromatic,
often red or red-tinged wood that is resistant to decay and insects.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 164

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Uses
The wood is manly used in making railway coaches, beams, posts, doors, window frame and
construction of bridge. It is also used in making pencils, chests, closet linings, carving, fence
posts and packing. Distilled oil from the wood is used in many toiletries.

7.5 DIFFERENT USES OF WOOD

Woods are being put to different uses and processed to make them suitable for the requisite
purpose. Different woods are used for different purposes. Some of the common examples are
discussed below.
Processing wood for use: Trees are felled by cutting across the trunk as close to the ground as
possible. The side branches are then removed, and the trunks are cut into suitable lengths, known
as saw logs. The powered saws are now used instead of the hand saws in several parts of the
world; hence the processing of fresh logs is becoming increasingly mechanized. Wood is unique
among the various raw materials and no replacement has been found to it. Its uses are numerous
such as fuel, construction work, furniture, containers, mechanically reduced products, chemically
derived products and so on.

Fuel
The wood is used as a fuel for heating and cooking from prehistoric times. Recently this practice
has been replaced to some extent by fossil fuels or electricity. Still, wood is largely consumed for
fuel rather than any other purpose. Wood is an excellent fuel, since 90% of the oven dried wood
is combustible. Woods vary greatly in their fuel value and this depends mainly on their density,
chemical composition, and the amount of moisture. The hardwoods such as beech, oak, maple,
and birch best fuel woods serve as the best fuel wood. The average calorific value of seasoned
wood is around 4600 cal/kg.

1. Construction Materials
Poles - Employed chiefly for telephone, telegraph, and electrical transmission lines. Durable
wood, which is light, straight, and strong to resist stresses, is used. Coniferous trees are the
principal source of wood. Such woods are also used in construction of shelters.
Pilings - Used for the construction of docks, bridges, and wharves. These are straight, round
timber, driven beneath water for construction work. Pines are commonly used and so is oak, the
latter mainly for dock and harbour work and for marine pilings.
Posts - Used for the erection and maintenance of fence lines along farm and ranch boundaries,
railroads, and highways. Strength, lightness, and durability are the main requirements. Any
available local species can be used.
Mine timbers - Include a variety of wooden supports such as props or legs, crossbars or caps
used in tile construction of mine tunnels to prevent debris from falling or where the underground

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 165

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

formations are likely to cave in. Mostly those hardwoods that are durable and strong and resistant
to decay and corrosion are employed for the purpose.
Railroad ties or sleepers or cross ties - Used to support and hold railroad rails. The wood used
need to be durable, treatable and able to withstand the impact and pressure of heavy and speedy
traffic, hold spikes and screws and be easily available and inexpensive. Oak is the most widely
used wood for this purpose. The wood is usually treated with preservatives and can last up to 30
years.
Veneers - These are thin sheets of wood of uniform thickness, produced by peeling, slicing, or
sawing logs. Veneers are made by one of the following three methods - rotary cutting, slicing, or
sawing. Of these, rotary cutting is the most common method employed. Logs selected for this
process are debarked and softened by steaming or steeping in hot water. This facilitates cutting
and minimizes the danger of splitting. They are then crosscut to desired lengths. Many woods
like Douglas fir, Ponderosa pine and Poplars are used. Fine veneers are made from expensive
woods like walnut, teak, and rosewood.
Plywood - It is a thin board made up of an odd number of three or-more very thin sheets of
veneers glued together under pressure, ranging in thickness from 3-25 mm. Successive veneers
are positioned in such a way that the grain of each is at right angles to the adjoining sheet (in a
cross-banded way), making the structure as strong and even stronger than the wood itself. The
major advantage of plywood over solid woods is dimensional stability and that it is much less
likely to warp or twist than ordinary wood. Plywood has the strength distributed in both
directions, and the nails and screws can be driven close to the edge without any danger of
splitting. Also, it can be molded, and it comes in much larger sizes and can be used for making
partitions, walls arid roofs. Durable timbers such as oak and teak are used. Plywood is used for
inner cabinet work, roof and wall sheathing, flooring, automobile body parts, boards, ceilings,
counters, desks, drawers, and furniture.

2. Containers
Cooperage - It's the art of making wood containers such as barrels, tubs, tanks, and the
construction of wooden pipelines for transporting city water supplies. There are two principal
divisions of the cooperage industry, namely, slack (or dry) cooperage made for packaging,
storing, and transporting dry material, and tight (or wet) cooperage for holding liquids such as
beer, whisky, and wine syrups. Woods selected for slack cooperage must be cheap, light, easy to
work, elastic and free from warping. Pine, beech, oak, and maple are commonly employed. For
making tight cooperage the inner walls are coated with an inert material such as paraffin, silicate
of soda or glue to prevent leakage and contamination of liquids. Hardwoods, especially oak are
commonly used because of their strength and durability, impenetrable nature, and thermal
insulation properties. Woods used for the purpose are red gum, white ash, yellow birch, and
Douglas fir.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 166

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

3. Chemical Products
Wood is mainly made up of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and varying amounts of tannins,
resins, gums, and latex. It serves as a basic raw material for deriving several chemical products
using various methods. Some examples are given below:
Wood distillation - This is an ancient process. One of the chief sources of wood for destructive
distillation is the waste left by lumbering operations and sawmills. The wood is heated in a cast
iron or steel retort or oven in the absence of air. Charcoal residue is left behind in the retort, and
the escaping vapors are conducted through water-cooled condensers. The condensate
(pyroligneous acid) is allowed to settle, and tar and oils are separated out from the liquid above.
Meanwhile the non-condensable gases are trapped and are used to help heat the oven.
Based upon the kind of wood used, distillation can be classified into hardwood and softwood
distillation. Denser and heavier woods like sugar maple, birch, oak, and beech are employed in
hardwood distillation and the products are:
i) charcoal - the solid residue,
ii) pyroligneous acid - a yellowish green, ill smelling liquor or condensate consisting of water,
acetic acid, methanol, and dissolved tar,
iii) wood tar - the water insoluble fraction that settles at the bottom of the aqueous pyroligneous
acid, and
iv) the non-condensable wood gas, used as fuel or for illumination purposes.
On the other hand, softwood distillation utilises resinous pinewoods, chiefly of long leaf and
slash pines. The principal distillation products are charcoal, wood turpentine, pine oil, dipentine,
pine tar, tar oils, wood gas and a small amount of wood alcohol (methanol) and acetic acid.

Tapping for naval stores industry - The term 'Naval Stores' was initially used to designate the
pitch obtained by tapping pine trees. Pitch and its derivatives were used extensively by the
European maritime industry in the late sixteenth century for caulking the planks of wooden
sailing ships and for water proofing riggings and hawsers. The species used now-a days are the
long leaf and slash pines in the USA, maritime pine (Pinus pinaster) in Europe, and Pinus
roxburghii in India. Besides pines, Douglas fir, spruces and larches are the other conifers tapped
for the purpose. Three different types of products are obtained by this industry: (i) gum
turpentine and gum rosin, derived from the gum (oleoresin) bled from living trees; (ii) wood
turpentine and wood rosin, obtained by the action of steam and suitable solvents on macerated or
chipped stumps and roots left behind after lumbering; and (iii) sulphate turpentine and sulphate
rosin, important byproducts of pulp mills employing the sulphate process for pulping resinous
woods.
Crude turpentine is collected by tapping when the trees have attained a girth of 23 cm or more.
The bark near the base of the tree is shaved off and a shallow slanting cut is made a few
centimeters above the ground level. A v-shaped metal trough is fixed to direct the flow of crude
turpentine into a collecting vessel. A shallow wound is then made in the bark above the gutter,
from which the exudates drips. Chipping on all sides takes 10-20 years; the tree is then

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 167

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

abandoned as these wounds never heal because the cambium is removed in the process. The
crude turpentine contains about 20% spirit of turpentine, 65% rosin, 5 to 10% water, some plant
tissues and dust. It is distilled in steam distillation plants to isolate its useful components. The
distillate consists of water and spirits of turpentine while the hot molten amber to dark-red
residue that remains behind is the rosin of commerce. Spirit of turpentine is used as a thinning
material in the paint and varnish industry, as a solvent for rubber and gutta-percha, and for the
manufacture of printing cloth, waters proofing compounds, leather dressings, synthetic camphor,
many pharmaceuticals such as liniments and many other chemicals. Rosin is used for preparing
paints and varnishes, polishes, waxes, soaps, oil cloth, ‗linoleum‘, sealing wax, printing ink,
roofing and floor covering adhesives, plastics, rubber, wood preservatives, disinfectants, drugs,
and chemicals. Rosin is also used in the paper industry for sizing, i.e., for imparting luster and
weight, and hindering absorption of ink or moisture. Rosin oil is used in the manufacture of
greases, lubricants, and solvents.

4. Cellulose Derived Products

Cellulose is a carbohydrate [(C6H10O5),] and is an important component of cell walls. Cotton was
originally used as a source of cellulose, but now wood pulp is generally employed. It is used in
the manufacture of such products as paper and rayon.
Manufacture of wood pulp - Woods are converted into a fibrous mass (wood pulp) by any of
the following three processes - (i) mechanical (most economical and highest yielding), (ii)
chemical, and (iii) semi-chemical.
i) Mechanical pulping (or ground wood process) - Only the light-colored and long-fibred
coniferous woods especially spruce are used. In India, salai wood (Boswellia serrata) is most
widely used for the process. The debarked wood is ground against a rapidly revolving
grindstone. The pulp obtained is washed and processed further. The process is high yielding
(about 95% of the dry weight of wood). However, lignin and other non-cellulose products do not
get removed and the pulp and its products deteriorate in strength and turn yellow with age. But
the paper has good opacity, bulk, and printing quality. Such pulp is largely used for newsprint,
wrapping and wall papers.

ii) Chemical pulping- Softwoods with little or no resin (spruce, fir, hemlock) and some
hardwoods are used in this process. The wood chips are cooked in various chemical solutions at
high temperatures to dissolve lignin, hemicellulose, and other non-cellulose components of cell
walls, leaving behind nearly pure cellulose fibers in the form of a pulp. Although it is a low-
yielding process (45-60%), it gives a high-grade paper, and most of the wood pulp currently used
is prepared by chemical methods. The bark of the wood is removed, and the logs arc reduced to
small chips (12-25 mm long and 3-4mm thick). Pulping is carried out in large steel digesters by
the sulphite, sulphate, or the soda process. Steam is blown in until the desired pressure and
temperature are obtained. At the end of the cooking process, the entire steam is blown out
through a valve at the bottom of the digester. The sudden release of pressure blows the chips

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 168

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

apart and the fibers are separated. The sulphite pulp is used in the manufacture of printing, bond,
tissue and wrapping papers, in rayon and newsprint. Soda pulp (mixed with sulphite pulp) is used
in the manufacture of printing paper for books, and better grade magazines. Sulphate pulp is used
for making a strong brown kraft wrapping paper (used in craft work and as cover paper), paper
bags and paper board.

(iii) Semi-chemical pulping - Hardwoods are generally used in this process. Wood chips are at
first softened by mild chemical action and thereafter defibration is accomplished by mechanical
action. This method yields 65- 85% pulp of the dry weight of wood. The higher yield in
comparison to chemical pulping is because of the retention of about 50% of the lignin and 30-
40% of the hemi-cellulose. Neutral sodium sulphite is the chemical widely used in cooking.
Wood is still in the form of solid soft chips after cooking and is defibered mechanically. These
pulps are well suited for making corrugated board, roofing felt, insulating board, and low-grade
wrappings. Good quality newsprint is manufactured from a mixture of semi-chemical pulp from
softwoods and mechanical pulp from hardwoods.

5. Paper Making
Cotton and linen rags were the principal sources till the last century and are still used for the
manufacture of the finest grade paper. Presently, wood fibers are the most important raw
materials used. About 97% of the world's paper and paperboard is made from wood pulp, of
which nearly 85% is derived from coniferous woods like spruces (Picea spp.), firs (Abies spp.)
and pines (Pinus spp.). The hardwoods used in paper making are poplar (Populus spp.), birch
(Betula spp.), beech (Fagus spp.) and eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp). Other paper making materials
include textile fibers such as jute, hemp, Manila and sisal hemp, crop wastes and rejects from
textile factories or cotton linter recovered during the processing of cotton seed. In India, the main
fibrous raw materials are bamboos (especially Bambusa arundinacea and Dendrocalamus
strictus), sabai-grass (Eulaliopsis binata), bagasse and salai-wood (Boswellia serrata). Rags,
hemp ropes, jute wastes, and wastepaper are also converted into pulp.

The pulp is then washed, screened, bleached, and lapped. Screening holds back knots, uncooked
chips and other foreign matter and separates the pulp into different grades by regulating the size
of perforations in the screen. The remaining non-cellulose fraction is removed by bleaching with
chlorine and its compounds. It whitens the pulp and helps in the removal of residual lignin. The
pulp may need to be bleached several times. Washing with water follows bleaching.
Pulp obtained from chemical and semi-chemical processes is subjected to a treatment called
beating. Besides separating the fibers from one another, it shortens and bruises them.
Consequently, they cling firmly forming a uniform sheet on the paper-making machine later. The
degree of beating influences the texture of the paper obtained. A variety of materials are added to
the pulp stock in the beater to improve the quality of the paper. Mineral fillers give weight and
opacity to the paper by filling the interstices. China clay, talc, calcium sulphate, zinc sulfide,

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 169

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

titanium oxide and calcium carbonate are some important fillers. Sizings such as rosin, soap,
wax, and starch make the surface smooth and impervious to ink. Currently, emulsions like
polyvinyl acetate, polyesters, vinyl chloride and acrylic resins are also being used for sizing.

After the pulp has been mixed thoroughly with all the ingredients, it is sent to the paper-making
machine. External sizings can be applied to dry sheets of paper. This paper is then calendared by
passing it between pairs of highly polished rollers to impart a smooth finish.

7.6 NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS

A wide array of goods are classified as non-timber forest products. They include both animal and
plant products. Some involve little processing, serving local markets or family needs; others
involve complex management and processing and are bound for national or international
markets. Below are some examples of non-timber forest products.
Simple technology processing: Food (e.g. fruits, nuts, berries, root crops, sugar plants) Culinary
herbs Mushrooms (e.g., for food or medicinal uses) Wild game Food insects Handicraft materials
(e.g. rattan, bamboo, beads) Floral products (e.g. cut flowers, moss, vines, cut greens).

Intermediate processing: Herbal medicines (e.g. kava, ginseng) Vegetable oils Dyes, tannins,
colorants Honey Seeds or propagative materials.

Complex processing: Essential oils (e.g. lemon grass, vetiver, patchouli, tea tree oil)
Pharmaceuticals and medicinal Herbs, spices, flavorings (e.g. vanilla, cinnamon) Resins, gums,
saps, and oils (e.g. rubber, latex) Fiber plants (e.g. sisal, wauke, hau)

The Importance of Non-timber Forest Products

For millennia, nontimber forest products have been essential for subsistence and economic
activities all around the world. NTFPs are also among the oldest and most long-standing of
internationally traded commodities, dating back thousands of years to ancient times continuing in
the present day.
According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO 1997), it has
been estimated that:
 80 per cent of the population of the developing world use NTFPs to meet some of their health
and nutritional needs
 Several million households worldwide depend heavily on NTFP products for income
 The estimated total value of world trade in NTFPs is approximately US$1,100 million.
 Recently, the importance of NTFPs is being rediscovered. Forests are being valued not
simply for their timber, but as intricate systems capable of sustained generation of a great
diversity of resources and services. NTFPs have substantial environmental, economic, and
cultural impacts.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 170

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

7.7 STATUS OF NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS

Non-wood forest products (NWFPs) deserve special mention because of their grant potential to
support an economic development consistent with the principles of Sustainable Forest
Management (SFM). Non-wood forest products (NWFPs) cover a wide range of products
(goods & services) from thatching materials to medicinal plants. These products are essential
needs of local communities. Some NWFPs, such as latex, gums, resins, essential oils, flavours,
fragrances and aroma chemicals help to promote value added processing, niche marketing and
export trade. Non-wood forest products (NWFPs) can provide increased employment
opportunities and income earning capabilities. Deriving the full benefits of some of the high
value NWFPs, requires specialized/ sophisticated skills ranging from bio prospecting, at the
resource end to quality control, storage and packaging at the market end. Management of
NWFPs will decide the sustainability of forestry in future.

Regeneration Status and Production of Various Categories of NWFPs

We have tried to very briefly discuss the regeneration status of the various plant and tree
species under the categories of leaves, bamboos, flosses, tannins and dyes etc. The section
includes the local name, brief distribution, uses and regeneration potential.

7.7.1 Leaves

1. Diospyros melanoxylon
Commonly known as ―tendu‖, but also called ―abnus‖ in Andhra Pradesh, ―kendu‖ in Orissa and
West Bengal, ―tembru‖ in Gujarat, ―kari‖ in Kerala, ―tembhurni‖ in Maharashtra and ―balitupra‖
in Tamil Nadu.
Uses: Leaves are used as wrappers of tobacco to produce bidi. Off – cuts of leaves are burned
and the ash is used in tooth powder.
Distribution: The species is abundant in Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. It generally
grows in dry mixed deciduous forests occurring alongside Shorea robusta and Tectona grandis.
Regeneration: Under natural conditions, seed germinates in the rainy season and seedling
production is plentiful. Seedlings tolerate considerable shade but for optional development more
light is required. Seedlings resist frost and drought but are vulnerable to excessive dampness. The
profusion and tenacity of root suckers ensure the survival and spread of the species without
planting. About 40 percent of fresh seed germinates. Germination starts after 36 days and is
complete in 80 days. It is the best raise seedling in long narrow baskets and transplants the
seedlings with the second rains. Coppicing yields the best quality leaves and also facilitates easy
collection.
Annual production and value: Around 300,000 tons of bidi leaves are produced annually in

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 171

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

India, of which over 85 percent is collected from Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra and
Andhra Pradesh. The values of these leaves are based on an average price of Rs. 15,000 per ton,
but rates vary from state to state, according to demand, availability of leaves and location of
bidi making industries.

2. Bauhinia vahlii
Local name of Bauhinia vahlii is ―Mahul‖ in Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, and ―siali‖ in
West Bengal and Orissa.
Uses: Leaves are used for making cups and plates and for wrapping foods.
Distribution: It is a giant climber and one of the most abundant Indian Bauhinia species. The
species is distributed in the sub- Himalayan region up to 3,000 meters above sea level in Assam,
Central India, Bihar, Eastern and Western Ghats. Commercial collection of leaves is done in
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.
Regeneration: The species grows naturally in the forests. No efforts to regenerate it artificially
are made. It is usually considered a weed because of the damage it does to healthy trees by
climbing and spreading over them.
Annual production and value: In Madhya Pradesh, about 780 tons of leaves are collected,
valued at approximately Rs. 2 million. In Orissa, over 160 tons of dried leaves and 86 million
leaf plates are marketed annually. Collectors receive only about Rs. 1.50 per kg and earn only
Rs. 8 to 10 per day. Therefore, collection of Bauhinia leaves is done only as a last resort during
the low- income.

7.7.2-Bamboos
Over 100 species of bamboo occur naturally in India. Bambusa arundinacea, B. tulda, B.
polymorpha, Dendrocalamus strictus, D. hamil-tonii, Melocanna baccifera and Ochlandra
travancorica are the most important species because of their wide availability. Dendrocalamus
strictus and Bambusa arundinacea are the two principal economic species.
Uses: Because of its fast growth, easy propagation, soil binding properties and early maturity,
bamboo is an ideal species for afforestation, soil conservation and social forestry programs.
Bamboo is strong, straight and light. It is hard and hollow and easy to work. It comes in many
sizes and has long fibres. Such characteristics make bamboo highly versatile. Among bamboo‘s
medicinal properties is banslochan, a secretion found in the culums used as a cooling tonic,
aphrodisiac and as a treatment for asthma and coughing.
Distribution: It is found almost everywhere. Its distribution is governed largely by rainfall,
0 0
temperature, altitude and soil conditions. Most bamboo requires a temperature of 8 to 36 C, a
minimum of 1,000 mm of rainfall annually and high humidity for good growth. Bamboo is an
important constituent of many deciduous and evergreen forests and extends from tropical to mild
temperate regions. It grows on flat alluvial plains up to altitudes of 3,050 m above mean sea
level.
Regeneration: Between seedling periods, reproduction of bamboo is by asexual means. In
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 172
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

bamboo clumps, rhizomes grow under-ground and produce new culms as annual shoots. This
process continues until the plant produces flowers and seeds, then dies. The most common
method of vegetative reproduction is by rhizomes or offset planting. Bamboo flowers
gregariously after long periods although sporadic flowering occurs almost every year. During the
years of gregarious flowering, the forest floor is carpeted with seedlings and the areas are
naturally regenerated.
Annual production and value: The price of bamboo varies with its end use. Most of the annual
cut is used in making paper or rayon for which producers receive about Rs. 300 per ton. The
value of the potential annual cut is Rs. 1,367 million.

7.7.3 Gums and Resins

Gums are translucent, amorphous substances which are degradation products of the cell wall of
woody species. They exude spontaneously from trees and are soluble in water. Resins also are
exudates but are soluble in alcohol not water. Resins often occur mixed with a high percentage
of essential oils known as oleoresins. When oleoresins include some gum, as in the case of
exudation from gums as in the case of exudation from Boswellia serrata, they are called
oleoresins.
Uses: Commercial gums enter the market in the form of dried exudates. The varieties having the
least color and highest adhesive power and viscosity are the most valuable. The finer grades are
used in clarifying liquors, ―finishing‖ silk, and in the preparation of quality water colors. In the
cosmetics and pharmaceutical industry, gums serve to emulsify or bind mixtures in creams
lotions and ointments. Resins are used in the manufacture of lacquers and varnishes. Resinous
substances can be used for waterproof coatings. They are used in medicines for sizing paper, for
incense and in the preparation of sealing wax and other products. Oleoresins are used in
perfumery and medicines for making varnishes and lacquers as fixative and in scenting soaps.

Annual production and value: Madhya Pradesh has the potential to produce as much gum
karaya as the rest of India combined. Approximately 1,400 tons of gum karaya are collected
annually from other states valued at about Rs. 60 million. Production of other gums is about
1,900 tons fetching Rs. 12 million annually. About 46,000 tons of oleoresins are obtained from
Pinus roxburghii each year, valued at approximately Rs. 2.8 million.

7.7.4 Oil seed

India has about 86 different oil seed is collected from Shorea robusta, Madhuca indica,
Mangifera indica, Garcinia indica, Azardirachta indica, Pongamia globra, Schleichera trijuga,
Salvadora oleoides, S.persica and Actinidaphne hookeri.

Uses: Sal (Shorea robusta) seed cotyledons yield the well known sal butter used for cooking and
lighting. Mahua (Madhuca indica) seed is used in the production of washing soaps, refined oil
can be utilized for cooking and also used in jute industry and in the manufacture of lubricating

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 173

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

greases, candles, bathing oils, fatty alcohols and stearic acid. It is good laxative and is used in
treating habitual constipations, piles and hemorrhoids. Karanj (Pongamia globra), both the seed
and oils are poisonous but they possess remarkable medicinal properties. The seed is
carminative, purifies and enriches the blood and is used for inflammation, earache, lumbago and
chest ailments. The oil is styptic, anti- helminthic and good for rheumatism and cutaneous
infections and as a remedy for scabies and herpes. Kusum (Schleichera trijuga) oil produced is
utilized by the soap industry. It is used in hair dressing and in medicines used in treating skin
diseases, rheumatism and headaches. Neem (Azardirachta indica) oil is used in soap and local
medicines. Mango (Mangifera indica) seed oil is used as a cocoa butter substitute. Khakan
(Salvadora oleoides) and pisa (Actinidaphne hookeri) oils are used in making soap. The fruit of
khakan is edible and is fed to cattle to increase milk yield.
Annual production and value: Sal seed is collected and marketed on a commercial scale. The
potential production is estimated at 5.5 million tons but current collection is only 100,000 tons,
valued at Rs. 200 million. Mahua has a potential kernel production of 1.1 million tons but the
annual collection is around 25,000 tons, valued at about Rs. 17 million.

7.7.5 Essential oils

It is also called volatile oils, are liquids which possess a pleasant taste and strong aromatic odor.
They occur in about 60 plant families and are frequent or abundant in the Labiatae, Rutaceae,
Geraniaceae, Umbellifereae, Asteraceae, Lauraceae, Graminae and Fabaceae families. Any part
of the plant may be the source of essential oil. They are used in making perfumes, soap and other
toiletries. Many have therapeutic and antiseptic properties. Several others are used as solvents in
the paint and varnish industries, as insecticides and deodorants and in the manufacture of
synthetic scents and flavors. The important essential oils produced in India are oils of
sandalwood, Lemon grass, palmarosa, eucalyptus, khus and linaloe.
Estimated production of some of the important essential oils produced in India are about total
2,830 tons.

7.7.6 Fibers and Flosses

A. Fibers: Fiber falls into three categories, soft, hard and surface. Soft fibers are obtained from
the bast or stem of plants; hard fibers from the leaf; and surface fibers are those which are borne
on the surfaces of stem, leaves, seeds etc. based on their general use they are classified as textile
fibers, brush fibers, plaiting and weaving fibers, filling fibers, natural fabrics and paper making
fibres. The most important fibers coming from the forests of India are from the families of
Bambacaceae, Sterculiaceae, Tiliaceae, Fabaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Myrtaceae, Moraceae,
Urticaceae, Palmaceae, Musaceae and Gramineae. Various species are commonly used by cottage
industries but only Agave sisalana and Sterculia villosa have commercial importance. Agave fibers are
used in making ropes and mats. The fiber is also useful for cordage, twins and nets.
Regeneration: Agave plants usually grow in semi-arid tropical regions. They are propagated
from rhizomes or bulbils. Sterculia villosa is mainly found in Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 174

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Kerala, although it is scattered throughout most of India.

Annual production and value: It is estimated that around 2,500 tons per annum of agave fibers
are produced in the country, with a present value of Rs. 45 million.
B. Flosses: Flosses are obtained from certain wild fruits. Important species are Bombax ceiba
and Ceiba pentandra. Bombax ceiba grows throughout the Indian plains and Deccan plateau.
Ceiba pentandra trees are found in Western and Southern states and the Andaman Islands.
Uses: The floss from Bombax ceiba is obtained from capsule and is known as ―Indian kapok‖.
The floss is soft and strong and used in life-saving devices for boats, stuffing for cushions,
pillows and mattresses, thermal insulation and sound proof covers and walls.
Flosses obtained from the fruit of Ceiba pentandra are elastic and are used in the manufacture of
life belts and buoys.
Annual production and value: About 300 tons of kapok are produced annually in India with a
value of Rs. 30 million.

7.7.7 Grasses
Grasses are used for paper making, cattle fodder, matting, ropes, thatching and in manufacturing
furniture, baskets and screens.
Regeneration: Eulaliopsis binata, Saccharum munja, Cenchrus ciliaris, Vetiveria zizanioides,
Thysanolaena maxima and some other fodder grasses are planted using cutting, slips or seeds.

Annual production and value: Some 0.3 to 0.4 million tons of grass could be harvested
annually in India. Some 60,000 to 80,000 tons of sabai grass are purchased each year by paper
mills. The price of sabai grass is around Rs. 300 per ton.

7.7.8 Tannin and dyes

A. Tannin: Tannins are polyphenolic compounds widely distributed among India‘s flora. They
occur in varying concentrations in all plant material, but only certain plants contain
concentrations permitting commercial exploitation. Tannins are classified as condensed or
hydrolizable. Different parts of plants may contain different types of tannins.

Uses: Ninety (90) percent of the total vegetable tannins in the world are used by the leather
industry. India has the largest livestock population in the world.
The important tannin yielding plants species are Terminalia chebul (Myrobalan), Acacia
mollissima (Wattle), Acacia nilotica (Babul), Cassia auriculata (avaram) etc.

Annual production and value: Around 78,000 to 100,000 tons of myrobalan nuts are estimated
to be produced annually, valued at 15 to 20 million. Over 23,000 tons of wattle barks are
harvested every year, valued at Rs. 38 million. Annual production of avaram bark is estimated at
23,000 tons, valued at about Rs. 35 million.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 175

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

B. Dyes: Over 2,000 plant pigments are known of which only a few are of a commercial
importance. Various parts of plants like roots, stems, bark, leaves, fruits and seed may
contain colouring material which can be exploited commercially. Some plants have more than
one colour depending upon which parts of the plants are used. Dyes are substances that impart
colour to a material and are generally soluble in water. The pigments are generally not soluble in
water. To be applied to a staining material they are first ground into a fine powder and
thoroughly mixed with some liquid (dispersing agent). Vegetable dyes have not been able to
successfully compete with artificially dyes in recent years.

7.7.9 Drugs and Spices

India‘s medicinal plant wealth is comprised of about 1,500 species. Every region of India has
contributed to its development. Drugs have been classified depending upon the plant organ from
which they are derived: roots and other underground parts, bark, wood, leaves, flowers and fruit
and seed. The important species are Dioscorea deltoidea, Salanum khasianum, Costus speciosus,
Datura stramonium, Atropa acuminate, Rauwolfia serpentine and cassia angustifolia.

7.7.10 Spices
Spices are aromatic vegetable products characterized by pungency, strong flavors and sweet or
bitter taste. They occur naturally in some forests and are also cultivated in some regions. The
important spice–yielding plants are Alpinia glanga (greater galangal), Cinnamomum zeylancium
(cinnamon or dalchini), Curcuma spp. (haldi), Elettaria cardamomum (cardamom) and Piper
longum and P.nigrum (pepper).

7.7.11 Animal products

A. Lac: Commonly known as ―shellac‖ in its refined flake form, lac is a resinous secretion from
the insect Laccifer lacca, which feeds on the plant sap.
Uses: Lac is presently used for various purposes in plastics, electrical, adhesive, leather, wood
finishing, printing, polish and varnish, ink and other industries. It is also the principal ingredients
of sealing wax.
Annual production and value: About 14,500 to 20,000 tons of stick lac is produced annually in
India. Its price varies from Rs. 4,500 to 16,000 per ton depending upon quality most of the
produced sells around Rs. 14,000 per ton. Thus, the total value of the annual production in India
is Rs. 203 million to Rs. 280 million.
B. Honey and wax: Honey forms a natural nutritious food for the rural people. It is also used
widely for medicinal purposes. Two species of bees, Apis dorsata (rock bee) and Apis indica
(Indian bee) produce honey. The former is wild in montane and sub-montane regions throughout
India.
Annual production and value: About 250 tons of rock bee honey and 98 tons of Indian bee
honey are produced annually. At a price of Rs. 40 per kg, the total value of honey produced is
Rs. 139 million. Bee‘s wax is used in the manufacture of furniture and floor polishes, dressing
and water proofing of leather goods. About 28 tons of waxes are produced annually, valued at
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 176
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

approximately Rs. 1.6 million.

C. Silk: India produces four kinds of silk: mulberry, tassar, muga and eri. Silk is obtained from
cocoons of silk worms. Its production has four components; 1) cultivation of host plants for silk
worms, 2) rearing silk worms up to cocoon stage, 3) reeling of cocoons into continuous filaments
called raw silk and 4) silk throwing and weaving by which filaments are twisted and woven into
fabrics. The silk worm Bombyx mori is fed on mulberry leaves cultivated in plantations. There
are other silk worms which are found wild on forest trees; the best known of these is Antheraea
paphia, which produces the famous tassar silk of India. It feeds on several trees such as
Anogeissus latifolia, Terminalia tomentosa, T. arjuna, Lagerstroemia parviflora and Madhuca
indica.
Annual production and value: Estimated annual production of tassar silk is 130 tons.
Production of other types of silk exceeds 10,000 tons.

7.7.12 Edible plant products

Natural forests supplement the food supply for human beings. Several forest fruits and seeds,
flowers, rhizomes, tubers, roots, barks etc. are consumed by people during periods of food
scarcity and in normal times. A number of tree species provide such edible products. Important
fruits are from Bachanania lanzan (Chironji), Anacordium occidentale (kaju), Pinus gerardiana
(chilgoza), Emblica officinalis (aonla), Tamarindus indica (tamarind), Aegle marmelos (bel),
Feronia elephantum (kaitha), Artocarpus lakoocha (Barhal), Syzygium cumini (jamun), Annona
squamosa (custard apple), Carrisa opaca (karaunda), Juglans regia (akhrot), Moringa oleifera
(drum stick) and Zizyphus jujube (ber).
The following forest species are particularly important in producing delicacies consumed by
rural people: Buchanamia lanzan is commonly known as chironji, achaar or char. It is frequently
found in dry, mixed deciduous forests of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa,
Maharashtra, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh. The market price is about Rs.120 per kg.
Anacardium occidentale is a small tree, known as cashew nut or kaju. It is grown in Kerala,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Goa and Western Maharashtra. The average yield of
kernels per tree ranges from 9 to 18 kg. The price of raw kernel is Rs. 30 per kg and that of
processed nut is from Rs. 80 to 120 per kg. Pinus gerardiana is an evergreen pine known as
―chilgoza‖ or ―neoza‖. The species is endemic to a part of Himachal Pradesh in the Himalayan
dry temperate forests. A tree on an average yield about 7.4 kg of seeds.
Natural regeneration is limited because local inhabitants aggressively collect the cones to extract
the chilgoza nuts. Attempts to raise chilgoza plantations by sowing have not succeeded because
the seeds are readily eaten by various animals. Some success has been achieved, however, in
planting seedlings and by heteroplastic grafting. About 140 tons of nuts are produced every
year. They are priced at approximately Rs. 100 per kg.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 177

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

7.8 SUMMARY

 Timber plants are usually medium to large trees which provide wood. These are trees are
broadly classified into trees of soft, semi-hard and hardwoods. Hardwood is derived from
angiospermous (mainly dicotyledonous) plants, while Softwoods are obtained from
gymnosperms (mainly coniferous).
 Teak, shisham, pine and cedars are the major timber yielding trees from the forests of India.
These are important commercial timber crops. Distribution, wood characteristics and specific
uses of these species has been discussed.
 Wood procured from diverse sources is used for various purposes such as fuel, construction
material, containers, chemical products, medicines.
 Wood is processed to get pulp which is used in the manufacture of paper. Mechanical and
chemical processing of the pulp is done to get paper.
 A wide array of goods are classified as non-timber forest products. They include both animal
and plant products.
 The Non-timber forest products are- Food (e.g. fruits, nuts, berries, root crops, sugar plants)
Culinary herbs Mushrooms (e.g., for food or medicinal uses) Wild game, Food insects
Handicraft materials (e.g. rattan, bamboo, beads) Floral products (e.g. cut flowers, moss,
vines, cut greens).
 Nontimber forest products have been essential for subsistence and economic activities all
around the world.

7.9 GLOSSARY
Antihelminthic: Medicine used to destroy parasitic worms.
Axillary: Situated in or growing from an angle between a branch or leaf and the axis from which
it arises.
Archaeological: study of remains (such as tools, pottery, jewelry, stone walls, and monuments)
of past human life and activities.
Bacteriostatic: Compound or drug that inhibits growth and reproduction of bacteria.
Carminative: A drug that helps in preventing formation of gas in stomach or intestine.
Coagulant: A substance that causes blood or another liquid to get thickened
Decorticating: The process of removing the outer coverings (such as husk) from something
seed.
Dorsal: Something present on the on or toward the upper side of the body.
Endemic: Growing or existing in a certain place or region.
Ethnological: Study of different societies and cultures.
Expectorant: A medicine used to treat cough or promotes the expulsion of mucus from the
respiratory tract.
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 178
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Fungiostatic: An agent that inhibit the growth of fungi.

Glabrous: Smooth surface.
Heterozygosity: Presence of two different alleles of a particular gene or genes by an individual.
Hybridization: The process breeding with an individual of another species or variety.
Impervious: Anything which is not influenced or affected by something.
Inventory: A detailed list of something.
Parched: Extremely or completely dried.
Perforation: Presence of holes in something.
Peristalsis: Contraction and relaxation of a tubular muscular system, especially the alimentary
canal.
Phenotype: Observable physical characteristics of an individual.
Plaigiotropic: Plant part or organ that tends to take up an oblique or horizontal position with
relation to the main axis.
Progenitor: Parent or direct ancestor of an organism.
Prostrate: Lying face down or bending downward.
Pungent: Something with a strong smell or taste.
Rudimentary: Not developed.
Sessile: Directly attached by its base without a stalk or peduncle.
Stimulant: An agent or drug that increases the functional activity or efficiency of an organism.
Stomachic: An agent or drug that stimulate gastric activity.
Ubiquitous: Something that is found everywhere or in several places at the same time.
Ventral: Something present on the upper or toward the front part of the body.

7.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

7.10.1 State whether the statements are ‘True’ or ‘False’

i) The advantage of using plywood is that the tensile strength is equal in all directions.
ii) The most valuable timber is obtained from Sal.
iii) Plywood is made from common timber.
iv) Timber from Himalayan Cedar is rarely attacked by white ants or fungi.
v) Seasoning of timber is done to increase its moisture content.
vi) The heart wood represents the central core which is surrounded by annual rings.
vii) Charcoal, pyroligneous acid and wood tar are the principal products of hardwood distillation.

7.10.1 Answer Key

i) True; ii) False; iii) True; iv) True; v) False; vi) True; vii) False

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 179

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

7.11 SUGGESTED READING

 Michael H. Ramage, Henry Burridge, George Fereday, Thomas Reynolds, Darshil U.Shah,
Guanglu Wu, Li Yu, Patrick Fleming, Danielle Densley-Tingley, Julian Allwood, Paul
Dupree, P.F. Linden, Oren Scherman The wood from the trees: The use of timber in
construction. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Volume 68, Part 1, February 2017,
Pages 333-359.

7.12 REFERENCES

 Source:https://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fpreviews.123rf.com%2
Fimages%2Fyotrak%2Fyotrak1207 %2Fyotrak120700225%2F14653832-teak-trees-in-
anagricultural-forest-thailand.jpg
 Source: https://plantlet.org/wpcontent/ uploads/2020/10/IMG_20201024_182510.jpg
 https://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2F
www.quintadosouriques.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads% 2F2021%2F05%2Fdalbergia
sissoo-1540375.jpg
 Source: https://vinishsethi.files.wordpress.com/2015/01/wood_cross _section_001.jpg
 https://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fs3.envato.com%2Ffiles%2F209
044720%2Fcgaxis_models_69_03a.jpg&imgrefurl=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2F3docean.net%2Fitem
%2Fscots-pine-tree-pinus-sylvestris-94m%2F18308889&tbnid
 b)https://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fus.123rf.com%2F450wm%2F
alfredosaz%2Falfred osaz2010%2Falfredosaz201000157%2F157071537-stone-pine-branch-
with
 https://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.pinetum.org%2FLovett%2
Fewhitelobbarkwood.jpg&imgrefurl=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.pinetum.org%2FLovett%2Fbar
kandwood.htm&tbnid=d5uKTBH5lhl7NM&vet=12ahUKEwj4s
 pirzKH0AhUNS30KHViBB14QMygvegUIARDAAg..i& doci
 https://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fupload.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki
pedia%2Fcommons%2Fthumb%2F9%2F96%2FMoroccan_Atlantic_cedar.jpg%2F170pxMo
roccan_Atlantic_cedar.jpg
 https://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.eekwi.org%2Fsites%2Fde
fault%2Ffiles%2Fwhitecedarcloseup.jpg&imgrefurl=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.eekwi.org%2F
plants%2Fnorthern-whitecedar&tbnid=OMOfvbiJI7c9QM&vet=
 https://agroforestry.org/the-overstory/212-overstory-53-nontimber-forest-products-an-
introduction

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 180

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

7.13 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Write a brief account of two commercially important timber yielding plants of our country.
State its distribution, morphological characteristics and uses.
2. Write short notes on the following:
i) Wood distillation
ii) Taping for Naval stores
iii) Making of wood pulp
3. Give a brief account of various steps involved in making of paper.
4. What are non-timber forest products? Describe about any two non-timber forest products.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 181

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

UNIT-8 SUGAR AND STARCH, ENERGY CROPS

Contents

8.1 Objectives
8.2 Introduction
8.3 Sugar Crops
8.3.1 Sugarcane
8.3.2 Sugar beet
8.3.3 Other sugar yielding plants
8.4 Starches and starch products
8.4.1 Potato
8.4.2 Cassava
8.4.3 Other sources of commercial starch
8.4.4 Starch products
8.5 Energy crops
8.5.1 Characteristics of Bioenergy Crops
8.5.2 Converting crops to energy
8.5.3 Brief description of the some biofuel crops
8.6 Summary
8.7 Self-Assessment Questions
8.7.1 Multiple choice questions
8.7.2 Fill in the blanks
8.8 References
8.9 Suggested Readings
8.10 Terminal Questions
8.10.1 Short answer type questions
8.10.2 Long answer type questions

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 182

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

8.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you would be able to:
 Introduce to sugar, starch and energy crops.
 Define the sugar yielding plants;
 Explain the general description, systematic position, morphology, cultivation and
economic importance of sugarcane and sweet potato;
 Compile or prepare the list of sugar and starch yielding plants;
 Describe the starch yielding plants and explain about potato and cassava.
 Explain about by-products of sugarcane and starch products.
 Describe the energy crops and its types and sources.

8.2 INTRODUCTION
The cells of the body require a constant and steady supply of energy to perform basic and
essential functions properly. The majority of cells lean toward this energy in the simplest form of
starch that is available. However, this is typically not feasible and can necessitate additional
digesting. Sugar and starch, are two forms of carbohydrates, belong to a class of organic
substances that typically include carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the ratio 1:2:1. Carbohydrates
are also known as saccharides, the word saccharide comes from Greek word Sakkron which
means Sugar. They are the major source of energy in many organisms, serve to store energy, and
are structural components in some organisms.
The carbohydrates are divided into three major classes depending on the number of monomer
units: monosaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides, which have the
general formula CnH2nOn and cannot be further hydrolyzed into simple carbohydrates, are the
least complicated carbohydrates. They are the building blocks of the more complex
oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. On the basis of number of carbon in main chain
monosaccharides are also classified as trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses and heptoses. The most
common plant monosaccharides are glucose and fructose.
Oligosaccharides (Oligo: few) are composed of short chains of monosaccharide units, joined by
characteristic linkages called glycosidic bonds and yield simple sugars on hydrolysis.
Disaccharide and trisaccharide are the names for oligosaccharides with two and three
monosaccharide units, respectively. Sucrose, maltose are two common examples of
disaccharides. Sucrose (C12H22O11) is disaccharides because on hydrolysis it gives one molecule
of glucose and one molecule of fructose.
Polysaccharides are complex molecules of high molecular weight. They are made up of a lot of
repeating monosaccharide units joined by glycosidic connections. Similar to disaccharides, they
can be hydrolyzed to release their individual sugars. The two most prevalent polysaccharides in
plants are starch and cellulose.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 183

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

In general, polysaccharides are amorphous, insoluble in water, and tasteless, whereas

monosaccharides and oligosaccharides are crystalline solids, soluble in water, and sweet to taste.
These substances are collectively referred to as sugars. There are two main types of
carbohydrates found in food sources which are called basic carbohydrates, which include
necessary sugars, and complex carbohydrates, which include starch and fibre. Carbohydrates
make up the bulk of the dry weight of plants. Although there are many kinds, sugars, starches
and the celluloses predominate.
The idea of energy crops has been around for many years, even though the phrase may be
unknown to people. Indeed, up until the discovery of oil in 1859, agricultural and forestry crops,
as well as their byproducts, were a significant source of energy. The world is now more aware
than ever of the need to lessen dependence on fossil fuels due to declining fossil fuel sources and
the growing understanding that rising carbon dioxide emissions are causing climate change.
Because of this, there is now more interest in promoting bioenergy, particularly biofuels, as a
renewable energy source. Theoretical biomass resources are potentially the world‘s largest
sustainable bioenergy source including about 220 billion oven-dry tons or 4,500 EJ (Electron
Jule) of annual primary production. By 2050, of these, there may be 273- 1381 EJ/yr provided by
bioenergy crops (Smeets et al., 2007). The base for bioenergy is agricultural plants that act as
thermochemical energy storage systems and solar energy collectors. Biomass produced from
bioenergy crops will be helpful in the fight against GCC (Global Carbon Council) and boost the
use of renewable energy sources globally (Karp and Shield, 2008). However, a potential
mitigation strategy that involves the use of biological systems to store carbon and lower GHG
(Green House Gases) emissions faces sophisticated and contentious equity issues (IPCC, 2007;
Lal, 2008a). Additionally, they absorb an identical quantity of carbon dioxide that is produced
when burned, thus technically their combustion produces no net carbon dioxide emissions
(carbon sequestration).
Conventional grain and oilseed crops, crop residues, perennial herbaceous and woody crops,
perennial oilseed crops, halophytes, and algae etc. are potential bioenergy crops that are
anticipated help tackle GCC (Eisenbies et al., 2009). The present unit introduces you to about
Sugar, starch and energy crops. Some common, important sugar and starch yielding crops and
energy crops are listed in the following table 8.1.
Table 8.1: List of some important sugar, starch and energy yielding crops
S. N. Botanical Name Common Name Family
A. Sugar Yielding Plants
1 Saccharum officinarum L. Sugarcane Poaceac
2 Beta vulgaris L. Sugarbeet Chenopodiaceae
3 Acer saccharum Marshall Sugar maple Sapindaceae
4 Hordeum spp.L. Barley Poaceac
5 Sorghum bicolor L. Moench Sweet sorghum Poaceac

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 184

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

6 Phoenix dactylifera L. Wild date Palm Arecaceae

7 Caryota urensi L. Toddy palm, Sago Palm Arecaceae
8 Cocos nucifera L. Coconut Palm Arecaceae
B. Starch Yielding Plants
1 Solanum tuberosum L. Potato Solanaceae
2 Manihot esculenta Crantz. Cassava Euphorbiaceac
3 Canna edulis Achira Queensland arrowroot Cannacene
4 Colocasia esculenta L. Tam Araceae
5 Alocasic macrorrhiza (L.) G.Don Gaint taro Araceae
6 Curcuma angustifolia Roxb. East Indian Arrowroot Zingiberaceae
7 Dioscorea alata L. Greater Asiatic Yam Dioscoreaceae
8 Dioscorea rotundata Poir White Guinea Yam Dioscoreaceae
9 Dioscorea cayenensis Lam. Yellow Guinea Yam Dioscoreaceae
10 Dioscorea bulbifera Benth. Air Potato Dioscoreaceae
11 Dioscorea trifida L. Cush-Cush, Yampee Dioscoreaceae
12 Caryota urens L. Sago Palm Arecaceae
13 Cycas circinalis L. Sago Palm, Queen sago Cycadaceae
14 Cycus revolute Thunb. Japanese Sago Palm Cycadaceae
15 Zea mays L. Maize Poaceae
16 Triticum spicies L. Wheat Poaceae
17 Oriza sativai L. Rice Poaceae
C. Energy crops
1 Panicum virgatum L. Switchgrass Poaceae
2 Pennissetum purpureum Schum. Elephant grass Poaceae
3 Populus spp. Poplar Salicaceae
4 Salix spp. Willow Salicaceae
5 Prosopis spp. Mesquite Fabaceae
6 Miscanthus spp. Silvargrass Poaceae
7 Medicago sativa L. Alfalfa Fabaceae
8 Phalaris arundinacea L. Reed canary grass Poaceae

8.3 SUGAR CROPS

Without the use of sugar as an energy source and a sweetener, it would be difficult to envisage
our lives. All of the ancient world's great civilizations, however, were sugar-free. Although
honey is mentioned in all three of these sacred texts—the Bible, Talmud, and Koran—neither of
them specifically mentions sugar or sugarcane. Undoubtedly, honey was the first sweetening
agent used by our ancestors, and man domesticated bees to ensure a constant supply (apiculture).
Up until the Middle Ages, sugar was a scarce resource in Europe and was only consumed by the
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 185
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

upper class. It was offered as medication in "apothecaries" stores. But by the end of the fifteenth
century, sugar had taken the place of honey as a sweetener, and in the nineteenth and twentieth
century‘s, it was a cheap and widely available meal for all people.
The term "sugar" refers broadly to a variety of carbohydrates with varying degrees of sweetness.
Sugars, however, form a single unit of the atom, sometimes known as a monosaccharide. These
sugar atoms can exist as glucose, fructose, or mannose. Then, starches again form lengthy chains
of solitary sugar atoms joined by a strong linkage.
All green plants produce sugar, ensuring that they all have some sugar content. However, much
of the manufactured product is used directly in plant metabolize that very little usually
accumulates. Storage sugars are found in a variety of plant parts, including the roots of some
plants (like beets, carrots, and parsnips), the stems of others (like sugar maples and sorghum), the
flowers of some plants (like palm trees), the bulbs of some plants (like onions), and many
fruits. There are several kinds of sugar, principal among which are sucrose or cane sugar, glucose
or grape sugar and fructose or fruit sugar. They all appear to provide the plant with a reserve
food supply.
Sugar is essential to human nutrition. It makes the ideal nourishment because it can be easily
assimilated by the body. Its primary benefit is as an energy-producing substance, and it is
particularly well suited for use after strenuous activity. The purification, refinement, and
extraction of sugar from plant tissues have given rise to a sizable industry. Particularly valuable
plant-based products include sugar. It is only surpassed in importance by wheat, maize, rice, and
potatoes. However, there aren't many sources for this sector. The only commercial sources of
sugar are sugar cane, sugar beet, sugar maple, maize, sorghum, and a few palms. All of these
plant species store sucrose as their primary form of sugar.

8.3.1 SUGARCANE (Saccharum L. spp.)

8.3.1.1 General Account
Sugarcane is an industrial crop, produced from either sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) or sugar beet
(Beta vulgaris). It is a monocotyledonous crop with a tall growth habit that is grown in tropical
and subtropical areas of the world, primarily for its capacity to store high concentrations of
sucrose, or sugar, in the stem Along with making a sizable contribution to the national
exchequer; it directly or indirectly employs more than a million people. The cane is put to a
variety of stressors and environmental conditions in commercial agriculture. Red rot disease and
unpredictable moisture availability in the subtropics of India seriously reduce cane productivity.
It is an industrial crop with a production volume of 300 million tonnes in India and an area of
roughly 4 million hectares.
Modern sugarcane cultivars that are cultivated for sugar production are founded on interspecific
hybrids between Saccharum spontaneum and S. officinarum (Saccharum spp.) that were then
subjected to repeated backcrosses to S. officinarum (Fig. 8.1). The majority of commercially

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 186

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

available types today were developed through crossings between existing commercial or pre-
commercial hybrids. An old crop, sugarcane has been used as a garden crop since about 2500
BC. The People's Republic of China (hence referred to as "China"), Papua New Guinea, and
India are regarded to be the origins of the ancestral species that gave rise to sugarcane. Today,
sugarcane is primarily grown as a commercial crop in South America (such as Argentina, Brazil,
and Colombia), North and Central America (such as Guatemala, Mexico, and the United States),
Asia (such as China, India, and Thailand), Africa (such as Egypt, Kenya, and South Africa),
Australia, and the Pacific Islands. Around the world, several cultivation techniques are used.

Fig. 8.1 Sugarcane crop in farmer field (Source: https://www.indiaspend.com/....Sugarcane)

Sugarcane is the primary source of sugar, it is tropical by origin and cultivated in all the warm
nations. India, Cuba, Pakistan and Brazil are the main producers of sugar. Significant
productions are also carried out in the southern United States, the West Indies, many Central and
South American nations, Mexico, Egypt, Java, China, Taiwan, Philippines, South Africa, and
Australia. The largest producer of sugarcane is Cuba, which is also referred to as the "world's
sugar bowl." It is thought that sugarcane began in the South Pacific, most likely in New Guinea,
and then expanded throughout most of Southeast Asia.
It is known that sugarcane has been grown in India from prehistoric times, and by the end of the
fourth century B.C., it had become a significant crop. Alexander's soldiers discovered the locals
making "honey" from a grass-like substance without the help of bees during the invasion of India
(327 B.C.). These grasses indeed contained the plant's sweet juice, and the name Saccharum has
been assigned to them. In China, sugarcane cultivation began before the first century B.C. At the
start of the sixth century A.D., it arrived in Persia (now Iran). It is believed that Columbus
brought it from the Canary Islands to the New World. This plant had a wide geographic
distribution by the 17th century. Almost every state in India grows sugarcane, with Uttar Pradesh

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 187

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

leading the way, followed by Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Haryana,
Punjab, Bihar, Orissa, Gujarat, and Rajasthan. Sugarcane accounts for around 2% of all farmed
land in India. This crop needs rich soil, a lengthy growing season, an abundance of water year-
round, at least 200-225 cm of annual rainfall, temperatures ranging from 16 to 50°C, and an
average temperature of 26°C. It requires a short, dry season during later stages when sugar is
being stored in the Stem.
8.3.1.2 Sugarcane growing regions
The chief sugarcane producing regions lie between 30 degree north and south of the equator.
Cuba is called sugar bowl of the world. The list of 05 sugar producing countries of the world as
per latest report of the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization are given below:

Rank Country % Yield

1 Brazil 37.8%

2 India 19.6%

3 China 6.9%

4 Thiland 5.4%

5 Pakistan 3.2%

In India more than four million acres of land are under sugarcane cultivation. The Indian Institute
of Sugarcane Research (IISR) situated in Lucknow. The list of top five sugarcane producing
states in India:

Rank States
1 Uttar Pradesh
2 Maharashtra
3 Karnataka
4 Tamilnadu
5 Andhra Pradesh

8.3.1.3 Origin
There are two geographic origins of sugarcane cultivation:
1) Islands in the South Pacific, particularly New Guinea, are home to the most diversity in
the genus Saccharum. The majority of botanists believe that cultivated sugarcane
originated in this area, migrated eastward, and finally established itself as an important
crop in various South East Asian nations.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 188

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

2) North India is the second centre. The tall, large, barreled tropical species S, officinarum
maybe originated from S. robustum in New Guinea. As it migrated outwards it became
modified to the new natural habitat with species of related Erianthus maximus or
Sclerostachya fusca. The North Indian sugarcane S. sinense (Chinese or Japanese cane)
and S. barberi (Indian canes) are believed to have originated in North India by natural
hybridization between migrating form of S. officinarum the S. spontaneum (wild cane).
8.3.1.4 Systematic Position:

Kingdom Plantae (Plants)

Sub-kingdom Tracheobionta (Vascular plants)
Super-division Spermatophyta (Seed plants)
Division (Phylum) Magnoliophyta (Flower bearing plants)
Class Liliopsida (Monocotyledons)
Subclass Commelinidae
Order Poales
Family Poaceae (Grass family)
Genus Saccharum L.
Species officinarum
8.3.1.5 General Description
Sugarcane belongs to the genus Saccharum L., traditionally placed in the tribe Andropogoneae
of the grass family (Poaceae). The cereal genera Sorghum and Zea, as well as tropical and
subtropical grasses, are all a part of this group.
According to D'Hont et al. (1998), the genus Saccharum consists of six species: S. spontaneum,
S. officinarum, S. robustum, S. edule, S. barberi, and S. sinense. These are polyploid or aneuploid
and are native to the old world. These species are building blocks for all breeding work because
they intercross and hybridize easily. Today, interspecific hybrid sugarcane makes up the majority
of the crop. The programme of producing these hybrids is known as "Nobilisation". The chief
characters of five species are as follows:

S. officinarum (2n=80) known as noble or thick cane. It is soft, thick-stemmed, large barreled
with a low fibre and high sucrose content. Although this species is a significant source of sugar,
it cannot be farmed successfully in the majority of locations since it is vulnerable to nearly all of
the serious illnesses that have been recorded on the crop. However, S. officinarum is not a simple
polyploid, as it is both an autopolyploid (more than two sets of homologous chromosomes
derived from a single species) and also an allopolyploid (possessing two or more unlike sets of
chromosomes) (Sreenivasan et al., 1987).

S. barberi (2n=82 to 124) known as Indian cane. The species resembles a cross between a wild
and a noble cane. These types often have a strong root system, tiny barrels, increased fibre
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 189
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

content, and a considerable amount of juice. They have become prominent because of immunity
to Sereh (a blackening and degeneration of the fanlike tops, is caused by an East Indian virus.).
S. sinense (2n=116 to 118) commonly known as Chinese or Japanese canes. These are hard and
small-barreled. It has a great vigour, has wide adaptability and matures early. It may be grown in
north India and is tolerant to light frost and drought. Despite having less sugar than canas, they
are nevertheless fairly resistant to root rot, sereh, and some even have mosaic disease resistance.
S. spontaneum (2n=40 to 128) known as wild cane. It is an active, slender, grassy form,
frequently with thin stalks, virtually devoid of sucrose. It is drought-resistant, immune to sereh,
mosaic, and root rot, and has a deep penetrating root system. It is utilised extensively in breeding
programmes.
S. robustum (2n=80) wild cane. This species has the tallest canes, is quite vigorous, and is
highly adaptable. It is resistant to disease and has a high fibre but low sugar content. The
breeding programme for cane is extremely dependent on this species.
8.3.1.6 Morphology
Sugarcane is a perennial rhizomatous giant grass that grows 3 to 8 metres tall and often has a
diameter of 3.8 to 6.0cm, it has a thick, strong aerial stem. It develops in clumps (stands). The
cane can be virtually white, yellow, deep green, purple red, or violet in colour. The stem is
joined; the joints are smaller at the base and gradually get longer and thicker as they rise,
reaching a maximum beyond which they get smaller and smaller until they end in an
inflorescence (Fig. 8.2).
A cane joint is made up of five obvious components:
i) A node, which is the place where the stem and leaf sheath are joined;
ii) The root band, which consists of a number of tiny, translucent dots known as the root
primordia or initials;
iii) The intercalary meristem, a small meristematic zone slightly above the root band that is
in charge of internode growth;
iv) The internode, a structure in the shape of a barrel that is covered in a very thick waxy
bloom; and
v) The lateral buds, which are arranged alternately on the stem's opposite sides and are
protected from harm by the leaf sheath's tight wrapping around the internode (Fig. 8.3).
Anatomically, the stem (rind) is made up of many layers of lignified cells with thick walls that
protect the cells beneath. Internally, it is made up of soft, light-colored tissue called pith, in
which numerous fibro-vascular bundles are embedded. A significant portion of the juice—
between 85 and 88 percent of the weight of the fresh cane juice—is present in the parenchyma
cells that surround them. The juice has a sugar level that ranges from 12 to 17%. The leaves are
constructed using a standard graminaceous pattern and are alternately attached in two rows on
either side of the stem at the nodes. The leaf blade is a long, flat structure with a finely serrated

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 190

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

edge that is typically 2.5–10 cm wide and 0.9–1.5m or longer. It is frequently covered with hairs
that cause painful skin punctures.
The light silvery auburn inflorescence, often known as a "tassel" or a "arrow," is an open panicle
with feathers or wool that is between 0.3 and 0.6 metres in length and is only produced by
experimental or leftover plants. The base of each spikelet is wrapped by a ring of long, silky
hairs, giving the inflorescence its distinctive silky appearance. The blade of the leaf that
immediately encircles the inflorescence is fairly short (0.6-0.9 m), while the leaf sheath is quite

Fig. 8.2 Plant parts of sugarcane: (a) Whole plant, (b) Piece of mature cane with lateral buds, (c)
Inflorescence, (d) Arrangement of the Spikelets (Racemose) (e) A flourished spikelet
(Source: https://www.istockphoto.com/photos/sugar-cane)

zone

Fig. 8.3 Sketch of cane stalk with two node, internode, root initial and lateral bud

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 191

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

lengthy and is referred to as the flag.Both spikelets have a similar structural layout, with the
lower flower being represented only by a sterile lemma and each containing a pair of glumes that
encircle both florets. The lemma is, however, missing in the upper flower of S. offlcinarum (but
is present in S. spontaneum and its hybrids) whereas the palea is a small, thin, narrow structure.
Despite this, the higher fertile flower's palea is tightly encircled by the lemma of the lower
flower. A centrally located gynoecium with two styles that finish in feathery stigmas, two
lodicules, three stamens, and three stamens are all present (Fig. 8.4). Caryopsis is the name of the
fruit. The seeds only remain viable for a very short period of time.

Fig. 8.4 A part of sugarcane inflorescence showing paired spiaklets (Source: Cobley & Steele, 1976)

8.3.1.7 Propagation
Sugarcane is propagated vegetatively by stem cuttings of three to five joints, known as "seed
cane" or "seed pieces," or by ratooning, in which dormant buds on the portion of the cane left
underground after harvesting sprout in two to three weeks, producing a new crop, commonly
referred to as "stubble" or "ratoon crop" (Fig. 8.5). However, the yield almost invariably
decreases gradually with subsequent ratoon crops. Every three to four years, fields are typically
removed and replanted with new seedlings.
The cutting is often obtained from sugarcane plants that are 8 to 12 months old or from ratoons
that are 6 to 8 months old. They are expected to be free of pests and illness. The top third of the
cane is where setts should be harvested. Sections of stem cuttings containing two or more buds
or eyes, typically three, may be used for planting. Either horizontally or at a 45° angle can be
used when planting them in the bottom of furrows. Sometimes, two cuttings are placed next to
one another. One joint with one pre-germinated bud is used for quick multiplication. In order to
prepare the setts for planting, organic mercury compounds are frequently used. A properly
prepared seedbed that is moist at the time of planting is necessary for good sprouting, and

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 192

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

planting is typically done early in the rainy season. Depending on the local climate, the plant
crop, the first harvest after planting, matures in 9 to 24 months. It is often planted in the majority
of the tropics during the rainy season, maturing 15–16 months later. In some countries, it stays
on the land for two years. The field is removed, and a fresh plant crop is sown, after the stubbles
have produced 2-4 or more ratoon crops, each of which takes about a year to mature. Sometimes
a fallow period is left before replanting. The period of the plant and ratoon crop before replanting
is known as the crop cycle. About 30-40% of the crop is ratooned.

Fig. 8.5 Underground part of a cane cutting bearing primary, secondary and tertiary shoot/stalk
(Source: Smith et al., 2005)

8.3.1.8 Harvesting
Sugarcane is harvested when it reaches the stage of maturity as at this time it is with the highest
sucrose content. Ripeness tests are often conducted on arbitrary samples collected throughout the
entire field at intervals of 7–10 days. This can be accomplished by cutting the entire cane or by
using a hand refractometer to analyse the juice from the upper and bottom thirds' central
internodes of standing canes. Ripeness is also determined by experience, visual inspection, and
field history. The sucrose content of cane at the time of delivery to the manufacturer is the basis
for modern cane evaluation. In the majority of tropical nations, plant crops are ready for harvest
in 14–18 months, whereas ratoon or stubble crops are ready in 12 months. It is conventional to
harvest the ratoon crops first, which will be ploughed out, then the plant crop, and finally the

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 193

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

ratoons, which will be ratooned once more. Most nations use cutlasses to manually cut the cane.
Cut closely to the ground, the crop. In modern plantations, it is also harvested by enormous
cutting machines. After being freed of the dried leaves, they are quickly transported to
manufacturers to be processed. The cut cane quickly starts to deteriorate (the labile sugar
undergoes inversion into glucose and fructose), although for the first 48 hours, the impact on
milling and recovery is minimal.

8.3.1.9 Chemical Composition

The plant's entire dry matter is made up of 50–60% millable cane, 30–40% tops and trash, and
10% roots and stubble. Age, environment, and cultural contexts all have an impact on chemical
makeup. Except when ripened under perfect conditions, the leafy tops have a high proportion of
reducing sugars and a low proportion of recoverable sucrose. The amount of sucrose, C12H22O11
in the stem rises with age and is typically highest near the base, however variations exist
depending on the degree of ripeness. The 26% organic matter consists of 9-16% of fibre and the
rest is mainly sugars. A juice, approximately 85-88% of the weight of cane is made up of water
and sucrose, with a little amount of glucose and fructose as well as small amounts of mineral
salts and nitrogenous compounds. Depending on how ripe the cane is, the total solids in the juice
are typically 20–22%, with 80–95% sucrose. The total amount of raw sugar recovered for every
100 tonnes of millable cane is typically 9 to 1.3 tonnes. At the moment of entry into the plant,
efficient modern manufacturers recover roughly 87% of the total sucrose that was initially
present in the cane.
About 20% of the final raw molasses is made up of water, 35% sucrose, and 14% reducing sugar.
Bagasse is made up of 25–55% water, 44%–47% fibre, and 2.3–3.0% sucrose.
8.3.1.10 Manufacture of Sugar
The following procedures are used to produce cane's white, crystalline sugar:
1. Extraction of Juice: The best cane to process is clean, ripe, and devoid of debris, tops, and
foreign objects. With the aid of crushers, the freshly cut cane stalks are broken down into smaller
pieces, and the juice is extracted by passing the pieces through thick, ridged steel rollers. To
achieve thorough extraction of the juice, several further expressions are necessary. Sprays of
water are applied on the cane after each expression to aid in a full recovery. The residue is
referred to as "bagasse." The expressed juice is a cloudy, pleasant, dark-greyish fluid that
contains contaminants such organic acids, minerals, proteins, colloidal colouring agents, gums,
cane bits, and other foreign objects.
2. Purification of Juice: The juice is first filtered to get clear of the suspended and insoluble
particles, and then it goes through defecation, carbonation, and sulphitation to get eliminate of all
the dissolved non-sugars. In order to eliminate free organic acids and phosphates as insoluble
calcium salts, the juice is heated with a precise amount of lime during defecation. Proteins and
colloidal colouring materials are removed from the solution by forming a thick scum on the
surface. By filtration through canvas, the precipitated calcium salts and scum are eliminated. The
surplus lime is subsequently removed as calcium carbonate during the carbonation process,
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 194
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

which also causes calcium sucrate to break down into soluble black sugar. Sulfur dioxide is
added to the filtered carbonated juice during sulphitation to finish neutralising the lime and
breaking down the calcium sucrate.

3. Concentration and crystallisation: Now that the juice has been cleansed, it is directed to
evaporators where it is heated under reduced pressure until it thickens to syrup. Additionally,
partial vacuum boiling keeps sugar from deteriorating and browning. Finally, the concentrated
raw syrup is heated in a vacuum pan until it crystallises, creating a thick, sticky mass
(massecuite) in which some of the sugar is expelled as crystals. The next step is to swirl this
mother liquor (molasses) and sucrose crystal mixture in open tanks, or crystallisers, until it
begins to crystallise. Finally, the massecuite is fed into centrifugal machines, where the molasses
passes through a filter and the crude sugar is collected in a basket, ready for removal after a fast
rinse with water. The raw syrup is combined with the molasses, which still contains some
crystallizable sugar. To get clear of as much sugar as possible, this is done three or four times.
The raw centrifugal sugar is reddish brown or somewhat grey in colour and contains 96%
sucrose. It is usually exported in this form, further refining being done in the importing country.
4. Refining and Drying of Crystals:
Diatomaceous earth is added after the raw sugar has been redissolved in hot water to eliminate
any remaining contaminants. By using carbon black as a treatment, the solution is made into a
colourless, glittering liquid. After vacuum concentration, the transparent syrup is centrifuged to
extract the pure, sparkling sugar crystals. The crystals are subsequently dried in sizable rotating
dryers with a strong hot air current. The dried granulated sugar crystals are now graded
according to size on inclined vibrating screens before being packaged and delivered for export.
In India and other regions of Asia, a sizable volume of juice is evaporated over an open flame in
a huge shallow iron pan with flared edges. When the boiling syrup reaches a temperature of 118–
1200°C, the thick, semisolid mass is rapidly transferred to wooden troughs or moulds, where it
cools and solidifies. In India, it is referred as as "gur" or "jaggery."

8.3.1.11 By-products in sugarcane industry

The sugar mill crushes sugarcane into a variety of products for various end purposes. Up to 31
items may be made in Cuba from sugarcane, but the majority of these have very little economic
value. Refined sugar, raw sugar, molasses, alcohol, rum, bagasse, syrups, dextran, candy, crude
wax, and glucose are some of these. It is estimated that 100 tonnes of sugarcane will yield 14.3 t
of raw sugar, 27.2 t of bagasse, 5.2 t of filter cake, 2.6 t of molasses, and 50.7 t of waste water
(Allen et al., 1997). There are five main byproducts of the sugarcane are given below:
i) Ethanol
 In the majority of countries some sucrose is fermented to create ethanol (Schubert, 2006).
According to Goldemberg and Guardabassi (2009), Brazil used 47% of its sugarcane crop to
produce ethanol in 2006, yielding 17.8 billion litres and providing around 40% of the
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 195
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

country's automobile fuel (Orellana and Neto, 2006). In the 2010–11 growing season,
sugarcane was used to make 54% of the crop, or 27.6 billion litres, of ethanol (Conab, 2011).
Vinasse, the fermentation byproduct, is applied as fertiliser to farms in Brazil (Cheavegatti-
Gianotto et al., 2011). In India, 300 distilleries use molasses to create 3.2 billion litres of
ethanol annually (Gopinathan and Sudhakaran, 2009). Additionally, sugarcane juice is
fermented and distilled to make alcoholic drinks like cachaca in Brazil or rum (although in
some countries this is made from molasses).
ii) Bagasse
 Bagasse is the fibrous part of sugarcane that is left remaining after the juice has been
extracted. After the juice has been extracted, the fibrous part of the sugarcane is known as
bagasse. According to Cheavegatti-Gianotto et al. (2011), for every tonne of sugarcane
processed, 240–280 kilogrammes of bagasse are produced. Fibers, water, and comparatively
small amounts of soluble substances make up this substance (mostly sugar). Bagasse consists
of two types of fibre: the long cellulose fibres in the rind, and the shorter, softer fibres in the
pith of the cane stem.
 Bagasse cellulose fibres are useful for paper production because they are longer (1-1.5 mm)
than hardwood fibres (0.7-1 mm) but shorter (2.5-5 mm) than softwood fibres. For the
purpose of producing high-quality paper, the stem pith material, which makes about 25–35%
of the bagasse dry weight, must be removed (Dunlap and Callihan, 1969). In other countries,
bagasse has also been used to create fibre board, a building material that may be used to
make cabinets and laminate flooring, and particleboard (Almazan, 1994).
 Bagasse is utilised as animal feed, although its use is restricted by its low digestion, even for
ruminants. Bagasse undergoes steam treatment to increase its digestibility so that it can be
used to fatten cattle (Allen et al., 1997; Pate, 1982; UN Industrial Development Organisation,
2002).
 Bagasse has also been used as shrimp food (Freeman, et al., 1992). It is burnt for heat to
produce steam as a source of power to run the sugar mills, with excess energy directed to the
electricity grid in a number of mills, including those in Australia (Mackintosh, 2000), Brazil
(Cheavegatti-Gianotto et al., 2011) and Mauritius (Deepchaud, 2005).
 In the future, bagasse might also be used to make biofuels like ethanol (Sainz and Dale,
2009).
 Bagasse is used to make furfural, which is a liquid that is colourless, flammable, volatile, and
fragrant. 1 tonne of furfural requires 25 tonnes of bagasse. It has a wide range of industrial
applications, including as a selective solvent for lubricating oil refinement and as an
intermediary in the synthesis of nylon and resins.
 Bagasse can be utilised in the management of waste water and is a powerful bio-sorbent. For
instance, bagasse is effective at adsorbing typical pollutants present in synthetic waste water,
such as chromium, cadmium, copper-nickel, and dyes (Khan and Amin, 2005; Khattri and
Singh, 1999).
iii) Molasses
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 196
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

 Molasses is the thick, syrupy byproduct that remains after sucrose has been extracted from
cleared sugar juice (syrup). Although it depends on a variety of variables, the yield of
molasses is roughly 3.0% per tonne of cane. The average molasses composition is water
20%, other carbohydrates 4%, sucrose 35%, nitrogenous compounds 4.5%, fructose 9%, non-
nitrogenous acids 5%, glucose 7%, ash 12%, and other reducing sugars 3%. The "C"
molasses (final or blackstrap molasses) is employed in the fermentation of alcohol, as a
supplement to stock feed, and as a fertiliser for cane fields (Mackintosh, 2000; Sreenivasan et
al., 1987).
iv) Cane tops
 Cane tops have no true market worth. They can be compared to fair quality fodder, which has
an average feed value of roughly 2.8 MJ (Mega Joule) of metabolizable energy per kilo of
dry matter when it is fresh. However, cane tops should be gathered and carried from the cane
fields to the feedlot.
Filter mud / press mud
 The precipitated impurities contained in the cane juice, after removal by filtration, form a
cake of varying moisture content called filter mud. This cake contains much of the colloidal
organic matter anions that precipitate during clarification, as well as certain non-sugars
included in these precipitates.
v) Other products
 Plant matter left over after sugarcane stalks are harvested is known as trash. According to
estimates, each acre of sugarcane produces 10 t of waste (Karve et al., 2001). In some areas
of Australia, rubbish is typically retained in the field as mulch or it may be baled and utilised
as low-grade cow feed, garden mulch, or both. In India, machinery has been created to
convert waste into solid briquettes that may be used as fuel (Karve et al., 2001).
 The waxy exterior of the stalk, which is concentrated mostly at the nodes, and the lipids
present in the entire cells make up sugarcane wax (Allen et al., 1997). Sugarcane wax is
utilised in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals, including cholesterol-lowering products.
 Filter cake or press mud (the solids left over after filtering the cane juice), and sugarcane ash
(which is the residue created when the sugarcane bagasse is burned as fuel in the boilers) are
frequently used as fertilisers on sugarcane farms (Cheavegatti-Gianotto et al., 2011). These
provide a good supply of many plant nutrients, although nitrogen may need to be added
(Calcino, 1994). Sugarcane ash has been proven to promote banana growth in Australian
banana plantations (Broadley et al., 2004), and sugarcane and maize (corn) growth in Cuba
improved after ash application (Onelio et al., 2011).
 One of the sugarcane's advantageous phytochemicals is glycolic acid, which is used in
cosmetics particularly for skin renewal. (Allen et al., 1997).

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 197

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

8.3.1.12 Economic Importance of Sugarcane

Sugarcane and sugar play significant role in economy of India, trade and livelihood. India is the
largest consumer and the second-largest producer of sugar in the world. The sugar business is
one of the most significant agricultural sectors in the nation, having an impact on the life of
around 5 crore farmers and others who depend on them who grow sugarcane on an area of
almost 50 lakh hectares. There are more than 700 installed sugar factories in the nation, with a
crushing capacity of over 340 lakh MT of sugar and an annual turnover of roughly Rs 80,000
crore. These figures demonstrate the significant contribution that the sugar sector makes to
India's economy. A total of 399.83 million tonnes of sugarcane are expected to be produced
throughout the nation in 2020–21.The production of sugarcane during 2020-21 is higher by
39.40 million tonnes than the average sugarcane production of 360.43 million tones. (Annual
Report 2020-21). There are several uses of sugarcane these are following:
1. Sugarcane is a vital supply of sugar, a key component of the human diet and a major source
of energy.
2. A large quantity of sugar is used in the production of alcoholic beverages, soft drinks,
candy, ice cream, and chocolates, as well as in the canning business.
3. Sugar is a sweetening substance used by cereal producers.
4. It is utilised in pharmaceuticals, explosives, photographic equipment, and hair tonics.
5. It is useful for producing adhesives, silvering mirrors, and tanning leather.
6. Cane wax is extracted with solvents and used to make paper coating, polishes, and
cosmetics.
7. The filter cake is used as a fertiliser because of its high calcium, nitrogen and phosphorus
content.
8. Thick noble canes are chewed, which are relatively soft, high in juice and sugar, and low in
fibre.
9. Bagasse is used as mulch for plants, boiler fuel, and as a litter or bedding for livestock and
poultry. Additionally, it is utilised in the production of paper, cardboard, plastics, insulating
fiberboard, and furfural. The nylon and oil refining industries both depend on furfural.
10. Molasses, a significant by-product of the cane sugar industry, is used to make a variety of
chemicals, including industrial alcohol, vinegar, glycerol, lactic acid, and citric acids, as
well as for animal feed and the production of alcoholic beverages like rum.
 It has 15% reducing sugars and 35% sucrose.It is this 50% of fermentable sugar which
gives it its principal value as an industrial raw material.
 Rum is produced by the fermentation of molasses by the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae
followed by distillation.
 Molasses are also used for manufacture of dry ice. Acetone and butanol are produced by
fermentation of molasses with Clostridium bacteria.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 198

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Commercial uses
 Sugarcane is primarily consumed as refined sugar or other primary products, and it is grown
for its sucrose content.
 Juice from raw sugarcane, also called as "chediraz" in northern India, "caldo de cana" or
"garapa" in Brazil, and "aseer asab" in Egypt, can be extracted by squeezing or chewing the
plant.
 Sugarcane is cultivated in various countries, where it is either consumed locally or sold fresh
at juice shops, cafes, and restaurants.
 In addition to commercial processing, sugarcane is also processed informally by boiling and
cooling the juice to create cakes of unrefined brown sugar, also known as "jaggery," "gur,"
and "khandsari" in India, "rapadura," and "panela" in Brazil.
 In India it is estimated that 16.5 million tonnes of sugar are produced compared with 10
million t of these traditional sweeteners (Kansal, 1998).
 In 2014, world production of sugarcane was estimated to be about 1 900 million t, which was
grown on approximately 27.2 million hectares. Brazil was the largest producer at 737 million
t (FAOSTAT, 2014). The world production of sugar from sugarcane is approximately six
times that from sugar beet, the other major source of sugar.

8.3.2 SUGAR BEET (Beta vulgaris L.)

8.3.2.1 Introduction
Another significant source of sugar is the sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.). It was derived from the
wild B. maritima, which is still found wild on European seacoasts. There have been instances
when beet sugar has matched or even surpassed cane sugar. But by the 21st century, beet sugar
production was only approximately one-third that of cane sugar.
Although sugar beet was known since before the Christian era it was not used as a source of
sugar until modern times. Beets that have been cooked make a great vegetable, and the leaves
can be used in place of spinach. Although the presence of sugar in tubers was originally noticed
in 1590, Maregraf (a German chemist) was the first to recognise its potential in 1747. Around
1800, both in Germany and France, the industry officially started. Napoleon encouraged the use
of it as an embargo against British imports. He was ridiculed because of this and a famous
cartoon pictured him dipping a sugar beet into his coffee. After that, interest in sugar beets
decreased, although it later returned in Germany in 1935 and France in 1829. Since then, it has
been an increasingly significant crop in several European nations. The beet business did not
really start in the United States until 1879, despite earlier attempts.
The majority of beet sugar has been produced in Central Europe, while California, Colorado, and
Idaho are the main states in the United States where this crop is grown. It might be noted that in
the manufacture of rum in Europe, the flavor when the rum is derived from beet sugar differs

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 199

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

substantially from that prepared from sugar cane. The former tends to be much more aromatic
and has a distinctly unique taste.
8.3.2.2 Origin
The centre of origin of sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.), is believed to be the Middle East, near the
Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. . It is assumed that wild beets moved north along the Atlantic coast
and west into the Mediterranean. Wild beets on the Canary Islands developed numerous unique
species (B. patellaris, B. webbiana, and B. procumbens), most of which are annual in nature due
to their geographic isolation (Cooke and Scott, 1993). The emergence of the species B. trigyna,
B. lomatogona, and B. macrorhiza was further facilitated by the movement of wild kinds north
into the mountains of Turkey, Iran, and Russia's Caucasus Mountains (Cooke and Scott, 1993).
These species are somewhat perennial in growth habit. Finally, wild beet spread east through
most of Eastern Asia. Cultivated sugar beet is likely to have originated from wild maritime beet
(B. vulgaris subsp. maritima) through breeding selection (Cooke and Scott, 1993).

8.3.2.3 Systematic Position:

Kingdom Plantae (Plants)

Sub-kingdom Tracheobionta (Vascular plants)
Super-division Spermatophyta (Seed plants)
Division (Phylum) Magnoliophyta (Flower bearing plants)
Class Magnoliopsida (Dicotyledons)
Subclass Caryophyllidae
Order Caryophyllales
Family Chenopodiaceae
Genus Beta
Species vulgaris
8.3.2.4 General Description
The sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) belongs to the family Chenopodiaceae. There are 105 genera
and about 1400 species in this family (Watson and Dallwitz, 1992). Members of this family are
dicotyledonous and usually herbaceous in nature. Economically important species in this family
include sugar beet, fodder beet/mangolds, red table beet, Swiss chard/leaf beet (all B. vulgaris),
and spinach (Spinacia oleracea).
Although sugar beet is typically a biannual species, in some circumstances it can function as an
annual (Smith, 1987). The sugar beet plant first produces a sizable, succulent taproot, followed
by a seed stalk the following year. Typically sugar beet root crops are planted in the spring and
harvested in the autumn of the same year. For seed production, however, an overwintering period

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 200

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

of cold temperatures of 4 to 7°C (vernalization) is required for the root to bolt in the next
growing season and for the reproductive stage to be initiated (Smith, 1987).
During the first growing season, the vegetative stage, the sugar beet plant is described as having
glabrous leaves that are ovate to cordate in shape and dark green in colour. From an underground
stem, the leaves grow into a rosette (Fig. 8.6). At the stem-taproot junction, a white, fleshy
taproot that is noticeably enlarged emerges (Duke, 1983). A blooming stalk extends (bolts) from
the root during the second growth season, the reproductive stage. This angular seed stalk, which
can reach a height of 1.2 to 1.8 metres, develops into an inflorescence.
Small leaves and a huge petiolate leaf are appearing at the stem's base. As the stem grows, less
petiolate leaves and finally sessile leaves appear. At the leaf axils, secondary shoots develop
forming a series of indeterminate racemes (Forster et al., 1997). These flowers are small, sessile
and occur singly or in clusters. Sugar beets produce a perfect flower consisting of a tricarpellate
pistil surrounded by five stamens and a perianth of five narrow sepals. Petals are absent and each
flower is subtended by a slender green bract (Smith, 1987).
The ovary develops into a fruit that is embedded at the base of the flower's perianth. Every fruit
has a single seed, which can be spherical or kidney-shaped. The ovaries are enclosed by the
common receptacle of the flower cluster (Duke, 1983). A monogerm seed (holding only a single
embryo) is formed when a flower occurs singly. The multigerm beet seed is formed by an
aggregation of two or more flowers (Cooke and Scott, 1993).

Fig. 8.6 Sugar beet: (1) Complete plant with tap root (2) Aerial part (Leaves)

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 201

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

8.3.2.5 Cultivation
The optimal growing conditions for sugar beet, a white-rooted biennial, are areas with
summertime temperatures between 20 and 22 °C. In the Southwest's irrigated areas, it yields well
in the winter. This plant can grow in almost any healthy soil. From seeds, plants must be thinned
until they are 8–10 inches apart. It is necessary to do extensive weeding and deep cultivating.
The crop is less expensive to grow than sugar cane since it is easily machine harvested. In
temperate climates the seeds are sown in April and the roots are allowed to remain in the ground
until October because the sugar content increases in that position. Before the ground hardens,
beets are dug out, their tops are cut off to minimise sugar loss, and they are then stored. The best
plants are saved for seed, which has gradually improved things via selection.

8.3.2.6 Manufacture of Sugar

 Extraction of the juice is a simpler process than for sugar cane because the roots are soft and
pulpy. Initially, they were rasped to a pulp and the juice was extracted using a bag, but later,
a diffusion method was employed.
 The roots are cleaned, divided into thin strips, and heated in a series of tanks with running
water. This method allows for the extraction of about 97% of the sugar. After the waste beet
pulp is removed, the insoluble contaminants in the raw juice are precipitated out by a process
called as carbonation. For this, lime is added to the raw juice to coagulate some of the non-
sugars and carbon dioxide is added to precipitate calcium carbonate. The contaminants settle
out with it, and filtration is used to separate out the juice that has been purified. The process
is repeated several times during which sulfur dioxide is added to adjust the alkalinity.
 A clear liquid is left after filtration, which is concentrated, crystallized and centrifuged just as
with cane sugar. The massecuite (A suspension of sugar crystals and residual syrup) is
reboiled several times. It is difficult to differentiate between raw beet sugar and raw cane
sugar for they are for all practical purposes identical in composition and appearance.
8.3.2.7 Economic Importance of sugar beet
Middle Eastern cultures were the first to employ sugar beets. The oldest descriptions of sugar
beet plants as having swollen roots can be found in documents from the 12th century (Toxopeus,
1984). The breeding of beets to boost the sugar content of their roots didn't start in Germany
until the late 18th century (American Sugar beet Growers Association, 1998). Original forms of
sugar beet were derived from white Silesian beet, which had been used as a fodder crop and
contained only about 4% sugar. Repeated selection and breeding have raised the sugar content to
its present level. The following uses of beets as a crop plant are given below:
 Sugar beet is used for the production of sugar. By-products of sugar production as pulp,
molasses, fibre etc, are used as feed.
 The leaves of the sugar beet plant may also be utilised as animal fodder in regions where
animals are raised.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 202

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

 Molasses has more recently been produced using sugar beet. Among other fermentation
processes, molasses is used to produce alcohol (penicillin production, etc.).
 Sugar beet roots are processed into white sugar, pulp and molasses for food, feed or
industrial applications and are rarely used as a raw commodity.
 A typical sugar beet root consists of 75.9% water, 2.6% non-sugars, 18.0% sugar and 5.5%
pulp. In the sugar fraction 83.1% is recovered as crystalline sucrose, 12.5% is recovered as
molasses (Bichsel, 1987).
 By-product known as dried sugar beet pulp are used as a flavour, aroma, texture, colour and
body of a variety of foods.
 Another important by-product is sugar beet molasses, a viscous liquid containing about 48%
sucrose, which cannot be economically crystallized.
 Sugar beet molasses is used for production of yeast, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, as well as in
the production of mixed cattle feeds.
 By-products of the industry include the green tops, which are used for cattle feed and
fertilizers; the wet or dried pulp, which is a valuable cattle and sheep feed; the filter cake,
which is used as a manure; and the molasses, which is used for stock feeding or for industrial
alcohol.

8.3.3 OTHER SUGAR YIELDING PLANTS

8.3.3.1 Sugar Maple
Sugar maple, (Acer saccharum Marshall), also called hard maple or rock maplem is
large tree in the Sapindaceae (soapberry) family. It is native to Eastern North America and
widely grown as an ornamental and shade tree. It is commercially important and the sap of the
tree used in making maple syrup, maple sugar, and hardwood lumber useful in furniture
manufacture and flooring.
Although various maple species produce sweet sap, the Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum Marshall)
and the Black Maple (A. nigrum Michx.f) are the most significant. A notable tree in the northern
region of the eastern deciduous forest zone is the sugar maple. It naturally reproduces and has a
lifespan of 300–400 years. The red and silver maples give a comparatively small yield and are
not of commercial interest. The sap begins to flow about the middle of March and continues for
about a month. This is a period of warm, sunny days and cold nights. The best flow comes
when the temperature reaches 25°F at night and 55°F during the day. The preferred location for
tapping is the first three inches of sapwood, about 4.5 ft. above the ground.
The maple-sugar industry reached its peak in 1869 when 45-million pounds were
produced. With the advent of cane sugar it ceased to be an important commodity. Today the
product is very pure and the demand is increasing for the syrup especially. Southeastern Canada
is the leading producer while in the United States Vermont, New York, Ohio, Michigan and
Wisconsin produce small amounts.
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 203
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

8.3.3.2 Palm Sugar

Several species of palm provide a fourth source of commercial sugar all of which is only
available in the tropics and subtropics. The species utilized are the Wild Date (Phoenix
sylvestris), the Palmyra Palm (Borassus flabellifer), the Coconut (Cocos nucifera), the Toddy
Palm (Caryota urens), and the Gomuti Palm, (Arenya pinnata). Some of the oil palms also yield
sugar. The date palm is tapped similar to that of a maple and the sap is obtained from the tender
upper portion of the stem. In the other palm species the sap is secured from the unopened
inflorescences. Usually the tip of these is cut off and the sap oozes out and is collected in
various containers. The yield of this sweet juice is known as toddy, amounts to 3-4 quarts per
day for a period of several months. The sap has a sugar content of about 14%. It is boiled down
to a syrupy consistency and poured into leaves to cool and then hardens into the crude sugar
known as jaggary. Some of this has reached European markets. Three quarts of juice yield
about one pound of sugar. The toddy is often fermented to make the beverage known as
arrack. The palm sugar industry is very old in India where over 100,000 tons were still being
produced yearly by the mid 1900‘s.

8.3.3.3 Sorghum Syrup

The stem of the Sweet Sorghum (Sorghum vulgare var. saccharatum), contains a juice that is
used in making syrup. To differentiate between true syrup and a molasses it is necessary to
realize that syrup is the product obtained by merely evaporating the original plant juice so that all
the sugar is present. On the other hand, molasses is the residue left after a juice has been
concentrated to a point where much of the sugar has crystallized out and been removed. The
sweet sorghum is a wild plant of the tropics and subtropics which has long been cultivated in
many parts of the world. The juice is a poor source of sugar, but yields nutritious and
wholesome syrup. The stems are easily crushed and the juice is evaporated in shallow pans. On
the average about 11-million gallons were being made in the United States by the mid
1950‘s. Similar syrup has also been made from sugar cane by clarifying the juice and
evaporating it to a consistency where the water content is 25-30%.

8.3.3.4 Agave Syrup & Sugar

Agave syrup, also known as Maguey syrup or Agave nectar, is a sweetener commercially
produced from several species of Agave, including Agave americana, A. tequilana (blue agave)
and Agave salmiana plants. Blue-agave syrup contains 56% fructose as a sugar providing
sweetening properties (Mellado-Mojica, E., Lopez, 2015). Agave is basically a desert plant,
which is a native to the Southern United States and Latin America. The extracts of this plant are
used to make Tequila and sweet Agave Syrup. Traditionally, Agave and its nectar were used in
Mexico for many years and it was believed that the Agave nectar had medicinal properties. The
sap of the Agave plant was boiled to make a sweetener. In fact, the sugar present in Agave is
fermented for a long time to make Tequila (beverage).

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 204

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Traditionally, Agave nectar was used extensively in Mexico for its sweet taste and was believed
to have multiple health benefits. However, the goodness of agave nectar depends on the process
of extraction and preparation of the syrup.
The Agave plant is cut and the sugary sap is extracted. This extract contains high amounts of
sugar and healthy fiber like Fructans (polymer of fructose molecules), which are believed to be
good for metabolism and help in managing insulation sensitivity. However, the commercial
production of Agave nectar destroys the goodness of health enriching components which get
broken during the course of production. This is because Agave sugars are treated with enzymes
and excessive heat, which destroys the healthy properties.

8.3.4 OTHER SWEETENING RESOURCES

8.3.4.1 Glucose Sugar
Dextrose or grape sugar is other names for this sugar. Many of the higher plant's organs contain
it in trace amounts, and fruits in particular exhibit it. However, starch is used to manufacture
commercial glucose.
8.3.4.2 Fructose
This fruit sugar, also known as laevulose, occurs in combination with glucose in many fruits. It is
advantageous since diabetics can take it and is somewhat sweeter than cane sugar. Inulin, a
carbohydrate found in the tubers of various plants, including the Dahlia (Dahlia pinnata),
Jerusalem artichoke/ Sunchoke/ Sunroot (Helianthus tuberosus), is used to make commercial
fructose.
8.3.4.3 Mannose
Mannose does not occur free in nature so that it must be obtained by hydrolysis from several
complex compounds. It is readily oxidized from the juice of the Manna Ash (Fraxinus ornus
L.), a tree in Sicily (largest Mediterranean island) and southern Europe. The juice oozes from
slits made in the bark and dries into a very sweet flake like material known as manna. Its use is
primarily in medicine.
8.3.4.4 Maltose
Maltose is also occasionally present in plants in a free form, but it is readily made from starch by
the enzyme diastase. It is mostly employed in the brewing sector. Maltose syrup is sometimes
used as a substitute for glucose and in medicine. Maltose that is obtained from rice starch has
been used in Japan as a flavoring for over 2,000 years.
8.3.4.5 Honey
Flowers that are attractive usually produce a sweet substance called nectar. This serves to attract
various insects that are necessary for pollination of the plant. Nectar is composed mainly of
sucrose with some fructose and glucose. It is used as food by bees, and some of it, after partial

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 205

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

digestion, is converted into honey and stored for future use. During this process the sucrose is
changed to an invert sugar, which is a mixture of fructose and glucose. Honey contains 70-75%
invert sugar along with proteins, mineral salts and water. The sugar has a tendency to crystallize
out. Honey was most likely the first sweetening substance used by humans. Beekeeping is one
of the very oldest industries.
The flavor and quality of honey vary depending on the source of the nectar. Flowers that
contain essential oils impart a typical taste. The bees favor certain plants and these are often
cultivated near the apiaries. Clover, Alfalfa, Buckwheat, Lindens and some of the mints and
citrus are among the favorites. Honey is an excellent food for it is almost pure sugar. It is also
used in medicine, in the tobacco industry and in the manufacture of a fermented beverage called
mead. The best quality honey is derived from the Tupelo tree in SE United States and from wild
plant sources in southern Mexico and Central America.

8.4 STARCHES AND STARCH PRODUCTS

Starch is a polysaccharide or complex carbohydrate that is made up of a chain of glucose
molecules joined together in covalent bond called glycosidic bonds. It is one of the principal
nutrients or supplements that should be added to our day to day diet since they give us enough
energy for the entire day. Carbohydrates are sugars that come in two distinct sorts that are simple
and complex forms. The basic type of Carbohydrates is otherwise called sugars, and the latter
that is complex structure is known as starch. Most green plants make starch to store excess
glucose that they create during photosynthesis. In plastids, which are where the enzymes for their
synthesis take place, carbohydrates are largely stored as starch, which appears as grains (up to
150 in size) there. The photosynthesis-produced glucose is converted into starch in the
chloroplast. Translocated sucrose is converted into starch in leucoplasts or amyloplasts, which
can persist in this form for months before being hydrolyzed by amylase, in the parenchyma cells
of roots and other storage organs, as well as in many seedlings. Each leucoplast produces only
one starch grain, so that the grain appears to be free in the cytoplasm. Starch is composed of α-d
glucose residues of two different kinds -amylose and amylopectin
Amylose is a long, unbranched helix-shaped molecule that contains 200–1000 glucose units. It is
soluble in hot water and is therefore the kind of starch used commercially as 'soluble starch' (e.g.,
for starching clothes). Amylopectin is a shorter molecule (containing 40-60 units) but forms a
highly branched helix. Most grains and legumes include 70–80% of it (corn has approximately
100% and peas have 30%) of the total amount of starch. Because of their helical structure, starch
molecules may cluster in granules. Starch is deposited in concentric layers in grains, and various
species have distinctive patterns (Fig. 8.7). Thus, the presence of adulterants can be checked in
commercial products like maize and potato starch.
Starch is one of the most significant and extensively used vegetable products, and it serves as the
main source of reserve nutrition for green plants. A complex carbohydrate, that is. It is kept as

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 206

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

grains in cells with thin walls. There are various varieties of starch, which vary in terms of the
physical and microscopic features as well as the size and form of the grain. Although nuts,
legumes, and other plant organs may also contain significant amounts of starch, underground
tubers and cereal grains are the most significant sources. Besides being a staple food for animals
and humans, it also has many industrial applications. Pure starch comes in the form of a tasteless,
odorless, white powder; and is extracted from plants, therefore, making up a large portion of
modern human diets. They stain characteristically bluish-black with a solution of Iodine
Potassium Iodine.
Our primary source of starchy meals is cereal. One or more of the cereal grains served as the
foundation for all significant civilizations. However, many people who live in areas that are not
well adapted for cultivating grains still rely heavily on foods like potato (Solanum tuberosum),
sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), yam (Dioscorea alata), cassava (Manihot esculenta), and
banana (Musa sapientum) as key components of their diets. Despite being distantly related, these
plants have a lot in common. All are of tropical origin, with the exception of the potato, which is
a lowland species. They are vegetatively multiplied. They are all excellent sources of
carbohydrates (food for energy), but because they are all lacking in proteins, eating virtually
solely from one of them can result in significant illnesses. For commercial purposes, starch is
obtained from the stem tubers of potato (Solanum tuberosum), the root tubers of cassava
(Manihot esculenta) and the rhizomes of arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea). In this unit potato
and cassava are discussed in detail and some important commercial starches are described.

Wheat Potato Sago

Rice Maize Arrowroot

Fig. 8.7: Starch grains from different crops showing their characteristic patterns for each species

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 207

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

8.4.1 POTATO
8.4.1.1 Systematic Position:
Kingdom Plantae (Plants)
Sub-kingdom Tracheobionta (Vascular plants)
Super-division Spermatophyta (Seed plants)
Division (Phylum) Magnoliophyta (Flower bearing
Class plants) (Dicotyledons)
Magnoliopsida
Subclass Asteridae
Order Solanales
Family Solanaceae
Genus Solanum
tuberosum
Species
8.4.1.2 General Description
Solanum tuberosum (2n=48), commonly known as potato belongs to family Solanaceae. Various
wild Solanum species produce small potato-like tubers, which from time immemorial have been
grubbed from the ground by the Indians. One or more of these was domesticated in the Andes
Mountains of Bolivia and Peru, certainly prior to 2000 A.D., to become the cultivated S.
tuberosum.
The potato was most probably first seen by an European in 1537, when the Spanish landed in
what is now known as Columbia. In the decades that followed, monks and explorers of the New
World got familiar with it, and by 1570 it had been returned to Europe. Before 1600, it was
grown all across the continent; by 1663, it had reached Ireland. According to legend, the
cultivated potato arrived in North America for the first time in 1621. However, the potato was
not widely planted until 1700. One reason for its sudden prominence in Europe during the 1700s
was that reigning sovereigns recognizing its food potential compelled the people by royal edict to
plant it (Germany, 1744; Sweden, 1764). In Ireland (the Irish were perhaps the first to recognize
the potential of potato as a staple food and started to grow it as a crop by the middle of
seventeenth century) especially, the potato was adopted as a mainstay food on which the Irish
peasants survived until 1845-46, when the 'potato blight' (a fungal disease caused by
Phytophthora infestans) swept across Europe, blackening the leaves of the plant and causing the
tubers to rot. The failure of the so-called 'Irish potato' to support the Irish people produced one of
the worst famines in the history of the Western World, followed by an unparalleled migration,
death and emigration to America reduced the population of Ireland. If the tremendous genetic
variability of the potato in its South American homeland had been available, the famine would
have been avoided and history might have turned out differently. It is possible that the Irish
introduction came from a single, limited genetic source. The potato was introduced from Ireland
to New England, earning it the moniker "Irish" even before the Irish immigrants arrived in the

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 208

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

United States. To distinguish it from "sweet potato," it is sometimes referred to as "white potato"
(member of a different family).
There are two theories as to how cultivated potatoes came to be: (1) they may have developed
directly from an ancestor of Solanum stenotomum through a process of straightforward
chromosomal duplication; or (2) they may have developed as a naturally occurring amphidiploid
hybrid between the more ancient diploid Solanum stenotomum and the diploid weed S.
sparsipilum.
In India, the major potato producing states are Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Punjab, Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nndu. In the hilly tracts, the potato is grown as a summer crop, while
in the plains it is a winter crop. The food value of potato varies depending on the variety, growth
conditions, storage and handling. Analyses have indicated its composition to be 70-81% water,
8-28% starch, and 1-3% protein, 2-3 % fibres, and 0.1 % fat and with varying amino acid
composition with traces of minerals (potassium, phosphorus, iron and, magnesium) and other
food elements.
High temperature is not a good thing for tuberization. As a result, in subtropical climates, potato
is only grown during the winter period. A rich, friable, porous, well-drained, acidic, light soil and
a cold, humid climate with mean annual temperatures between 15°C and 21°C provide for the
ideal setting. Short days and a lack of nitrogen in the soil favour early tuberization while lengthy
days and high nitrogen soil content favour heavy plant development. Plants are typically
developed from disease-free tubers that are either planted whole or divided into sets or sections.
With at least one bud or eye in each part, large seed potatoes are divided into multiple pieces.
The best way to prevent apical dominance is to cut them at a right angle to the main axis. Tubers
need a dormancy period of about 3 months but some varieties need 7 months of dormancy
(Solanum tuberosum). Green potatoes contain a poisonous glycoside, solanin, which in high
concentrations may cause sickness and even death in both humans and livestock. This compound
is also present in sprouts
8.4.1.3 Morphology
It is a 60-90 cm tall, erect, branched, somewhat spreading plant that bears tubers. Despite being a
perennial plant, it is grown as an annual. Early in the stem's growth, the aerial portion is upright;
subsequently, it spreads out more. The aerial stem, except from the nodes, is hollow and frail.
Adventitious roots are developed in groups of three to four at the nodes of the main underground
stem, which is more or less spherical and substantial and produces horizontal branches (stolons)
from the axillary buds (Fig. 8.8).
Typically, the first few leaves that grow from the "seed" portion are simple, but later leaves are
compound and irregularly imparipinnate. Each leaf comprises a single terminal leaflet, 2-4 pairs
of broad lateral primary oval leaflets with whole or serrated margins, and small secondary
leaflets (folioles) spaced out between primary leaflets (Fig. 8.8). The leaflets are more or less
opposite and are densely hairy when young but at maturity the hairs are confined to the midribs

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 209

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

and lateral veins. The 1eaves are spirally arranged on the main stem with two small basal leaf-
like stipules clasping the main stem.
The tuber is the small, obviously enlarged apical region of the stolon, which is packed with food
reserves. It has a shortened, thicker stem with buds or eyes in the axils of scale-like, quickly shed
leaves, and it has a crude leaf scar (eyebrow) or ridge. The eyes may be shallow, medium or
deep, the eyebrow being well marked (semi-circular) towards the heel or the attached end where
the tuber is attached to the stolon. Each eye is made up of a simple leaf scar and a group of at
least three buds that are arranged in a little depression to resemble a lateral branch with immature
internodes. Around the tuber, the eyes are arranged spirally, but they are more numerous towards
the heel or basal end of the tuber than they are near the apical or rose end. The tubers come in a
wide range of sizes, shapes, and colours. Either the skin is smooth or rough.

Fig. 8.8 Potato: Whole plant (Source: https://cipotato.org/potato/how-potato-grows)

Each eye is made up of a simple leaf scar and a group of at least three buds that are arranged in a
little depression to resemble a lateral branch with immature internodes. Around the tuber, the
eyes are arranged spirally, but they are more numerous towards the heel or basal end of the tuber
than they are near the apical or rose end. The tubers come in a wide range of sizes, shapes, and
colours. Either the skin is smooth or rough.
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 210
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

8.4.1.4 Methods of Breeding

The three primary techniques for potato breeding are introduction, hybridization, and selection.
The main technique used to create inter-varietal crosses between commercial varieties to
combine desirable traits is called hybridization. Such a cross may involve two or more kinds and
be a multihybrid. Commercial potato varieties are heterozygous because they are vegetatively
reproduced; clonal selection is typically used in F1, the generation after hybridization. Main
breeding work is done in long day summers in Shimla-CPRI (Central Potato Research Institute)
and the crop is grown as a short day winter crop in plains. However, selections are difficult to
make in varieties adapted to the conditions in plains. For this crosses are made at Shimla and F1
seeds are sent to regional stations at Patna and Jalandhar, where they are grown and selections
are made during short-day conditions.
A few of the many desirable characteristics of tubers are maintaining quality, size, shape, colour,
texture, skin thickness, and nutritional content. Now a day‘s older varieties are being replaced by
new varieties such as , Kufri Chandramukhi, Kufri Kissan, Kufri Kundnn, Kufri Sindoori, Kufri
Chamtkar, and Kufri Alankar. Most recent are Kufri Bahar, Kufri Badshah, Kufri Jyoti and Kufri
Lalima.
8.4.1.5 Economic Importance and Uses
 Potatoes are consumed, as a fresh vegetable, in the daily diet in a variety of ways-boiled,
steamed, fried, baked or roasted. A number of delicacies like cutlets, "papar" are prepared.
Potato flour (up to 4%) can be mixed with wheat flour for bread making.
 They are processed into a variety of goods, including potato crisps, chips, frozen French
fries, potato flour, and canned potatoes.
 Fresh potatoes are important source of Vitamins B and C.
 Additionally, potato starch is used to make adhesives.
 Farina, sometimes known as potato starch, is frequently used in laundries and is good for
scaling paper.
 In order to make industrial alcohol, potato starch is first transformed into sugars, which are
then fermented by yeast to produce alcohol.
 Potato is also a good substrate for the growth of microbes. In experimental work, the fluid
from boiled potatoes has long been employed as a vehicle for nutrients.
 The Russian alcoholic beverage "vodka" is made by fermenting boiled potatoes.

8.4.2 CASSAVA (Manihot esculenta Crantz)

8.4.2.1 Systematic Position

Kingdom Plantae (Plants)

Sub-kingdom Tracheobionta (Vascular plants)

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 211

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Super-division Spermatophyta (Seed plants)

Division (Phylum) Magnoliophyta (Flower bearing plants)
Class Magnoliopsida (Dicotyledons)
Subclass Rosidae
Order Euphorbiales
Family Euphorbiaceae
Genus Manihot
Species esculenta
Manihot esculenta (n=18), commonly called cassava, manioc, yuca, tapioca is a species of the
tropical lowlands belongs to woody shrub of the spurge family (Euphorbiaceae). As a result of its
ability to adapt to poor soil and random cultivation, it has become a staple crop in many of the
world's developing and underdeveloped countries. In one to three years after planting, this
perennial shrub yields a high output of tuberous roots. It generates remarkable amounts of
carbohydrates, far more than maize or rice. The sixth-most significant staple food in the world
now is cassava. It is the second most significant root crop in the tropics, directly just after sweet
potato. It is grown in every tropical country and over 200 different varieties of the plant are
known. It can be grown easily from stem cuttings. The root tubers won't severely degrade if kept
in the ground until needed. Root vegetables are consumed after being steamed or boiled.
Brazil is the origin of cassava (S. America). Because it cannot survive extreme cold, this crop
does not flower well in the cold climate of north India. However, it can sustain significant
rainfall. The Portuguese, Dutch, or Spanish were the first colonizers in India to introduce this
plant to Travancore (Southern Kerala). It is an important crop of Kerela and also forms staple
food crop of West coast districts for many people. It is now being introduced in Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Prdesh, Gujarat, Assam and Maharashtra.
The best soil for this crop is well-drained garden loam. Cuttings of short stems from the previous
crop are used as planting material. Just before the rainy season, portions are taken that are
relatively fresh and buried into the soil either flat or erect but slanting. It can be grown as a pure
stand or is frequently inter-planted with other food crops. It usually takes a week for seeds to
sprout. The maximum number of branches per plant, which grows to a height of roughly 2.5–3.0
m when properly established, is three. Plants should be pruned and not allowed to reach a height
of more than 1.8 m in order to promote healthy root growth. Mature roots are about 7-10cm in
diameter and 30-45 m in length and weigh 1-2 kg. Some of the giant roots may weigh as much as
10kg. In rare cases each plant produces about 4-5 good sized roots.
Morphology
The entire shrub, which has a brief lifespan, is covered in latex. By means of a secondary
thickening process, tubers appear as swellings on adventitious roots that are close to the stem
(Fig. 8.9). They differ widely in terms of their quantity, form, size, depth at which they pierce the
ground, and colour of the internal tissue and cork on the outside. These are (a) the outer skin or
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 212
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

peridelm, with cork layers that can be smooth or rough, white, light to dark brown, pink, or red;
(b) the thin rind or cortex, usually white but tinged pink or brown; and (c) the core or pith,
consisting of parenchymatous cells rich in medium-sized starch grains with stellate hilum, few
vascular bundles and latex tubes, usually white but may be yellow or red tinged. This is the
edible portion. In addition to tubers, fibrous, adventitious roots develop horizontally and
vertically. Old tubers become lignified.
The height and branching patterns of stems vary widely. Branches are often glabrous, thin, and
have leaves near the apex and noticeable leaf scars below. The periderm and leaf scars range in
colour from silvery-grey to greenish-yellow, pale or dark brown, and purple-streaked dark
brown.

Fig. 8.9 Whole plant of Cassava showing roots stem and leaves
The leaves are big, palmate, spirally arranged, and vary in size and colour. Typically, petioles are
longer than lamina. The lamina has 3–9 lobes, usually 5-7, and is extensively palmate. Stipules
typically have 3-5 lanceolate lobes and are deciduous. The lobes are ovate-lanceolate, with an
entire edge, a thin base, and an acuminate lip. Petiole and midrib green to deep red. Red, green,
and yellow variegated versions of the lamina are also occurs.
Near the tips of branches, axillary racemes of flowers are produced. These are unisexual, with
the female flowering in the base and the male flowering in the same inflorescence. The flowers
are extremely tiny. The corolla is not present, but the calyx lobes are coloured. Ten stamens,
divided into two whorls of five each, are present in the male flowers. The female flower's
gynoecium is trilocular and tricarpellary, with one ovule per locule. The fruit is a 1.5 cm long
globular capsule with six longitudinal, three-celled wings. 3-5 months after pollination and seed

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 213

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

germination, the endocarp of woody plants explodes when it ripens. The seeds are ellipsoid,
greyish with brown markings, and have a distinct caruncle.
The plant is cultivated in hot climates. It grows very easily and does not require much labour.
Stem cuttings of few inches in length are sown in holes dug at intervals of 1meter. Different
varieties take different time to mature. Some varieties produce mature fibers within six months to
a year while others take 18 months to2 years to mature. Secondary growth occurs in the
adventitious roots to form tubers. Tubers have a starch content of about 30%. Older tubers are
not edible due to lignification of cells. In healthy plants, the Fibers form in a cluster at the base
of the stem and vary in size from small to very long, cylindrical structures that reach a length of
0.90 cm. A dense network of typical fibrous roots could be growing around them. Although big
and better quality crops can be obtained after a period of 16 months or more, these are typically
harvested after 8 months. The plant continues to grow new steins as a result of the leftover roots,
making it perennial.
The cassava varieties are generally classified as "bitter" or "sweet," depending on whether they
contain a high or low content of a cyanogenic glycoside. Before eating, sweet cassavas don't
require any particular preparation, whereas bitter varieties must be cooked, pressed, shredded, or
otherwise processed to remove the poisonous liquid or lessen its toxicity. Since the fine
glycoside content fluctuates between different cultivars and plants, there is no apparent
distinction between these two groups. In sweet varieties it tends to concentrate in the skin and in
bitter it tends to concentrate in skin and cortex of tuber. In sweet varieties the main storage
region is relatively free of glycoside.
The Central Tuber Crops Research Institute (CTCRI) was established in 1963 at Trivandrum. It
maintains tuberous crop collection from our country and from outside. There are over 1300
collections of cassava, of which 250 kinds are foreign-grown. An effort is undertaken to find
high-yielding, excellent cassava varieties that are resistant to the mosaic disease. H-97, H-165,
and H-226 are examples of hybrid and superior quality forms that have been isolated as a result
of inter-varietal hybridization. High starch content is determined for the cultivar H-97.
Tetraploids with an average protein value of 3.9% have been created, in contrast to diploids with
a value of 1.8%. The protein value of high producing cultivars is being increased.
Economic uses
The use of cassava is diverse.
 The entire root can be boiled; however, it lacks much flavour on its own and has a heavy,
sticky consistency. After being boiled, it is served as a vegetable like sweet potatoes or
potatoes.
 It is heated, dried, and then shred into a meal known as farinha/flour (in Brazil), which can be
consumed on its alone if necessary or combined with other foods and sauces.
 Tapioca is prepared by grating the peeled roots, the mass soaked in water for several days,
kneaded, strained, dried, and then heated to partly hydrolyze the starch to sugar and gel. It

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 214

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

swells up into lumps and these lumps and starch are known as Topioca pearls. Tapioca is
used for puddings, biscuits and confectionery.
 These are also used by cutting thin slices after removing rind which is boiled moderately then
dried and stored. These chips can be eaten like potato chips or ground into meal and eaten
like pomdge.
 Cassava also has several industria1, uses and its starch in some form or the other is a
marketable commodity in general world trade. Starch is used in the preparation of adhesives
for laundry, for paper sizing and as a source of sugars, alcohol and acetone.
 In lowland tropical South America, the beer is still prepared by chewing the roots; by
salivation the starch is converted into sugars followed by fermentation by wild yeasts.
 In Africa, the leaves are used as a pot-herb, since they may contain up to 30% proteins. Their
wider use might help prevent malnutrition among people who subsist mainly on cassava.
 Tapioca flour is prepared by a special process. The tubers are peeled, washed and grated or
ground. The compressed pulp is then separated from latex and the juice extracted by
squeezing the mass in a bag, the starch comes out like n stream of milk and impurities remain
inside the cloth bag. Squeczing/kneading is continued with fresh changes of water till starch
stops coming and only water came out, a smooth layer of starch settles at bottom and clear
water is decanted off. Wet starch is first dried in sun and then on a hot plate.
 The starch is used as animal fodder.
 The juice of bitter varieties is used to produce "cassareep" which is used in prepare sauces.
The juice is fermented into alcoholic beverages.

8.4.3 OTHER SOURCES OF COMMERCIAL STARCH

The manufacturing of starch for industry involves a comparatively small number of plants.
Potato, maize, wheat, rice, cassava, arrowroot, and sago are the principal ones.
8.4.3.1 Corn Starch
It is obtained from the grains of maize (Zea mays L.). Indian corn is the source of over 80
percent of the starch that is made in the United States. The grains are soaked in warm water with
a small amount of sulfurous acid to loosen the intercellular tissue and prevent
fermentation. Then the corn is ground so as not to injure the embryos. The ground material is
placed in germ separators where the embryos are removed. The starch material is then ground
very fine and is either passed through sieves of bolting cloth or is washed in perforated cylinders
to remove the bran. The resulting milky liquid is run onto slightly inclined tables where the
starch grains settle out and the remaining material flows off. The starch is later collected and
dried in kilns and is then ready for the market. The best grades of cornstarch are used for food
while inferior grades are for laundry starch and sizing and as a basis for glucose.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 215

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

8.4.3.2 Potato Starch

It is obtained from tubers of potato (Solanum tuberosum). Waste potatoes are utilized for
making starch. These are washed and reduced to a pulp in graters or rasping machines. The
resulting paste is passed through sieves to remove fibrous matter. After washing the solid starch
is separated by sedimentation, the use of inclined tables, or centrifuging, and is then
dried. Potato starch finds uses in the textile industry and as a source of glucose, dextrin and
industrial alcohol. Europe is the principal producer.

8.4.3.3 Wheat Starch

It is obtained from the grains of bread wheat (Triticum aestivum). The oldest commercial sources
of starch were from wheat. It was known to the Greeks and was widely used in Europe in the
16th Century in connection with the linen industry. The gluten in wheat makes the removal of
the starch a difficult process. It is accomplished by extraction with water or by the partial
fermentation of the grain. Wheat starch is used mostly in the textile industry.

8.4.3.4 Rice Starch

It is obtained from the grains of rice (Oryza sativa). Rice grains that are broken or imperfect are
used for making rice starch. These are softened by treating with caustic soda and are then
washed, ground and passed through fine sieves. More alkali is added and after a time the starch
settles out as a sediment. This is removed, washed and dried. Occasionally dilute hydrochloric
acid is used to free the grains. Rice starch has found use in laundry and for sizing.

8.4.3.5 Cassava Starch

The starch obtained from cassava (Manihot esculenta). Cassava flour and tapioca are used in
industry mainly as sizing materials and as the source of certain starch products.

8.4.3.6 Arrowroot Starch

The tubers of several tropical plants provide a source for arrowroot starch. West Indian
arrowroot (Maranta arundinaceae), Florida arrowroot (Zumia floridana), Queensland arrowroot
(Canna edulis), and East Indian arrowroot (Curcuma angustifolia) yield arrowroot starch. The
tubers of these plants are peeled, washed and crushed and the pulp is passed through perforated
cylinders, where a stream of water the starch into settling tanks. Arrowroot starch is easily
digested and used for preparing broth for children. It also finds some use in laundries.

8.4.3.7 Sago Starch

It is obtained from sago palm (Metaxylon sagu). The pith of the stem of the sago palm is the
source of the commercial sago starch. It. Is cultivated is in Malaya and Indonesia. The flowers
appear when the trees are about 15 years old and just prior to this time the stems store up a large
amount of starch. The trees are felled and the starch pith is removed. This is ground up, mixed

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 216

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

with water and strained through a coarse sieve. The starch is freed from the water by
sedimentation and washed and dried. This is known as sago flour. Commercial sago is prepared
from this by making a paste and rubbing it through a sieve in order to cause granulation. The
product is dried in the sun or in ovens and appears as hard shiny grains, known as pearl
sago. Both sago starch and pearl sago are used almost entirely for human consumption.

8.4.4 STARCH PRODUCTS

8.4.4.1 Soluble Starch
Starch grains are insoluble in cold water but they readily swell in hot water until they burst to
form a thin, almost clear solution or paste. This soluble starch has been used for finishing
textiles and in the paper industry.

8.4.4.2 Dextrin
When starch is heated or treated with dilute acids or enzymes it becomes converted into a
tasteless, white, amorphous solid known as dextrin or British Gum. Dextrin possesses adhesive
properties and has been used as substitutes for mucilage, glue and natural gums. Bread loaves
brushed with dextrin aids in crust formation. In steel manufacture, the sand for the cores used in
casting is held together with dextrin. Other uses include cloth printing, glazing cards and paper
and making pasteboard.

8.4.4.3 Glucose
When starch is treated with dilute acids for a long time it becomes more completely hydrolyzed
and is converted into glucose sugar. Often the same factory that extracts the starch also converts
it into glucose. This operation is done in large copper boilers under pressure. About six pounds
of dilute hydrochloric or sulfuric acid are used for each 10,000 pounds of starch. After all the
starch has been converted, the free acids are neutralized with caustic soda. The liquid is then
decolorized with boneblack and concentrated into thick syrup. One of the common brands of
corn syrup is ―Karo.‖ Glucose may be considered as an inferior substitute for cane
sugar. However, it is an excellent food material. Its use is in table syrup, for sweetening, in
candies, jellies and other kinds of cooking. It is often mixed with maple syrup, brown sugar,
honey or molasses it is used for making vinegar and in brewing.

8.4.4.4 Industrial Alcohol

Starch is the source of an enormous quantity of industrial alcohol. Maize and potatoes constitute
the chief sources, although the other starches and even cellulose, various products of the sugar
industry and fruit juice may be utilized. The process converts the starch into sugar by means of
diastase and the fermentation of the sugar by yeasts to yield alcohol. The operations are carried
out under different conditions from those followed in making alcoholic beverages. When
fermentation has stopped, the alcohol is extracted from the mash by fractional distillation. The

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 217

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

alcohol thus formed as a result of the fermentation of sugar is known as ethyl alcohol, as
distinguished from methyl or wood alcohol, a product of the destructive distillation of wood. To
render it unpalatable, ethyl alcohol is often ―denatured:‖ by adding methyl alcohol or other
substances. Industrial alcohol is the most important and most widely used solvent and is the
basic material in the manufacture of hundreds of products. It is also used in medicine, pharmacy
and other industries.

8.4.4.5 Nitro-Strach
Starch and cellulose are chemically very similar products. Cellulose reacts with nitric acid to
form nitrocellulose while starch yields nitro starch. Nitrostarch is a very safe explosive if the
ingredients are absolutely pure. Tapioca starch was originally imported for this purpose but
during World War-I cornstarch was used as a source.

8.5 ENERGY CROPS

"Energy crops" is a term used to describe biorenewables, bioenergy and biofuel crops. Bioenergy
is ―energy derived from recently living material such as wood, crops, or animal waste.‖
Bioenergy crops are defined as any plant material used to produce bioenergy. These crops have
the capacity to produce large volume of biomass, high energy potential, and can be grown in
marginal soils. They can positively impact the environment to reduce the level of carbon dioxide,
emission of greenhouse gases and soil erosion. Bioenergy can contribute to reducing the overall
consumption of fossil fuels. It can take the form of solid material (Biomass) for combustion or
liquid products (Biofuels) that can be used to power vehicles. Both biomass and biofuels can be
derived from dedicated energy crops, agricultural co-products or waste materials. The major
groups of source of energy crops are grain and seed crops, sugar crops, oil crops, dedicated
biomass crops and algae. Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.), Elephant grass (Pennissetum
purpureum Schum.), Poplar (Populus spp.), Willow (Salix spp.), Mesquite (Prosopis spp.), etc.
have been touted as the crops with the most widespread promise.
On the basis of biomass production and their use as energy crop they are classified into five
types namely, traditional bioenergy crops, first-, second- and third-generation bioenergy crops,
dedicated energy crops and halophytes. The first-generation bioenergy crops include corn,
sorghum, rapeseed and sugarcane, whereas the second generation bioenergy crops are
switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.), silvargrass (Miscanthus spp.), alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.),
reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea L.), Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.)
and other plants. The third-generation bioenergy crops contain boreal plants, crassulacean acid
metabolism (CAM) plants, eucalyptus and microalgae.
1. Traditional Bioenergy crops
Traditional biofuels derived from natural vegetation or from crop residues. Such biofuels still are
the main energy source in number of countries (e.g., Bhutan 86%, Nepal 97%) but they are not
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 218
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

sustainable, their exploitation may contribute to land degradation and desertification and are
unable to mitigate the impact of GCC.
2. First generation bioenergy crops (FGECs)
The vast majority of current liquid biofuels production is based on FGECs. It can also be used
for food therefore; their raw materials compete with food for fertile land and inputs. For example
corn, sugarcane, oil palm and rapeseed. Biofuels derived from FGECs rely on fermentation of
sugars to produce ethanol or on trans-esterfication of plant oils to produce biodiesel.
3. Second generation bioenergy crops (SGECs)
The SGECs are likely to be more efficient than FGECs and to supply fuel made from cellulose
and non-oxygenated, pure hydrocarbon fuels such as biomass-to-liquid fuel. Biofuels produced
biochemically or thermo-chemically from lingo-cellulosic SGECs, have more energy content
(GJ/ha/yr) than most FGECs biofuels. They may have a larger potential for cost reduction and
avoid numerous environmental issues. Early SGECs comprise perennial forage crops such as
Switchgrass (Phalaris arundinacea L.), alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), Napier grass (Pennisetum
purpureum Schumach.), and Cynodon spp (Oliver et al., 2009). The capacity of Miscanthus to
fix CO2 ranges from 5.2 to7.2 tC/ha/yr, which results in a negative C balance (Boe and Beck,
2008; Jakob et al., 2009).The contribution of non-edible plant oils (e.g., from Jatropha curcas L.,
Euphorbiacea; 30-50% oil) and soapnut (Sapindus mukorossi and S. trifoliatus; 52% oil), as new
sources for biodiesel production have the advantage of not competing with edible oils produced
from crop plants (Ram et al., 2008).
4. Third generation bioenergy crops (TGECs)
The TGECs comprise microalgae, CAM plants, Eucalyptus species, and boreal plants. Algae has
the ability to produce biodiesel, whereas boreal and CAM plants have the potential to provide
feedstock for direct cellulose fermentation and eucalyptus for thermo-conversion-based
bioenergy production. African palm (22% oil), coconut (55–60% oil), grain of castor bean (45–
48%), and peanut (40–43%) are among the TGECs oleaginous crops being studied for biodiesel
production. By absorbing CO2 emitted from power plants or producing biomass through
photosynthesis, they can contribute to lowering GHG emissions.
5 Dedicated bioenergy crops (DECs)
DEC has been proposed as a strategy to produce energy without impacting food security or the
environment. Their Genetic resources requirements for biological, chemical or physical
pretreatment are more environmentally friendly and will contribute more to GCC mitigation
(Petersen, 2008). They are beneficial in providing certain ecosystem services, including C
sequestration, biodiversity enhancement, salinity mitigation, and enhancement of soil and water
quality. Its include:
i) Cellulosic crops including short rotation trees and shrubs such as eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.),
poplar (Populus spp.), willow (Salix spp.), and birch (Betula spp.);
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 219
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

ii) Perennial grasses such as giant reed (Arundo donax), reed canary grass (Phalaris
arundinacea), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), elephant grass (Miscanthus gigantus), Johnson
grass (Sorghum halepense) and sweet sorghum (Sorghum bicolor); and
iii) Non-edible oil crops such as castor bean (Racinus communis), physic nut (Jatropha curcas),
oil radish (Raphanus sativus), and pongamia (Pongamia spp).

8.5.1 Characteristics of Bioenergy Crops

Potential bioenergy crops are being considered for species of plants with rapid growth, resistance
to biotic and abiotic challenges, and little need for biological, chemical, or physical
pretreatments. The following are some traits of energy crops:

8.5.1.1 Agronomic and architectural traits

Agronomically, bioenergy crops should have low-input for establishment, low-input for fossil
fuels, adaptable to marginal soils, and produce high levels of biomass and energy that are
expected to help combat Global Climate Change (GCC). Additionally, from an agronomic
perspective, they ought not to be restricted to having low proportions of dry matter allocated to
reproductive structures, a long canopy lifespan, perpetual growth, sterility to prevent escape, and
low moisture content at harvest. The design of a dedicated bioenergy crop (DEC plant) should
reduce competition amongst plants and effectively increase weed competition, maximise
radiation interception and Water Use Efficiency (WUE), hasten field drying, and make
mechanical harvesting easier. This can be achieved by adjusting branching habit, having a thick,
straight, upright stem and resistance to lodging. Trees can be optimized to have short stature to
increase light access and enable dense growth, large stem diameter, and reduced branching to
optimize energy density for transport and processing.

8.5.1.2 Physiological and eco-physiological traits

A plant that produces bioenergy can be viewed of as a thermochemical energy storage system
and solar energy collector. To increase plant biomass and the generation of bioenergy, a variety
of physiological and ecophysiological features that are required to improve radiation
interception, radiation, water usage efficiency, and nutrient use efficiency as well as to confer
environmental sustainability should be targeted. Ecophysiological characteristics that can alter
thermal time sensitivity in order to extend the growing season and boost above-ground biomass
without reducing below-ground biomass include: high growth rate, response to light competition,
canopies with low extinction coefficients, leaf traits for efficient light capture (including
optimum leaf area index (LAI), and specific leaf area(SLA), C4 or CAM photosynthetic pathway
coupled with large water use efficiency, long canopy duration, large capacity for C-sequestration
and nutrient cycling, and low nutrient (e.g., N and S) requirements and content of above-ground
biomass.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 220

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

8.5.1.3 Biochemical composition and caloric content

The energy content, or heat value, released when a material burns in air is expressed by the
caloric value of the substance. Because plants vary in their biochemical makeup (carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids, organic acids, etc.) and in the amount of glucose required to produce one unit of
these organic compounds, the availability of energy from different biomass types varies when
moisture content is taken into account, leading to variations in energy output. In addition to
having an impact on energy yield, biomass yield and composition impact GHG profiles and the
ability of bioenergy crops to mitigate GCC. For example, hybrid poplar produces the largest
energy yield (6.15 MJ/m2/yr), followed by switchgrass (5.8) then reed canary grass (4.9);
however, reed canary grass has the largest net GHG emission ratio of 3.65, as compared with
switchgrass (2.42) and hybrid poplar (2.37).

8.5.2 Converting Crops to Energy

There are four primary methods of converting energy into usable forms are direct combustion,
thermal conversion (pyrolysis, gasification), biological conversion (anaerobic digestion,
fermentation), and chemical conversion (transesterification).

8.5.2.1 Direct Combustion

The earliest and currently most popular method for turning biomass into heat, electricity, and
combined heat and power (CHP) is direct burning (CHP). It is applicable at all scales from
domestic to industrial, using boilers that range from small domestic stoves (1 to 10kW) to the
largest devices used in power and CHP plants (45 MW). Biomass of many different forms can be
used, including wood chip, pellets and different straws. The most efficient combustion is
achieved when dedicated biomass boilers are used. However, solid biomass particles can also be
mixed with coal in cofiring or cogeneration, enabling the large power-generation industries to
reduce their carbon footprint by incorporating biomass as a percentage of their feedstock.

8.5.2.2 Thermal Conversion

However, energy is not directly created from biomass during thermal conversion processes,
which employ high temperatures. Instead, the biomass is transformed into energy carriers like
oil, methanol, synthetic gases, or gases with better energy densities (and cheaper transport costs).
These carriers may also have superior combustion properties and/or more predictable and
controlled combustion characteristics. Pyrolysis and gasification, the two primary
thermochemical reactions, differ depending on whether oxygen is present.
Pyrolysis takes place at temperatures between 400 and 800 °C in the full absence of oxygen
(Laird et al., 2009). The majority of the cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin that together make
up the lignocellulosic fraction break down and create gases during this process. Some of the
vapours in these gases condense as they cool to create bio-oil, which has the potential to replace

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 221

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

fuel oil and serve as a raw material for the creation of synthetic gasoline or diesel. Charcoal is
made from the leftover biomass, which primarily consists of lignin.
Partial oxidation and temperatures of about 800 °C are needed for gasification. A portion of the
biomass is burned to form "producer gas" and charcoal. The charcoal chemically reduces the
carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) in the production gas to generate carbon monoxide (CO)
and hydrogen (H2). Producer gas contains water, nitrogen (if air is used as the oxidising agent),
18–20% H2, 18–20% CO, 8–10% CO2, 2-3% methane (CH4), trace amounts of higher
hydrocarbons (such as methane and ethane), and numerous impurities, including small char
particles, ash, tars, and oils. Air, oxygen, steam, or a combination of these can all be used to
perform the partial oxidation step in the gasification process. When air is used, a low heating
value gas is produced that is suitable for use in boilers, engines and turbines but not for
transporting in pipelines, because of the low energy density. Gasification with oxygen or steam
produces a medium heating value gas, which is suitable for limited pipeline distribution, as well
as a synthesis gas or ‗‗syngas‘‘ (typically 40% CO, 40% H2, 3%CH4 and 17% CO2, dry basis).
Syngas can be used to make methanol, ammonia and diesel using Fischer–Tropsch synthesis,
(Wright and Brown, 2008) first developed by F. Fischer and H. Tropsch in 1923.

8.5.2.3 Biological Conversion

Anaerobic digestion and fermentation are the two basic biological conversion processes. Both
technologies have advanced considerably. Bacteria break down organic molecules during
anaerobic digestion (AD), which occurs when there is no oxygen present. Almost any organic
material, such as waste paper, grass clippings, food waste, industrial effluents, sewage, and
animal waste, can be treated. The end product is a biogas that contains roughly 60% methane and
40% CO2. Biogas can be burnt to generate heat or (once it is scrubbed) electricity. It can also be
used as a biofuel. A solid and liquid residue called digestate is also produced, which can be used
as a soil conditioner. The amount of biogas and the quality of digestates obtained vary according
to the feedstock used. More biogas will be produced if the feedstock is putrescible, which means
it is more liable to decompose. The use of sewage and manure produces less biogas as the animal
that produced it has already removed some of the energy content.
Fermentation, followed by distillation, is the biological conversion process used for converting
sugars to ethanol or, depending on the microbial strain, other low molecular weight alcohols.
Most ethanol fermentation is based on Baker‘s yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), which requires
simple (monomeric) sugars as raw material. Conventional yeast fermentation produces 0.51 kg
of ethanol from 1 kg of any of the C6 sugars, such as glucose and mannose, or sucrose.
Polymeric carbohydrates are also present in all cell walls of the plant and potentially provide the
most abundant source of carbon for bioenergy and biofuel production available on earth.
However, in this form the sugars are not readily accessible, existing in the form of fibres,
sometimes interlinked with lignin, and additional steps of pretreatment and hydrolysis are
required to release the sugars for fermentation.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 222

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Fermentation and distillation to produce ethanol from sugar have been at the heart of the brewing
and of the wine and spirit industries for a long time in human history. The same well-developed
and efficient procedures have been used effectively to produce alcohols that can be used as fuels
for internal combustion engines.
8.5.2.4 Chemical Conversion
Essentially, biodiesel is the fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) created from various oil-containing
crops. Transesterification is the major chemical conversion process that produces biodiesel. The
truth is that lipids and oils can all be utilised as feedstock for the production of biodiesel, whether
they are produced directly by crops or are sourced from processed vegetable oil from the food
industry.
The first step in making biodiesel is pressing the crop to obtain a liquid oil fraction and an oil
cake byproduct, which can be fed to cattle. Because of their extremely high viscosity, poor
thermal and hydrolytic stability, and unfavourable ignition characteristics, liquid vegetable oils
can be utilised directly as engine fuels, but this needs engine modification. In order to convert the
huge, branched molecular structure of the oils into smaller, straight-chained molecules
resembling those of regular diesel, transesterification is used. There are three primary paths: the
oil is transformed into its fatty acids and then into biodiesel via (i) base-catalyzed
transesterification, (ii) direct, acid-catalyzed transesterification, and (iii) third-party
transesterification.

8.5.3 Brief Description of the Some Biofuel Crops

8.5.3.1 Corn - The majority of the ethanol is produced with this crop. Warm water is mixed
after the corn kernels have been ground. Then yeast is included. The mixture ferments, or turns
into an energy source in the form of alcohol, thanks to the yeast. Ethanol produced from maize or
sugarcane has the advantage of generating less carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, and sulphur
into the atmosphere when compared to energy products like gasoline. Additionally, ethanol
lowers smog, which might make people's lives healthier, particularly in urban areas.
8.5.3.2 Rapeseed - Biofuels are made with the help of rapeseed oil. For this, rapeseed is first
crushed or processed. Nowadays, rapeseed oil is a widely used biodiesel fuel. In fact, Canola has
an advantage over Rapeseed in the market. Canola is another variety of rapeseed. Unlike other
rapeseed varieties, canola has less uric acid, making it healthier for both people and animals to
consume.
Since most vegetable oils contain a higher percentage of saturated fat, which results in crystal
formation and lower engine efficiency, biodiesel produced from vegetable oil generally does not
perform well in cold climates. Canola oil has less saturated fat than other cooking oils, which
makes it difficult for ice to form in colder climates.
8.5.3.3 Sugarcane - Sugarcane, in addition to corn, is used to make ethanol. Ethanol made
from sugarcane is six times less expensive than ethanol made from corn.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 223

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

8.5.3.4 Palm Oil - This edible oil is made from the palm tree fruit and is one of the most
energy-efficient biodiesel fuels. When compared to gasoline, biodiesel made from palm oil is
better for the environment since it produces less carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
8.5.3.5 Jatropha - Another major source of biofuel since it has features that can help the world
become less reliant on crude oil. When water is scarce, the Jatropha shrub grows swiftly and
lives without much difficulty. Furthermore, Jatropha seeds contain 40 percent oil.
The Jatropha bush has a 50-year lifespan, and it can thrive even if the area is infested with pests
or suffers from drought. Surprisingly, this plant is the focus of India's biodiesel business, which
finally benefits the farming community financially. Scientific estimates indicate that roughly
2.47 acres (1 hectare) of Jatropha can produce around 0.83 tons or 752 kilograms to 2.20 tons,
i.e. 1995.81 kilograms of oil.
8.5.3.6 Soybean - This crop is processed into soyabean oil, which is then used to make
biodiesel. Soybean oil provides the majority of biodiesel used in industry in the United States.
Motor vehicles, particularly heavy equipment and buses, may run on pure soybean biodiesel or a
blend of biodiesel and diesel, and soybean biodiesel is environmentally better than maize
biodiesel, according to the National Academy of Sciences.
8.5.3.7 Cotton seed – It's the oil that comes from crushing cotton seeds. After that, the cotton
oil is converted into biodiesel. According to studies, more than 1 gallon (3.78 litres) of
cottonseed is required to replace one gallon (3.78 litres) of normal diesel fuel. Cottonseed
generates 35 gallons (132.5 litres) of oil per acre, according to University of California
specialists, which is approximately 33 percent less than rapeseed oil.
8.5.3.8 Sunflower - Sunflower seed crop is rich in oil, therefore this oilseed turns out be an
important biofuel crop. According to the National Sunflower Association, 1 acre, i.e. 0.4 hectares
of sunflowers can produce 600 pounds (272.1 kilograms) of oil. Refineries either process the
sunflower oil into biodiesel or utilize the plant waste as biomass, and then involve fueling
factories and power plants.
8.5.3.9 Wheat - Wheat is used in manufacturing Ethanol. In the US, nearly 90% of ethanol is
produced through the corn. Therefore wheat contributes less in conversion to ethanol. In Europe,
the use of wheat as an energy crop is on the rising trend.
8.5.3.10 Switch Grass -Another biofuel crop, it has the ability to lessen global warming while
lowering the world's reliance on oil. Switch grass, which contains cellulose, performs better than
maize at producing ethanol by using less energy than conventional or fossil fuels. Additionally,
there is a significant decrease in greenhouse gas emissions because cellulose ethanol has higher
energy content than corn ethanol. In the long run, scientists are experimenting with a variety of
methods to determine switch grass as the best alternate source of energy. However, there are no
big switch grass plantations or farms at present.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 224

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

8.6 SUMMARY
 Sugar and starch, are two forms of carbohydrates, belong to a class of organic substances that
typically include carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the ratio 1:2:1. They are the major source
of energy in many organisms, serve to store energy, and are structural components in some
organisms.
 There are two main types of carbohydrates found in food sources which are called basic
carbohydrates, which include necessary sugars, and complex carbohydrates, which include
starch and fibre. Carbohydrates make up the bulk of the dry weight of plants. Although there
are many kinds, sugars, starches and the celluloses predominate.
 The term "sugar" refers broadly to a variety of carbohydrates with varying degrees of
sweetness. Sugars, however, form a single unit of the atom, sometimes known as a
monosaccharide. These sugar atoms can exist as glucose, fructose, or mannose. Then,
starches again form lengthy chains of solitary sugar atoms joined by a strong linkage.
 Sugar is essential to human nutrition. It makes the ideal nourishment because it can be easily
assimilated by the body. Its primary benefit is as an energy-producing substance, and it is
particularly well suited for use after strenuous activity.
 The only commercial sources of sugar are sugar cane, sugar beet, sugar maple, maize,
sorghum, and a few palms. All of these plant species store sucrose as their primary form of
sugar.
 Sugarcane is the primary source of sugar, it is tropical by origin and cultivated in all the
warm nations. India, Cuba, Pakistan and Brazil are the main producers of sugar.
 Sugarcane belongs to the genus Saccharum L., traditionally placed in the tribe
Andropogoneae of the grass family (Poaceae).
 Sugar- and starch producing crops produce sugar or starch in large amounts, and therefore
are grown commercially Sugarcane is an industrial crop, produced from either sugarcane
(Saccharum spp.) or sugar beet (Beta vulgaris).
 Starch is a polysaccharide or complex carbohydrate that is made up of a chain of glucose
molecules joined together in covalent bond called glycosidic bonds. It is one of the principal
nutrients or supplements that should be added to our day to day diet since they give us
enough energy for the entire day. For commercial purposes, starch is obtained from the stem
tubers of potato (Solanum tuberosum), the root tubers of cassava (Manihot esculenta) and the
rhizomes of arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea).
 Cereal starch is mainly obtained from bread wheat (Triticum aestivum), maize (Zea mays),
and rice (Oryza sativa). Starch from the sago palm, Metroxylon sagu, provides the staple
food for the populations of the South-western part of the Pacific Ocean.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 225

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

 Bioenergy crops are defined as any plant material used to produce bioenergy. They are
grown and maintained at lower costs for biofuel production. These crops have the capacity to
produce a large volume of biomass, high energy potential, and can be grown in marginal
soils. They can positively impact the environment to reduce the level of carbon dioxide,
emission of greenhouse gases and soil erosion.
 The bioenergy crops are classified into five types namely, first-, second- and third-generation
bioenergy crops, dedicated energy crops and halophytes.
 The first-generation bioenergy crops include corn, sorghum, rapeseed and sugarcane,
whereas the second-generation bioenergy crops are switchgrass, miscanthus, alfalfa, reed
canary grass, Napier grass and other plants.
 The third-generation bioenergy crops contain boreal plants, crassulacean acid metabolism
(CAM) plants, eucalyptus and microalgae.

8.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

8.7.1 Multiple Choice Questions
1. What are energy crops?
a) Crops that produce energy
b) Crops grown to feed people
c) Crops grown to remove Pathogen
d) Crops grown to be used in generating energy

2. Bioenergy is the energy obtained from………………….

a) Herbaceous plant b) Natural Gas
c) Biomass d) Coal

3. Which of the following is the type of bioenergy?

a) Fossil fules b) Solar energy
c) Biofules d) Chemical energy

4. Raising crops for the production of ethanol is known as

a) Chemical energy b) Energy cropping
c) Energy plantation d) Biomass production

5. Which of the following optons include energy crops?

a) Sugarcane, Millets and Tamato
b) Sugarcane, Potato and Tapioca
c) Sugarcane, Potato and Tamato
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 226
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

d) Sugarcane, Tapioca and Banana

6. Production of bio ethanol is through fermentation of ________ and starch components

a) Sugar b) Alcohol
c) Spices d) Milk

7. Silvargrass and Alfalfa is the example of

a) Third-generation bioenergy crops
b) First-generation bioenergy crops
c) Traditional bioenergy crops
d) Second-generation bioenergy crops

8. Source for arrowroot starch are

a) Maranta arundinaceae b) Curcuma angustifolia
c) Zumia floridana d) All of the above

9. Modern sugarcane cultivation which is done for the production of sugar is interspecific
hybrids founded on between
a) Saccharum officinarum and S. robustum
b) Saccharum spontaneum and S. officinarum
c) Saccharum officinarum and S. barberi
d) None of the above

10. Bagasse is used to make which of the following

a) Furfural b) Paper
c) Both a & b d) Farinha

8.7.2 Fill in the Blanks

1) GCC stands……………….
2) The Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research (IISR) situated in …………………
3) S. spontaneum and S. robustum are knoem as…………….
4) …………………..is the thick, syrupy byproduct that remains after sucrose has been extracted
from cleared sugar juice (syrup).
5) Starch is a polysaccharide that is made up of a chain of glucose molecules joined together in
covalent bond called……………………….
6) Fresh potatoes are important source of …………………..
7) Manihot esculenta, commonly called ………………….
8) Bioenergy can contribute to ………………the overall consumption of fossil fuels.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 227

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Answer key:
8.7.1: 1-(d); 2-(c); 3-(c); 4-(b); 5-(b); 6-(a); 7-(d); 8-(d); 9-(b); 10-(c)
8.7.2: 1) Global Carbon Council; 2) Lucknow.; 3) wild cane; 4) Molasses; 5) glycosidic bonds;
6) Vitamins B and C; 7) cassava; 8) reducing

8.8 REFERENCES

 Allen, C.J. et al. (1997), ―New technologies for sugar milling and by-product modification‖,
In: Keating, B.A. and J.R. Wilson (eds.), Intensive Sugarcane Production: Meeting the
Challenges Beyond 2000, Proceedings of the Sugar 2000 Symposium, CABI, Wallingford. ‖.
United Kingdom., pp. 267-285.
 Almazan, O. (1994), ―Past, present and future of sugarcane by-products in Cuba‖,
Cooperative Sugar, 26(4):253-258.
 American Sugar Beet Growers Association. (1998).
http://members.aol.com/asga/sugarbeet.htm
 Annual Report 2020-21. Department of Agriculture, cooperation and Farmer‘s welfare,
Minister of Agriculture & Farmer‘s welfare, Govt. of India, Krishi Bhawan, New Delhi. pp8.
 Bichsel, S.E. (1987), An overview of the U.S. sugar beet industry. Proceedings of the
Symposium on the chemistry and processing of sugar beet. Denver, Colorado. 108 pp.
 Boe, A. and Beck, D.L. (2008), Yield components of biomass in switchgrass. Crop Sci., 48:
1306-1311.
 Broadley, R. et al. (2004), Subtropical Banana Grower‘s Handbook, Queensland Department
of Primary Industries, pp. 1-206.
 Calcino, D.V. (1994), Australian Sugarcane Nutrition Manual, SRDC/BSES, Indooroopilly,
Australia.
 Cheavegatti-Gianotto, A. et al. (2011), ―Sugarcane (Saccharum X officinarum): A reference
study for the regulation of genetically modified cultivars in Brazil‖, Tropical Plant Biology,
4(1): 62-89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12042-011-9068-3.
 Conab (2011), ―Acompanhamento da Safra Brasileira: Cana-de-acucar‖, Report No. Terceiro
Levantamento, January.
 Cooke, D.A. and Scott, R.K. (1993), The Sugar Beet Crop. Chapman and Hall, Publishers.
675 pp.
 D‘Hont, A. et al. (1998), ―Determination of basic chromosome numbers in the genus
Saccharum by physical mapping of ribosomal RNA genes‖, Genome, 41(2): 221-225.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/g98-023.
 Deepchand, K. (2005), ―Sugar cane bagasse energy cogeneration–Lessons from Mauritius‖,
Parliamentarian Forum on Energy Legislation and Sustainable Development, Cape Town,
South Africa.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 228

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

 Duke, J.A. (1983), Handbook of Energy Crops: Beta vulgaris L.

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Beta_vulgaris.html.
 Dunlap, C.E. and C.D. Callihan (1969), ―Fermentative utilization of sugar cane bagasse‖,
American Society of Sugar Cane Technologists, Vol. 16, pp. 82-90, available at:
https://archive.org/stream/americansocietyo1617amer/americansocietyo1617amer_djvu.txt
 Eisenbies, M.H., Vance, E.D., Aust, W.M., and Seiler, J.R. (2009), Intensive utilization of
harvest residues in Southern Pine Plantations: quantities available and implications for
nutrient budgets and sustainable site productivity. Bioenergy Research. 2: 90-98.
 FAOSTAT (2014), FAO Statistics online database, ―Production / Crops, - sugarcane, Year
2014‖, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
http://faostat3.fao.org/home/E (accessed 10 February 2016).
 Forster, V., Marrese, D., Staska, K., Trinks, K., and Stander, J.R. (1997). Petition for
Determination of Non regulated Status: Glufosinate Tolerant Sugar Beet, Transformation
Event T120-7. AgrEvo USA Comapany, Wilmington, Delaware. 67 pp.
 Goldemberg, J. and Guardabassi, P. (2009), ―Are biofuels a feasible option?‖, Energy Policy,
37(1): 10-14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2008.08.031.
 Gopinathan, M.C. and Sudhakaran, R.B., (2009), ―Biofuels: Opportunities and challenges in
India‖, In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology-Plant, 45(3): 350-370.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11627-009-9217-7.
 https://faculty.ucr.edu/~legneref/botany/sugcellu.htm.
 https://krishijagran.com/agripedia/what-are-biofuel-crops-or-energy-crops/.
 https://krishijagran.com/agripedia/what-are-biofuel-crops-or-energy-crops/
 https://www.indiaspend.com/nearing-desertification-marathwada-isnt-giving-up-water-guzzling
sugarcane-heres-why/
 https://www.istockphoto.com/photos/sugar-cane-%28saccharum-officinarum%29.
 https://www.slideshare.net/RashmiYadav45/sugar-yeilding-plants
 https://www.slideshare.net/zohaibkhan404/energy-crops-their-worldwide-usage-data
and?from_action=save
 IPCC. 2007, Climate Change (2007) Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. In: Parry M.L.,
Canziani O.F., Palutikof J.P., Linden van der P.J., Hanson C.E. (edt.)Contribution of working
group II to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change.
Cambridge University Press, pp 976.
 Jakob, K., Zhou, F., and Paterson, A.H. (2009), Genetic improvement of C4 grasses as
cellulosic biofuel feedstocks. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol., 45: 291-305.
 Kansal, S. (1998), ―Factors determining Indian sugar production and its comparative
advantage‖, Proceedings of the Fiji/FAO 1997 Asia Pacific Sugar Conference, Food and
Agriculture Organization, Rome, pp. 78-92, www.fao.org/docrep/005/x0513e/x0513e16.htm.
 Karp, A. and Shield, I., (2008). Bioenergy from plants and the sustainable yield challenge.
New Phytologist. 179, pp.15-32.
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 229
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

 Karve, P. et al. (2001), ―A chain of technologies for using sugarcane trash as a household
fuel‖, Boiling Point, 47: 16-18.
 Khan, N.A. and Amin, W.H.W.M. (2005), ―Kinetics of cadmium uptake by sugarcane
bagasse‖, Waste and Wastewater Asia, September/October.
 Khattri, S.D. and Singh, M.K. (1999), ―Colour removal from dye wastewater using sugarcane
dust as an adsorbent‖, Adsorption Science and Technology, 17(4): 269-282.
 Laird, D.A., Brown, R.C., Amonette, J.E. and Lehmann, J. (2009), Biofuels, Bioproducts
and Biorefining, 3: 547.
 Lal, R. (2008a), Sequestration of atmospheric CO2 in globalcarbon pools.
Energy & Environmental Science.1, pp. 86-100.
 Mackintosh, D. (2000), ―Sugar milling‖, In: Hogarth, M. and Allsopp, P. (eds.), Manual of
Cane Growing, Bureau of Sugar Experiment Stations, Indooroopilly, Australia, pp. 369-377,
www.sugarresearch.com.au/icms_docs/166965_Chapter_17_Sugar_Milling.pdf.
 Mellado-Mojica, E., Lopez, M. G (2015), "Identification, classification, and discrimination
of agave syrups from natural sweeteners by infrared spectroscopy and HPAEC-PAD". Food
Chemistry. 167: 349–57. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.06.111. PMID 25148997
 Oliver, R.J., Finch, J.W., and Taylor, G. (2009), Second generation bioenergy crops and
climate change: a review of the effects of elevated atmospheric CO2 and drought on water
use and the implications for yield. GCB Bioenegy 1: 97-114.
 Onelio, F. et al. (2011), ―Fertilizing effects of combined application of sugarcane ash with
mycorrhiza fungi and compost in different Cuban soils‖, Tropentag 2010: World Food
System –A Contribution from Europe, 14-16 September, Zurich, Switzerland.
 Orellana, C. and Neto, R.B. (2006), ―Brazil and Japan give fuel to ethanol market‖, Nature
Biotechnology, 24: 232, http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nbt0306-232.
 Pate, F.M. (1982), ―Value of treating bagasse with steam under pressure for cattle feed‖,
Tropical Agriculture, 59:293-297.
 Ram, S.G., Parthiban, K.T., Kumar, R.S., Thiruvengadam, V. and Paramathma, M. (2008),
Genetic diversity among Jatropha species as revealed by RAPD markers. Genet Resour Crop
Evol., 55: 803-809.
 Sainz, M.B. and Dale, J. (2009), ―Towards cellulosic ethanol from sugarcane bagasse‖,
Proceedings of the Australian Society of Sugar Cane Technologists, 31:18-23.
www.assct.com.au/media/pdfs/2009-M-29-Sainz-Dale.pdf.
 Schubert, C. (2006), ―Can biofuels take center stage?‖, Nature Biotechnology, 24: 777-784.
 Smeets, E.M.W., Faaij, A.P.C., Lewandowski, I.M. And Turkenburg, W.C., (2007), A
bottom-up assessment and review of global bio-energy potential to 2050. Progress in Energy
and Combustion Science. 33, pp.56-106.
 Smith, D.M., Inman-Bamber, N.G., and Thorburn, P.J. (2005). Growth and function of the
sugarcane root system, Field Crops Research, 92: 2–3, pp 169-183

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 230

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

 Smith, G.A., (1987). Sugar beet: Principles of Cultivar Development. Fehr, W.R. (ed.)
MacMillan Publishing Company, pp.577-625.
 Sreenivasan, T.V. et al. (1987), ―Cytogenetics‖, In: Heinz, D.J. (ed.), Sugarcane
Improvement through Breeding, Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands, pp. 211-253.
 Toxopeus, H. (1984), De historie van de Europese kruisbloemige en bietegewassen.
Bedrijfsontwikkeling 15:537-542.
 UN Industrial Development Organisation (2002), ―Hydrolysed bagasse to make animal feed.
 Freeman, D.W., Duerr, E.O., and Leber, K.M. (1992), ―Use of bagasse as a feed input to
semi-intensive shrimp growout ponds‖, Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 23(1):23-
30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.1992.tb00747.x.
 Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992), "The Families of Flowering Plants: Descriptions,
Illustrations, Identification, and Information Retrieval." Version: 15th October 1998.
http://biodiversity.uno.edu/delta/.
 Wright, M.M. and Brown, R.C., Boateng, A.A. (2008), Distributed processing of biomass to
bio-oil for subsequent production of Fischer-Tropsch liquids. Biofuels, Bioproducts and
Biorefining, 2:229-38.

8.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

 Pandey, B.P., Economic Botany, S. Chand & Company Ltd. India.

 Kochhar, S.L., Economic Botany: A comprehensive study, Cambridge University Press,
2016 680 pages.

8.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

8.10.1 Short Answer Type Questions

1. Explain in brief about four primary methods of converting energy into usable forms.
2. Write a note on the economic importance of sugarcane.
3. Describe in brief about Cassava?
4. Write a short note on sources of commercial starch.
5. Describe in brief about biofuel crops.
6. Write a short note on characteristics of bioenergy Crops

8.10.2 Long Answer Type Questions

1. What are Sugar crops? Explain about sugarcane in detail.
2. What are Energy crops? Describe in detail its characteristics and types.
3. Give a detailed account on starch and starch products.
4. Describe in detail about sugar beet with its economic importance
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 231
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

BLOCK-3 PLANT CONSERVATION

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 232

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

UNIT-9 PRINCIPLES OF CONSERVATION

Contents
9.1-Objectives
9.2-Introduction
9.3 Conservation of plant biodiversity
9.4 Principles of conservation
9.5 Extinction
9.6 Environmental status of plant based on International Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN)
9.7- References
9.8-Terminal Questions

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 233

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

9.1 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit students will be able-

 to know about the Conservation of plant biodiversity
 to learn about the Principles of conservation
 to learn about Extinction of plant biodiversity
 to understand about the Environmental status of plant based on International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN)

9.2 INTRODUCTION

Biodiversity constitutes the most important working component of a natural ecosystem. It helps
to maintain ecological processes and deals with the degree of nature‘s variety in the biosphere.
The term biodiversity was first coined by Water & Rosen in 1985. Biodiversity refers to the
variability among living organisms and constitute terrestrial, marine, aquatic ecosystems and the
ecological complexes. It reflects the number, variety & variability of living organisms and
includes diversity within species (genetic diversity), between species (species diversity) and
between ecosystems (ecosystem diversity).
India is a mega diverse country having only 2.4% of the world's land area but accommodates 7-
8% species of flora and fauna. It includes more than 45,000 species of plants and 91,000 species
of animals. It is situated at the tri-junction of the Afro-tropical, Indo-Malayan and Palearctic
realms, all of these support rich biodiversity. India is a diverse nation, which has 10
biogeographic zones. A comparison of status of biodiversity between Indian and World scenario
is depicted in Table 1.

Table 1: Comparison between the Number of Species in India & the World

Group Number of Species in Number of Species in (%) India

India the World
Mammals 350 4627 7.6
Birds 1224 9702 12.6
Reptiles 408 6550 6.2
Amphibians 197 4522 4.4
Fishes 2546 21,730 11.7
Flowering Plants 15,000 2,50,000 6
(Source: Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science http://ces.iisc.ernet.in)

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 234

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Plant Biodiversity
With an estimated 29,105 species of algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and
angiosperms, India holds 9.13% of the world's known floral diversity in these groups. The
richness of Indian plant species as compared with the world is shown in the table given below-

Table: Indian plant species as compared with the world

India World % India

Algae 7244 40800 17.75
Bryophytes 2504 14500 17.27
Pteridophytes 1267 12000 10.56
Gymnosperms 74 650 11.38
Angiosperms 17926 250000 7.17
Total 29015 317950 9.13
(Source: India's Fifth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity, MoEF, GOI)

As defined by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Biodiversity also known as

biological diversity is ―the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter
alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they
are part; this includes diversity within species, between species, and of ecosystems‖

Biodiversity is the life support system. Organisms depend on it for the air to breathe, the food to
eat, and the water to drink. Wetlands filter pollutants from water, trees and plants reduce global
warming by absorbing carbon, and bacteria and fungi break down organic material and fertilize
the soil. It has been empirically shown that native species richness is linked to the health of
ecosystems, as is the quality of life for humans. The ecosystem services of biodiversity is
maintained through formation and protection of soil, conservation and purification of water,
maintaining hydrological cycles, regulation of biochemical cycles, absorption and breakdown of
pollutants and waste materials through decomposition, determination and regulation of the
natural world climate.

Despite the benefits from biodiversity, today‘s threats to species and ecosystems are increasing
day by day with alarming rate and virtually all of them are caused by human mismanagement of
biological resources often stimulated by imprudent economic policies, pollution and faulty
institutions in-addition to climate change. To ensure intra and intergenerational equity, it is
important to conserve biodiversity. Some of the existing measures of biodiversity conservation
include; reforestation, zoological gardens, botanical gardens, national parks, biosphere reserves,
germplasm banks and adoption of breeding techniques, tissue culture techniques, social forestry
to minimize stress on the exploitation of forest resources.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 235

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Plants are universally recognized as a vital part of the world's biological diversity and an
essential resource for the planet. In addition to the small number of crop plants used for
basic food and fibres, many thousands of wild plants have great economic and cultur al
importance and potential, providing food, medicine, fuel, clothing and shelter for vast
numbers of people throughout the world. Plants play a key role in maintaining the planet's
basic environmental balance and ecosystem stability and provide an importa nt component
of the habitats for the world's animal life. At present, a complete inventory of the plants of
the world has not been assembled, but it is estimated that the total number of vascular plant
species may be of the order of 300,000. Of particular concern is the fact that many are in
danger of extinction, threatened by habitat transformation, over-exploitation, alien invasive
species, pollution and climate change. The disappearance of such vital and large amounts
of biodiversity sets one of the greatest challenges for the world community: to halt the
destruction of the plant diversity that is so essential to meet the present and future needs of
humankind. The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation is proposed to address this
challenge. While the entry point for the Strategy is conservation, aspects of sustainable use
and benefit-sharing are also included.

Biodiversity can be classified under Three Levels (Types)

1. Species diversity
2. Genetic diversity
3. Ecosystem or ecological diversity.

Species diversity
Species diversity Species diversity refers to biodiversity at the most basic level and is the
‗variety and abundance of different types of individuals of a species in a given area. Species is a
basic unit of classification and is defined as a group of similar organisms that interbreed with one
another and produce viable offspring. These may include bacteria, viruses, fungi, plants (algae,
bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, angiosperms) and animals (unicellular protozoans,
arthropods, mollusks, fish, herps and mammals). The tropical areas support more diverse plant
and animal communities than other areas. The regions that are rich in species diversity are called
hotspots of biodiversity.

Genetic diversity
It refers to the variations among the genetic resources of the organisms. Every individual of a
particular species differs from each other in their genetic constitution. That is why every human
looks different from each other. Similarly, there are different varieties in the same species of rice,
wheat, maize, barley, etc.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 236

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Ecological diversity
An ecosystem is a collection of living and non-living organisms and their interaction with each
other. Ecological biodiversity refers to the variations in the plant and animal species living
together and connected by food chains and food webs. It is the diversity observed among the
different ecosystems in a region. Diversity in different ecosystems like deserts, rainforests,
mangroves, etc., includes ecological diversity.

9.3 CONSERVATION OF PLANT BIODIVERSITY

Conservation needs different strategies, they can be species based or habitat based or ecosystem
based. Some species are given importance at national level while some need treatment at
international levels. Most of the conservation is done at in situ and ex situ conditions. In this unit
we will discuss what these conditions mean, what is the difference between them and what are
the methods and techniques used. We have also described some important projects such as
project tiger and how this project had helped in increasing tiger populations. Some techniques
such as seed bank and tissue culture are also proving very helpful in conservation of plants which
fulfill several of our needs.
In-situ conservation means ―on-site conservation‖. It is the process of protecting an endangered
plant or animal species in its natural habitat, either by protecting or cleaning up the habitat itself,
or by defending the species from predators. The benefit to in-situ conservation is that it maintains
recovering populations in the surroundings where they have developed their distinctive
properties. Wildlife conservation is mostly based on in-situ conservation. This involves the
protection of wildlife habitats. Also, sufficiently large reserves are maintained to
enable the target species to exist in large numbers. The population size must be sufficient to
enable the necessary genetic diversity to survive within the population.
Ex-situ conservation means, literally ―off-site conservation‖. It is the process of protecting
population of an endangered species of plant or animal by removing it from an unsafe or
threatened habitat and placing it, or part of it, under the care of humans. While ex-situ
conservation is comprised of some of the oldest and best known conservation methods known to
human, it also involves newer, sometimes controversial laboratory methods. Ex-situ
conservation, while helpful in human‘s efforts to sustain and protect our environment, is rarely
enough to save a species from extinction. It is to be used as a last resort or as a supplement to in-
situ conservation because it cannot recreate the habitat as a whole: the entire genetic variation of
a species, its symbiotic counterparts, or those elements which, over time, might help a species
adapt to its changing surroundings. Furthermore, ex-situ conservation techniques are often costly.
Plants and animals living in ex-situ breeding grounds have no natural defense to the diseases and
pests new to the species.

Strategies for Conservation of Biodiversity

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 237

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

1- Maintain flawless (viable) landscapes - the aim of this strategy is to provide protection along
with priority actions such as repair historic impacts or removal of threats and improve the
ecological integrity by maintaining long-term viability of the more intact (core) landscapes of the
region.
2- Reverse declines – here the strategy involves in bringing back the lost ecological sites so as to
reinstate critical ecological processes by improving the habitat of shrubby systems and open
woodland and eventually help in bringing back declining species
3- Recover threatened species and ecological communities –the aim of this strategy is to fortify
the perseverance of species that are on the verge of extinction in the wild thus indirectly
protecting ecosystems from failing. The work here is done not at a community level but is based
on individual species as each has their own unique requirements for survival. The actions are
based on implementing measures for increasing their distribution and abundance while trying to
put a stop to their decline.
4- Control emerging threats –the aim is to educate people of the threats that are knocking at the
door before the final extinction happens. Some of the threats are climate change and the
introduction of invasive species.
5- The submissive adaptation to improve the elasticity of natural systems and allowing them to
adapt to change can be done by various activities such as by maintaining functional areas and
ensuring that there are representatives for the environments and that the associated processes for
removing and minimizing existing stressors are done. Active adaptation can be done by
influencing ecological processes to moderately direct the nature of adaptation by activities like
restoring habitats and system dynamics. Identifying and protecting climate refugees and
managing/restoring connectivity by increasing the matrix permeability and functional
connectivity. Transformation can be done to fundamentally alter ecological processes in an aim
to prevent irreversible changes from happening. The relevant activities would include keystone
structuring of revised systems (eco-engineering and transformation) and species translocations or
ex situ conservation (genetic preservation).

Biodiversity Conservation Policies and Programmes: National and International

The IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature), helps governments at national by
preparing national biodiversity policies, whereas it provides advice to environmental conventions
such as the Convention on Biological Diversity, CITES and the Framework Convention on
Climate Change in an international level. It also councils the UNESCO on natural world
heritage.
There is a formally accredited permanent observer mission to the United Nations in New York.
It‘s been stated in their website that they are the only international observer organization in the
UN General Assembly with proficiency regarding issues concerning the environment,
specifically biodiversity, nature conservation and sustainable natural resource use.
It has solemn relations with the Council of Europe, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations (FAO), the International Maritime Organization (IMO), the Organization of

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 238

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

American States (OAS), the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD),
the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the UNEP World Conservation
Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO), the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO).

9.4 PRINCIPLES OF CONSERVATION

The biological conservation revolves around the five basic principles:

• Preserve diversity of species/communities
• Prevent extinction of populations/species
• Maintain ecological complexity
• Allow evolution to continue
• Recognize the intrinsic value of biological diversity.

Principle 1 Protection of species and species’ subdivisions will conserve genetic diversity:
At the population level, the important processes are ultimately genetic and evolutionary because
these maintain the potential for continued existence of species and their adaptation to changing
conditions. In most instances managing for genetic diversity directly is impractical and difficult
to implement. The most credible surrogate for sustaining genetic variability is maintaining not
only species but also the spatial structure of genetic variation within species (such as sub-species
and populations). Maintenance of populations distributed across a species‘ natural range will
assist in conserving genetic variability. This ensures the continuation of locally adapted genetic
variants. Retaining a variety of individuals and species permits the adaptability needed to sustain
ecosystem productivity in changing environments and can also be get further diversity (future
adaptability). This will be particularly important given climate change; for example, the genetic
potential of populations at the northern edge of their range in biological conservation. may be
particularly important to help facilitate species adaptation to changes. Species that are collapsing
towards the edge (versus centre) of their range and disjunct populations (where a local
population is disconnected from the continuous range of the species) are also particularly
important to consider, given climate change, in order to conserve genetic diversity and enable
adaptation.

Principle 2 Maintaining habitat is fundamental to conserving species: A species habitat is

the ecosystem conditions that support its life requirements. Our understanding of habitat is based
on our knowledge of a species‘ ecology and how that determines where a species is known to
occur or likely to occur. Habitat can be considered at a range of spatial and temporal scales that
include specific microsites (e.g., occupied by certain invertebrates, bryophytes, some lichens),
large heterogeneous habitats, or occupancy of habitat during certain time periods (e.g., breeding

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 239

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

sites, winter range areas). Therefore conserving habitat requires a multi-scale approach from
regions to landscapes to ecosystems to critical habitat elements, features and structures.

Principle 3 Large areas usually contain more species than smaller areas with similar
habitat: The theory of island biogeography illustrates a basic principle that large areas usually
contain more species than smaller areas with similar habitat because they can support larger and
more viable populations. The theory holds that the number of species on an island is determined
by two factors: the distance from the mainland and island size. These would affect the rate of
extinction on the islands and the level of immigration. Other factors being similar (including
distance to the mainland), on smaller islands the chance of extinction is greater than on larger
ones. This is one reason why larger islands can hold more species than smaller ones. In the
context of applying the theory more broadly, the ―island‖ can be any area of habitat surrounded
by areas unsuitable for the species on the island. Therefore a system of areas conserved for
biodiversity that includes large areas can effectively support more viable populations.

Principle 4 All things are connected but the nature and strength of those connections vary:
Species play many different roles in communities and ecosystems and are connected by those
roles to other species in different ways and with varying degrees of strength. It is important to
understand key interactions. Some species (e.g., keystone species) have a more profound effect
on ecosystems than others. Particular species and networks of interacting species have key,
broad-scale ecosystem level effects while others do not. The ways in which species interact vary
in addition to the 8 strengths of those interactions. Species can be predator and/or prey, mutualist
or synergist. Mutualist species provide a mutually beneficial association for each other such as
fungi that colonize plant roots and aid in the uptake of soil mineral nutrients. Synergistic species
create an effect greater than that predicted by the sum of effects each is able to create
independently. The key issue is that it is important to determine which among the many
interactions are the strong ones because those are the ones toward which attention needs to be
directed.

Principle 5 Disturbances shape the characteristics of populations, communities, and

ecosystems: The type, intensity, frequency and duration of disturbances shape the characteristics
of populations, communities and ecosystems including their size, shape and spatial relationships.
Natural disturbances have played a key role in forming and maintaining natural ecosystems by
influencing their structure including the size, shape and distribution of patches. The more
regions, landscapes, ecosystems and local habitat elements resemble those that were established
from natural disturbances, the greater the probability that native species and ecological processes
will be maintained. This approach can be strengthened by developing an improved understanding
of how ecosystems respond to both natural and anthropogenic disturbances, thus creating
opportunities to build resilience in the system. For example, high frequency, low intensity fires
have shaped ponderosa pine ecosystems while low frequency, high intensity fires have shaped

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 240

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

lodgepole pine ecosystems. Maintaining these ecosystems means restoring fire and/or designing
management practices such as harvesting to reduce the differences between a managed landscape
and a landscape pattern created by natural disturbance. Since ecosystems can change
dramatically at the site level due to natural disturbances, considering their composition and
structure of habitats at the landscape level may be more useful.
For terrestrial ecosystems, this means taking into account: • species composition; • the amount
and patch size distribution; • the variety and proportion of seral stages of terrestrial habitat from
young to old; and • the diversity of within community structure (e.g., a variety of amounts of
snags and coarse woody debris within forest stands). It is important to recognize that for some
less mobile species, distribution of habitat is potentially as influential as amount of habitat (i.e.,
patch size; connectivity.

Principle 6 Climate influences terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems: Climate is

usually defined as all of the states of the atmosphere seen at a place over many years. Climate
has a dominant effect on biodiversity as it influences meteorological variables like temperature,
precipitation and wind with consequences for many ecological and physical processes, such as
photosynthesis and fire behaviour. For example, major temperature fluctuations in surface waters
in the Pacific Ocean due to El Nino climatic events can influence weather and significantly warm
temperatures throughout much of biological conservation. This in turn can increase some
wildlife populations or impact the migration timing of some migratory bird populations.

9.5 EXTINCTION

A species is extinct when the last existing member dies. Extinction therefore becomes a certainty
when there are no surviving individuals that can reproduce and create a new generation.
Extinction is the termination of a kind of organism or of a group of kinds (taxon), usually
a species. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last
individual of the species, although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before
this point. Because a species' potential range may be very large, determining this moment is
difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. This difficulty leads to phenomena such as Lazarus
taxa, where a species presumed extinct abruptly "reappears" (typically in the fossil record) after a
period of apparent absence.
More than 99% of all species that ever lived on Earth, amounting to over five billion species, are
estimated to have died out. It is estimated that there are currently around 8.7 million species
of eukaryote globally, and possibly many times more if microorganisms, like bacteria, are
included. Notable extinct animal species include non-avian dinosaurs, saber-toothed
cats, dodos, mammoths, ground sloths, thylacines, trilobites, and golden toads.
Through evolution, species arise through the process of speciation—where new varieties of
organisms arise and thrive when they are able to find and exploit an ecological niche—and

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 241

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing conditions or against
superior competition. The relationship between animals and their ecological niches has been
firmly established. A typical species becomes extinct within 10 million years of its first
appearance, although some species, called living fossils, survive with little to
no morphological change for hundreds of millions of years.
In June 2019, one million species of plants and animals were at risk of extinction. At least 571
species have been lost since 1750, but likely many more. The main cause of the extinctions is the
destruction of natural habitats by human activities, such as cutting down forests and converting
land into fields for farming.

9.5.1 Causes of Extinction

As long as species have been evolving, species have been going extinct. It is estimated that over
99.9% of all species that ever lived are extinct. The average lifespan of a species is 1–10 million
years, although this varies widely between taxa. There are a variety of causes that can contribute
directly or indirectly to the extinction of a species or group of species. "Just as each species is
unique", write Beverly and Stephen C. Stearns, "so is each extinction ... the causes for each are
varied—some subtle and complex, others obvious and simple". Most simply, any species that
cannot survive and reproduce in its environment and cannot move to a new environment where it
can do so, dies out and becomes extinct. Extinction of a species may come suddenly when an
otherwise healthy species is wiped out completely, as when toxic pollution renders its
entire habitat unliveable; or may occur gradually over thousands or millions of years, such as
when a species gradually loses out in competition for food to better adapted competitors.
Extinction may occur a long time after the events that set it in motion, a phenomenon known
as extinction debt.
Assessing the relative importance of genetic factors compared to environmental ones as the
causes of extinction has been compared to the debate on nature and nurture. The question of
whether more extinctions in the fossil record have been caused by evolution or by competition or
by predation or by disease or by catastrophe is a subject of discussion; Mark Newman, the author
of Modeling Extinction, argues for a mathematical model that falls in all positions. By
contrast, conservation biology uses the extinction vortex model to classify extinctions by cause.
When concerns about human extinction have been raised, for example in Sir Martin Rees' 2003
book Our Final Hour, those concerns lie with the effects of climate
change or technological disaster.
Currently, environmental groups and some governments are concerned with the extinction of
species caused by humanity, and they try to prevent further extinctions through a variety
of conservation programs. Humans can cause extinction of a species
through overharvesting, pollution, habitat destruction, introduction of invasive species (such as
new predators and food competitors), overhunting, and other influences. Explosive,
unsustainable human population growth and increasing per capita consumption are essential
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 242
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

drivers of the extinction crisis. According to the International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN), 784 extinctions have been recorded since the year 1500, the arbitrary date
selected to define "recent" extinctions, up to the year 2004; with many more likely to have gone
unnoticed. Several species have also been listed as extinct since 2004.
1-Genetics and demographic phenomena
If adaptation increasing population fitness is slower than environmental degradation plus the
accumulation of slightly deleterious mutations, then a population will go extinct. Smaller
populations have fewer beneficial mutations entering the population each generation, slowing
adaptation. It is also easier for slightly deleterious mutations to fix in small populations; the
resulting positive feedback loop between small population size and low fitness can
cause mutational meltdown.
Limited geographic range is the most important determinant of genus extinction at background
rates but becomes increasingly irrelevant as mass extinction arises.[42] Limited geographic range
is a cause both of small population size and of greater vulnerability to local environmental
catastrophes.
Extinction rates can be affected not just by population size, but by any factor that
affects evolvability, including balancing selection, cryptic genetic variation, phenotypic
plasticity, and robustness. A diverse or deep gene pool gives a population a higher chance in the
short term of surviving an adverse change in conditions. Effects that cause or reward a loss
in genetic diversity can increase the chances of extinction of a species. Population
bottlenecks can dramatically reduce genetic diversity by severely limiting the number of
reproducing individuals and make inbreeding more frequent.
2-Genetic pollution
Extinction sometimes results for species evolved to specific ecologies that are subjected
to genetic pollution—i.e., uncontrolled hybridization, introgression and genetic swamping that
lead to homogenization or out-competition from the introduced (or hybrid) species. Endemic
populations can face such extinctions when new populations are imported or selectively bred by
people, or when habitat modification brings previously isolated species into contact. Extinction is
likeliest for rare species coming into contact with more abundant ones; interbreeding can swamp
the rarer gene pool and create hybrids, depleting the purebred gene pool (for example, the
endangered wild water buffalo is most threatened with extinction by genetic pollution from the
abundant domestic water buffalo). Such extinctions are not always apparent
from morphological (non-genetic) observations. Some degree of gene flow is a normal
evolutionary process; nevertheless, hybridization (with or without introgression) threatens rare
species' existence.
The gene pool of a species or a population is the variety of genetic information in its living
members. A large gene pool (extensive genetic diversity) is associated with robust populations
that can survive bouts of intense selection. Meanwhile, low genetic diversity

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 243

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

(see inbreeding and population bottlenecks) reduces the range of adaptions possible. Replacing
native with alien genes narrows genetic diversity within the original population, thereby
increasing the chance of extinction.
3-Habitat degradation
Habitat degradation is currently the main anthropogenic cause of species extinctions. The main
cause of habitat degradation worldwide is agriculture, with urban sprawl, logging, mining, and
some fishing practices close behind. The degradation of a species' habitat may alter the fitness
landscape to such an extent that the species is no longer able to survive and becomes extinct.
This may occur by direct effects, such as the environment becoming toxic, or indirectly, by
limiting a species' ability to compete effectively for diminished resources or against new
competitor species.
Habitat degradation through toxicity can kill off a species very rapidly, by killing all living
members through contamination or sterilizing them. It can also occur over longer periods at
lower toxicity levels by affecting life span, reproductive capacity, or competitiveness.
Habitat degradation can also take the form of a physical destruction of niche habitats. The
widespread destruction of tropical rainforests and replacement with open pastureland is widely
cited as an example of this; elimination of the dense forest eliminated the infrastructure needed
by many species to survive. For example, a fern that depends on dense shade for protection from
direct sunlight can no longer survive without forest to shelter it. Another example is the
destruction of ocean floors by bottom trawling.
Diminished resources or introduction of new competitor species also often accompany habitat
degradation. Global warming has allowed some species to expand their range, bringing
unwelcome competition to other species that previously occupied that area. Sometimes these new
competitors are predators and directly affect prey species, while at other times they may merely
outcompete vulnerable species for limited resources. Vital resources including water and food
can also be limited during habitat degradation, leading to extinction.
4-Predation, competition, and disease
In the natural course of events, species become extinct for a number of reasons, including but not
limited to: extinction of a necessary host, prey or pollinator, inter-species competition, inability
to deal with evolving diseases and changing environmental conditions (particularly sudden
changes) which can act to introduce novel predators, or to remove prey. Recently in geological
time, humans have become an additional cause of extinction (some people would say premature
extinction of some species, either as a new mega-predator or
by transporting animals and plants from one part of the world to another. Such introductions
have been occurring for thousands of years, sometimes intentionally (e.g. livestock released by
sailors on islands as a future source of food) and sometimes accidentally (e.g. rats escaping from
boats). In most cases, the introductions are unsuccessful, but when an invasive alien species does
become established, the consequences can be catastrophic. Invasive alien species can

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 244

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

affect native species directly by eating them, competing with them, and
introducing pathogens or parasites that sicken or kill them; or indirectly by destroying or
degrading their habitat. Human populations may themselves act as invasive predators. According
to the "overkill hypothesis", the swift extinction of the megafauna in areas such as Australia
(40,000 years before present), North and South America (12,000 years before
present), Madagascar, Hawaii (AD 300–1000), and New Zealand (AD 1300–1500), resulted
from the sudden introduction of human beings to environments full of animals that had never
seen them before and were therefore completely unadapted to their predation techniques.[51]
5-Coextinction
Coextinction refers to the loss of a species due to the extinction of another; for example, the
extinction of parasitic insects following the loss of their hosts. Coextinction can also occur when
a species loses its pollinator, or to predators in a food chain who lose their prey. "Species
coextinction is a manifestation of one of the interconnectednesses of organisms in complex
ecosystems ... While coextinction may not be the most important cause of species extinctions, it
is certainly an insidious one." Coextinction is especially common when a keystone species goes
extinct. Models suggest that coextinction is the most common form of biodiversity loss. There
may be a cascade of coextinction across the trophic levels. Such effects are most severe
in mutualistic and parasitic relationships. An example of coextinction is the Haast's eagle and
the moa: the Haast's eagle was a predator that became extinct because its food source became
extinct. The moa were several species of flightless birds that were a food source for the Haast's
eagle.
6-Climate change
Extinction as a result of climate change has been confirmed by fossil studies. Particularly, the
extinction of amphibians during the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse, 305 million years ago. A
2003 review across 14 biodiversity research centers predicted that, because of climate change,
15–37% of land species would be "committed to extinction" by 2050. The ecologically rich areas
that would potentially suffer the heaviest losses include the Cape Floristic Region and
the Caribbean Basin. These areas might see a doubling of present carbon dioxide levels and
rising temperatures that could eliminate 56,000 plant and 3,700 animal species. Climate change
has also been found to be a factor in habitat loss and desertification.
7-Sexual selection and male investment
Studies of fossils following species from the time they evolved to their extinction show that
species with high sexual dimorphism, especially characteristics in males that are used to compete
for mating, are at a higher risk of extinction and die out faster than less sexually dimorphic
species, the least sexually dimorphic species surviving for millions of years while the most
sexually dimorphic species die out within mere thousands of years. Earlier studies based on
counting the number of currently living species in modern taxa have shown a higher number of
species in more sexually dimorphic taxa which have been interpreted as higher survival in taxa
with more sexual selection, but such studies of modern species only measure indirect effects of
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 245
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

extinction and are subject to error sources such as dying and doomed taxa speciating more due to
splitting of habitat ranges into more small isolated groups during the habitat retreat of taxa
approaching extinction. Possible causes of the higher extinction risk in species with more sexual
selection shown by the comprehensive fossil studies that rule out such error sources include
expensive sexually selected ornaments having negative effects on the ability to survive natural
selection, as well as sexual selection removing a diversity of genes that under current ecological
conditions are neutral for natural selection but some of which may be important for surviving
climate change.

9.6 ENVIRONMENTAL STATUS OF PLANT BASED ON

INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE
(IUCN)

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN): The International Union for
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), with its headquarters are in Gland,
Switzerland, is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and
sustainable use of natural resources. It is involved in data gathering and analysis, research, field
projects, advocacy, and education. IUCN's mission is to "influence, encourage and assist
societies throughout the world to conserve nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources
is equitable and ecologically sustainable". It plays a role in the implementation of several
international conventions on nature conservation and biodiversity. IUCN is the world's main
authority on the conservation status of species. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species The
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (also known as the IUCN Red List or Red Data List),
Established in 1964, has evolved to become the world's most comprehensive information source
on the global conservation status of animal, fungi and plant species. It is a critical indicator of the
health of the world's biodiversity. It uses a set of criteria to evaluate the extinction risk of
thousands of species and subspecies. These criteria are relevant to all species and all regions of
the world. Far more than a list of species and their status, it is a powerful tool to inform and
catalyze action for biodiversity conservation and policy change, critical to protecting the natural
resources we need to survive. It provides information about range, population size, habitat and
ecology, use and/or trade, threats, and conservation actions that will help inform necessary
conservation decisions. The IUCN Red List is produced by the Red List Partnership: Bird Life
International; Botanic Gardens Conservation International; Conservation International;
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN); Nature Serve; Microsoft; Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew; Sapienza University of Rome; IUCN Species Survival Commission; Texas A&M
University; Wildscreen; and Zoological Society of London

IUCN Categories of Threatened Species

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 246

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is a leading international

organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources.
It was established in 1948 and evolved as world‘s largest environment network and plays a key
role to save biodiversity at global level. IUCN includes over 1400 members of both
governmental and non-governmental organizations. The IUCN publishes IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species. In 1969, India became a State Member of IUCN. The Office of IUCN India
located in New Delhi was established in 2007.
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, founded in 1964, is the world‘s most comprehensive
inventory of the global conservation status of biological species. As per the relative risk of
extinction, the red data list contains 7 categories. There are categories given below along with
some Indian species.
Extinct (EX) – No known individuals remaining
Extinct in the Wild (EW) – Known only to survive in captivity, or as a naturalized population
outside its historic range
Critically Endangered (CR) – Extremely high risk of extinction in the wild
Endangered (EN) – High risk of extinction in the wild.
Vulnerable (VU) – High risk of endangerment in the wild
Near Threatened (NT) – Likely to become endangered in the near future
Least Concern (LC) or Lowest risk - Does not qualify for a more at risk category.

Red Data Book

The Red Data Book is a public document that is created for recording endangered and rare
species of plants, animals, fungi as well as some local subspecies that are present in a particular
region.
The Red Data Book helps us in providing complete information for research, studies and also for
monitoring the programs on rare and endangered species and their habitats. This book is mainly
created to identify and protect those species which are on the verge of extinction.

History of the Red Data Book

The name of this book has its origins in Russia, it was originally known as the Red Data Book of
the Russian Federation or the RDBRF. The book was based on research conducted between 1961
and 1964 by biologists in Russia. Hence, it is also called the Russian Red Data Book.
Currently, the International Union for Conservation of Nature maintains the Red Data Book.
IUCN is the world‘s most detailed inventory centre of the global conservation status of
biological species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) was founded
in 1948 with an aim to maintain a complete record of every species that ever lived.
The Red Data Book contains the complete list of threatened species. The main aim behind this
documentation is to provide complete information for research and analysis of different species.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 247

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

The Red Data Book contains colour-coded information sheets, which are arranged according to
the extinction risk of many species and subspecies.
 Black represents species that are confirmed to be extinct.
 Red represents species that are endangered
 Amber for those species whose status is considered to be vulnerable
 White is assigned for species that are rare
 Green for species that were formerly endangered, but their numbers have started to recover
 Grey coloured for the species that are classified as vulnerable, endangered, or rare but
sufficient information is not available to be properly classified.

In a nutshell, the Red Data Book indexes species as:

 Threatened
 Not threatened
 Unknown
Furthermore, The Red Data Book also has information as to why a species has become extinct
along with the population trends and the extent of its range (distribution).

Advantages of the Red Data Book

 It helps in identifying all animals, birds and other species about their conservation status.
 It is used to evaluate the population of a particular species.
 The data available in this book can be used to evaluate the taxa at the global level.
 With the help of this book, we can estimate the risk of taxa becoming globally extinct.
 Provides a framework or guidelines for implementing protective measures for endangered
species.
Disadvantages of the Red Data Book
 The information available in the Red Data Book is incomplete. Many species, both extinct
and extant are not updated in this book.
 The source of the book‘s data has been speculated and has been mired in controversy.
 This book maintains the complete record of all animals, plants, other species but it has no
information about the microbes.

Red Data Book of India

Red Data Book of India includes the conservation status of animals and plants which are
endemic to the Indian subcontinent. The data for this book is provided through surveys which are
conducted by the Zoological Survey of India and the Botanical Survey of India under the
guidance of the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
Red Book Data: List of Threatened Flora and Fauna in India
 Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis)
 Hangul deer (Cervus canadensis hangul)

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 248

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

 Himalayan Brown or red Bear (Ursus arctos isabellinus)

 Pygmy Hog (porcula salvania)
 Andaman White-toothed Shrew (Crocidura andamanensis)
 Kondana Soft-furred Rat (Millardia kondana)
 Elvira Rat or Large Rock Rat (Cremnomys Elvir).
 Namdapha Flying Squirrel (Biswamoyopterus biswasi)
 Malabar large-spotted civet(Viverra civettina )
 Red panda (Ailurus fulgens)
 Asiatic wild dog (Cuon alpines).
 Wild ass (Equus hemionus)
 Brow-antlered deer(Rucervus eldii)
 Golden Langur(Trachypithecus geei)
 White-bellied Musk Deer(Moschus leucogaster)
 Hispid hare/ Assam rabbit (Caprolagus hispidus)
 Indian hog deer (Axis porcinus)
 Lion tailed macaque (Macaca Silenus)
 Tibetan antelope Pantholops hodgsonii)
 Nilgiri langur ( Trachypithecus johnii)
 Nilgiri tahr (Nilgiritragus hylocrius)
 Ganges river dolphin (Platanista gangetica)

Threatened flora species are:

 Milkwort (Polygala irregularis)and Environmental Conservation- II
 Bird's foot (Lotus corniculatus)
 Assam catkin yew (Amentotaxus assamica)
 Moa, skeleton, fork fern, and whisk fern (Psilotum nudum)
 Umbrella tree, kudai vel (Tamil) (Acacia planifrons)
 Indian mallow, thuthi (Tamil) and athibalaa (Sanskrit) (Abutilon indicum)
 Ebony tree (Diospyros celibica)
 Malabar lily (Chlorophytum malabaricum)
 Spider wort (Belosynapsis vivipara)
 Malayuram, Malavuram (Pterospermum reticulatum)
 Jeemikanda (Gujarat) (Ceropegia odorata)
 Musli ( Chlorophytum tuberosum)

9.10 REFERENCES

 https://www.cbd.int/decision/cop/?id=7183

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 249

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

 https://profiles.uonbi.ac.ke/mmuchai/files/jwl330_princ_of_biodiv_conserv_muchai_notes_s
ep_2019_ok_final.pdf
 https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/lebo115.pdf
 https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/S000004BY/P000092/M020115/
ET/1493613342PrinciplesofConservation.pdf
 https://byjus.com/biology/red-data-book/
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction

9.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1-Define Biodiversity. Discuss about the Conservation of plant biodiversity.

2-Describe the Principles of conservation.
3- Give a detail account of causes of Extinction.
4- Write a detail note on International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
5- What is Red Data book? Describe in detail about the Red data book.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 250

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

UNIT-10 STRATEGIES FOR IN-SITU CONSERVATION

Contents

10.1-Objectives
10.2-Introduction
10.3-International efforts and Indian initiatives
10.4- Protected areas in India for conservation of wild biodiversity
10.4.1- Sanctuaries
10.4.2- National parks
10.4.3- Biosphere reserves
10.4.4-Sacred Groves
10.4.5- Wetlands
10.4.6- Mangrove
10.4.7- Coral reefs
10.5- Summary
10.6- Glossary
10.7-Self Assessment Question
10.8- References
10.9-Suggested Readings
10.10-Terminal Questions

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 251

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

10.1 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit student will be able-

 to know about the International efforts and Indian initiatives for conservation of wild
biodiversity
 to learn about the Protected areas in India- Sanctuaries, National parks, Biosphere
reserves, Sacred groves, Wetlands, Mangroves and Coral reefs
 to understand about the strategies for in-situ conservation

10.2 INTRODUCTION

India is an extremely diverse country with only 2.4% of the world's land area, but is home to 7-
8% of flora and fauna species. It includes more than 45,000 plant species and 91,000 animal
species.
The term biodiversity was first introduced by Water & Rosen in 1986 in the National forum at
Smithsonian Institute, Washington. Biodiversity refers to the variability between living
organisms and the forms of terrestrial, marine, aquatic ecosystems and ecological complexes. It
reflects the number, variety and variability of living organisms and includes diversity within
species (genetic diversity), between species (species diversity) and between ecosystems
(ecosystem diversity). In other words, the occurrence of different types of ecosystems, habitats,
species, genes, gene pools in a particular place and various parts of earth is called biodiversity.
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, held in Rio de Janeiro in
1992, brought the topic of biodiversity conservation into the global spotlight and helped put this
important issue on the agenda of world leaders. The World Conservation Union has tried to
clarify the definition of "biodiversity" and demonstrate its value: IUCN interprets biodiversity as
more than just "genetic makeup", covering all species of plants, animals and microorganisms and
the ecosystems (including ecosystem processes) to which they belong. Commonly considered at
three levels—genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity—biodiversity refers to
the complex mosaic of environmental materials and gradients that interact with the organisms
that surround them to sustain life at all levels (McNeely, 1990).

The protection and management of biodiversity in pursuit of sustainable resource development is

called biodiversity conservation. Biodiversity conservation has three main objectives: 1.
Preservation of species diversity. 2. Sustainability of species and ecosystems. 3. Sustaining
essential life and ecological processes. The conservation of biological diversity is the sustainable
use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the
utilization of the genetic resources and the protection of species from extinction or harm.
Conservation of biodiversity is carried out in different ways. They are-in situ conservation and
ex-situ conservation. Ex-situ methods focus on species conservation in botanical gardens, zoos,

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 252

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

gene banks, and captive breeding programs. In-situ methods use protected areas as "repositories"
of biological information. Many scientists and conservationists believe that until methods are
available to easily determine which of the millions of species and varieties will have economic
value, conservation in-situ through the protection of natural areas should be the primary means
of maintaining these resources. However, a rigid approach to conservation is almost impossible
to implement and even less likely to be sustained over time. It would be more appropriate to
pursue proactive alternatives to high-impact development activities and implement carefully
thought-out strategies for in-situ methods to incorporate protected areas into the development
mix in light of population growth trends and the need of economic development, particularly in
developing countries.

10.3 INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS AND INDIAN INITIATIVES

The proper maintenance of biodiversity and raise awareness of its importance is essential for
survival on earth.

10.3.1 INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS FOR BIODIVERSITY

CONSERVATION
Biodiversity is the number and variety of living organisms considered to all levels, from genetic
variants belonging to the same species through array of species, to array of genera, families and
still higher taxonomic level. It includes a wide range of ecosystems that include both
communities of organisms within specific habitats and the physical conditions in which they live.
There are several international initiatives and structures for the conservation or protection of
biodiversity, some of which have been adopted by law in the countries that have signed the
agreement. Some of the major and high impact conventions are listed below:

The World Heritage Convention

The convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage was adopted in
1972 at the UNESCO. It came into force in 1975. India approved the convention in 1977. It enhances
public knowledge, awareness and appreciation for the heritage sites. Currently, there are 194 State
Parties to the convention.

The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)
(now called as World Conservation Union (WCU)
It was established in 1948 to bring together governmental and non-governmental agencies from
around the world to conserve biodiversity and natural resources and promote their sustainable
use at the local, national and international levels. 81 countries from all over the world are its
members and the headquarters of the organization is located in Gland, Switzerland.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 253

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)

The Convention was signed in Washington DC in March, 1973, and in July 1975 CITES entered
in force, basically to prohibit the overexploitation and international trade in wild species. CITES
has been among the conservation agreements with the largest membership, with now 184 parties,
and nearly 37,000 species protected by the convention.

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

The Convention entered into force on December 29, 1993 with the objectives of conservation of
biological diversity, sustainable use of resources and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising
from the use of nature resources. 196 countries have adopted this convention, including India.

International Treaty for Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
(ITPGRFA)
The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources, was adopted in 2001, also known as the
International Seed Treaty, is a comprehensive international agreement in accordance with the
Convention on Biological Diversity, aimed at ensuring food security through conservation,
exchange and sustainable use of the world's plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, and
fair and equitable sharing of the benefits derived from their use to achieve sustainable agriculture
and food security.

Ramsar Convention on wetlands of International Importance

The Convention was adopted in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971 and came into force in 1975.
This is an international collaboration of 171 parties to the Ramsar Convention. It provides the
framework for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources.

The Convention on Migratory Species (CMS)

The Convention on Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) was signed in 1979. It provides a
global platform for the conservation and sustainable use of migratory animals and their habitats.
Managed by UNEP, CMS develops and promotes regional and global agreements relating to
terrestrial, aquatic and avian migratory species throughout their range.

In the period from the early 1970s to the early 1980s, at a time when the new, high-yielding
varieties were rapidly replacing local varieties in many parts of the South, there was growing
concern that an irreplaceable resource was being lost and that concerted efforts were needed at
the international level to conserve this resource.

International conservation organizations play an important role in disseminating environmental

information widely. IUCN originated the idea of compiling lists of endangered species to draw
attention to the plight of endangered species. These lists are known as the Red Data Book

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 254

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

(RDB). Of these, species fall into one of several categories ranging from "extinct" to
"vulnerable" or "rare", depending on the level of threat to their existence. The first
internationally applicable RDB was published in 1996. 'Red' stands for 'danger' and the concept
has been adopted by many different countries, including the UK. RDBs open doors for
government agencies responsible for protecting the environment, as well as non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) interested in maintaining diversity.

10.3.2 NATIONAL INITIATIVES FOR BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

In India, various laws regulate wildlife conservation, as well as overall biodiversity. Chief among
these is the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972, made to protect wild animals, birds, and plants.
State and Union government of India has developed a number of Wildlife Acts for the
enforcement of conservation strategies (Table-1).

Table-1: Wildlife Acts

S.No. Act Year
1- Madras Wild Elephant Preservation Act 1873
2- All India Elephant Preservation Act 1879
3- The Wild Birds and Animals Protection act 1912
4- Bengal Rhinoceros Preservation Act 1932
5- Assam Rhinoceros Preservation Act 1954
6- Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 (amended in 1983, 1986 and
1991)
7- Forest Conservation Act 1980 (amended in1988)
8- The Environment (Protection) Act 1986
9- The Biodiversity Act 2002 (implemented in 2004)
10- The National Environmental Policy 2006

The main government advisory body is the Indian Board of Wildlife (IBWL) of India,
established in 1952 and reconstituted under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister in 1991; it
oversees the control of unethical activities that could harm biodiversity, the establishment of
protected areas, and the sustainable use of ecological services.
Other non-governmental organizations include, among others, the World Wide Fund for Nature,
the Wildlife Preservation Society of India, the Dehradun and Bombay Natural History Society,
and so on, as contribute to the management and preservation of natural flora and fauna.

Steps Taken By Government for Biodiversity Protection

The Indian government has taken several steps to protect biodiversity. Among the important measures
are:

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 255

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

1-Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 is an Act passed by the Indian Parliament is enacted to protect
plants, birds and animals. The Wildlife Protection Act is a framework law to protect wild plants
and animals. This law includes provisions relating to the protection of plants and animals,
hunting, harvesting and other ancillary matters related to this law. It has six schedules spread
across India. Under this law, different types of penalties are also imposed for violations of the
law contained therein. This Act consists of 66 articles and six appendices.
2- Wetlands Rules (Conservation and Management), 2010. Drafted by the Ministry of
Environment and Forests to make sure better conservation and management and prevent
degradation of existing wetlands in India.
3- National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems (NPCA): launched in 2015, aims for
comprehensive conservation and restoration of lakes and wetlands.
4- The Wildlife Crime Control Bureau was constituted on 2007, created to complement the
existing state machinery to deal with the wildlife crime consequences beyond state and national
borders. It controls illegal trade in wildlife, including endangered species.
5- The Indian Government has banned the use of diclofenac in veterinary medicine due to the
rapid population decline of gyps vulture. The Bombay Natural History Society has started a
programme to conserve these vulture species.
6- Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats (IDWH) is an ongoing, centrally funded
program that includes three components: Protected Area Support, Protecting Wildlife outside
Protected Areas, and Restoration Programs to Save Critically Endangered Species and Habitats.
7- The National Biological Diversity Act (NBA) 2002 aims to protect biological resources
manage their sustainable use and promote fair and equitable sharing of benefits from the use of
biological resources and knowledge with the local communities.
8- The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) has been empowered under the Wild Life
(Protection) Act 1972 to arrest and prosecute wildlife offenders.
9- The State Governments have been requested to increase patrolling in and around the Protected
Areas and strengthen field formations.
10- The Government of India has also undertaken important wildlife protection projects such as
Tiger Project, Elephant Project, Crocodile Protection Project, UNDP Sea Turtle Project,
Rhinoceros Project, the great Indian bustard and other ecological development projects. Some of
them are explained in detail below:

It was shortly ago when human intervention was minimal and wildlife thrived without any
danger surrounding its existence. However, with the time and expansion of industrialization,
farming, ranching and other development projects, we are at a stage where several species of
animals have been declared extinct and some other species are about to become extinct. Habitat
loss and destruction, habitat fragmentation and degradation, large-scale killing of wildlife for
their fur, bones, teeth, flesh and meat all result in great loss of wildlife around the world. This
therefore requires the government to take immediate actions and measures to conserve wildlife.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 256

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

This requires careful control and a rational approach to wildlife protection. Some steps are as
follows:

Important Wildlife Protection Projects by Indian Government

Project Tiger
Project Tiger was launched by the Government of India with the support of WWF-International
in 1973 to ensure that the Bengal tiger population is well maintained in its natural habitat. It was
launched from Jim Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand. It was a first-of-its-kind project in
India to conserve India's tiger population and protect it from poaching and other threats. This
project is funded by the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change. The National
Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) is the immediate controlling authority. According to the
2018 census, the number of tigers is 2,967, which is 33% more than the 2014 census and more
than double the 2006 census. Project Tiger looks after 50 tiger reserves covering 72,749 square
kilometers, green cover to preserve the Royal Bengal Tiger population.
The tiger reserve action plan is based on the following key principles:
1-Complete elimination of all human interference from core areas, as well as careful
rationalization of activities in buffer zones
2-Restricting habitat management practices to only restore ecosystem damaging activities
3- Monitoring of changes over time in flora and fauna for research.

Project Elephant
This initiative was launched in 1991-1992 by the Government of India's Ministry of
Environment and Forests to provide financial and technical support to wildlife management
efforts with the goal of ensuring the long-term survival of elephant populations in their natural
habitats. There have been lines drawn to restore elephants' lost and degraded habitats, including
the construction of migration corridors, the mitigation of man-elephant conflict, and the
establishment of a data base on elephant migration and population dynamics. It also aims to
improve the quality of life of people who live near habitats through sustainable development.
The Project is being mainly implemented in 16 States / UTs , viz. Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal
Pradesh, Assam, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Meghalaya,
Nagaland, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal.

Gir Lion Project

The Gir forest in Saurashtra peninsula of Gujarat is the only surviving habitat of the Asian lion
(Panther leon persica). A five year plans scheme was thus prepared in 1972 by the government of
Gujarat for this project. In 1968, there were 177 lions in the Gir. This number increased to 180 in
1974.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 257

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Crocodile Conservation Project

The project arose from a proposal to develop a crocodile farming industry in India. Dr. H.R.
Bustard, an FAO expert, was invited as a consultant by the Government of India in 1974. Based
on his report and guidance, the Crocodile Conservation Project was launched in various states in
1975. The Project has not only produced a large number of crocodiles, but it has also contributed
to conservation in a variety of related fields. This scheme focuses on the gharial, the longest
living crocodile, which lives in rivers in the northern plains of the Indian subcontinent, the
saltwater crocodile, also known as a man-eater, which is thought to be the largest crocodile
species on Earth, and mugger crocodiles, which live in freshwater habitats such as lakes,
marshes, and rivers. The overall strategy for crocodile rehabilitation was to protect them in their
natural habitats, quickly rebuild the population through captive breeding (rear and release), and
train personnel for the job. This conservation project for Indian crocodiles is quite remarkable
because it appears to be restocking approximately 4000 gharial/Alligator, 1800
mugger/crocodile, and 1500 saltwater crocodiles.

UNDP Sea Turtle Project

The sea turtle project began in 1999 at the Indian Institute of Wildlife in Dehradun, with the
collaboration of UNDP and India's Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change. This
is a geographically focused project that establishes guidelines for development activities in the
area with the goal of protecting turtle breeding areas from other types of disruptions.

Steps Taken By Indian Government to Protect Biodiversity

Along with the above-mentioned wild animal conservation projects, the Government of India has
also initiated a few schemes to protect biodiversity and reduce the mortality of critically
endangered, endangered, and threatened animals. Here are a few important steps taken by the
Government of India to protect wildlife:
1. The Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 established Protected Areas such as National Parks,
Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves, and Community Reserves for wildlife and imposed
penalties on those who engaged in illegal hunting.
2. The Wetland Rules 2010 have been drafted to protect wetlands in India. The Central
Government has also launched the National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Eco-System,
which assists states in the proper management of all wetlands.
3. The Wildlife Crime Control Bureau was established to combat the illegal trade of wildlife
and endangered species.
4. The Central Government initiated the Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitat Scheme,
which was later modified by including a new component, Recovery of Endangered Species,
which included animals such as Hangul/stag deer in Jammu and Kashmir, Vultures in
Punjab, Haryana, and Gujarat, Snow Leopard in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, and Arunachal Pradesh, Swiftlet in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Nilgiri Tahr
in Tamil Nadu, Sangai Deer in Manipur.
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 258
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

5. The state government is also given financial and technical assistance to improve the
protection and conservation of the specified species.
6. State governments have been asked to reinforce field formations and increase patrolling in
and around Protected Areas.
7. The Government of India increased anti-poaching efforts and implemented a special
patrolling strategy for the monsoon season. Also, an anti-poaching squad will be deployed.
8. The Government of India established the National Tiger Conservation Authority to
strengthen tiger conservation. A Special Tiger Protection Force (STPF) has also been formed
and is operating in Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Odisha.
9. E-surveillance has begun in Assam's Kaziranga National Park and the borders of Madhya
Pradesh Ratapani Wildlife Sanctuary.

Some steps in the direction of Wildlife conservation that can be taken are as follows:
1- Survey and collection of all the information about wildlife, specially their number and
growth, inventory, taxonomically validate, and threats should be assessed.
2- Protect habitat by preserving forests and also define the boundaries of their natural habitat.
3- Establishment of a network of protected areas, including national parks, wildlife sanctuaries,
conservation areas, and community reserves.
4- Keep wildlife safe from pollution and natural hazards and also prohibit all hunting and
capture of wildlife.
5- Impose restrictions on the export and import of wildlife products, as well as harsh penalties
for those who engage in these activities.
6- Establishing specific sanctuaries for specific animals whose numbers are declining and
whose protection must be ensured; and finally, raising public awareness in order to attain
their participation in terms of volunteering and funding.
7- Raise national and international awareness about wildlife conservation.
8- A system of wildlife management is adopted through trained personnel.
9- Establishing Biosphere Reserves to protect representative ecosystems.

The government and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) in India are taking a keen interest
in wildlife conservation. The 1972 Wild Life Protection Act includes several provisions for
wildlife conservation. Aside from that, every year from October 1st to 7th, a Wild Life
Conservation Week is celebrated.

10.4 PROTECTED AREAS IN INDIA FOR CONSERVATION OF

WILD BIODIVERSITY

One of the strategies used in environmental resource management is the establishment of

protected areas. A protected area is defined as "an area of land and sea dedicated specifically to

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 259

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, as well as natural and associated cultural
resources, and managed through legal or other effective means" (IUCN, 1994. P.7). There are
numerous ways to establish protected areas. The two most common mechanisms are government
action (often at the national level, but also at the regional or local level) and land purchases by
private conservation organisations. Partnerships between governments of developing countries in
the tropics and international conservation organizations, multinational banks, and governments
of developed countries are becoming more common. They provide funding, training, and
scientific and management expertise to help developing countries establish protected areas.
The primary reasons for establishing and managing protected areas are as follows:
 Scientific research
 Wilderness protection
 Preservation of species and genetic diversity
 Maintenance of environmental services
 Protection of specific natural and cultural features.
 Tourism and recreation
 Education
 Sustainable use of resources from natural ecosystems
 Maintenance of cultural and traditional attributes.

Conserving rare and endangered species, it is necessary to protect their natural habitats and take
specific measures to prevent unplanned exploitation and illegal trade. The two known
conservation methods are in-situ (conservation in natural habitats) and ex-situ (preservation
outside of natural areas).
In situ conservation: The protection of organisms in their natural habitat, either by protecting or
cleaning up the habitat itself, or by defending the species from predators, is known as in-situ or
"on-site" conservation. The in-situ approach need to protect a group of typical ecosystems or
biodiversity-rich regions through a network of protected areas. These are the terrestrial or marine
areas that are solely dedicated to the preservation of biological diversity and its associated
resources. Because the species are being conserved in their natural habitats, this is the best
method. Natural habitats are declared as protected areas. In conservation biology, in-situ wildlife
conservation is a comprehensive system of protected areas. There are many different categories
of protected areas that are managed with different goals to benefit society. This system of
protected areas includes different categories such as: Wildlife Sanctuaries, National Parks,
Biosphere Reserves, Sacred groves, Wetlands, Mangrove, Coral reefs etc.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 260

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Protected areas in India

Protected Area Status
National parks 106
Wild life sanctuaries 565
Biosphere reserves 18
Wetlands 64
Mangroove * 38
Coral reefs * 04
(Source: www.wiienvis.nic.in (As on December, 2021)
(Source: National Wildlife Database, Wildlife Institute of India)

10.4.1- Wildlife Sanctuaries

Wildlife sanctuaries in India are home to rare species of flora and fauna. A wildlife
sanctuary is an area where animals are protected and kept safely in their natural habitats. Animal
capture, killing, and poaching are all strictly prohibited in these areas. A wildlife sanctuary is a
location that is solely for the use of wildlife. It includes animals, birds, reptiles, insects, and other
creatures. Most importantly, they keep endangered and rare animals so that they can live in peace
while maintaining a viable population. Furthermore, no human activities or disturbances are
permitted in these areas. The surroundings of wildlife habitats are also protected, with no
disturbances permitted. Wildlife sanctuaries exist to protect natural habitats and the animals that
inhabit them. The country has many beautiful sanctuaries that are surrounded by large rivers,
forests, and mountains. In India, there are 565 existing wildlife sanctuaries covering an area of
122560.85 km2, which is 3.73% of the geographical area of the country (National Wildlife
Database, May. 2022).
Similar to National Parks, these are also government owned areas, but limited human activities
such as harvesting of timbers, collection of forest products, cultivation of lands etc. are allowed
in wildlife sanctuaries as long as these do not interfere with the wildlife environment.

Importance of Wildlife Sanctuaries

There are a number of reasons for establishing wildlife sanctuaries. Some of the reasons are
listed below:
 They provide a safe place for animals, free from the threat of poaching and habitat
destruction.
 Wildlife sanctuaries are established to protect endangered species.
 Protecting the animals in their natural environment is beneficial because it is difficult to
always relocate them from their natural habitat
 Endangered species are closely monitored in wildlife sanctuaries. If they reproduce and
multiply while under protection, a few specimens can be kept for breeding in conservation
parks to ensure their survival.
 Biologist activities and research are permitted in wildlife sanctuaries.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 261

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

 A few sanctuaries accept injured and abandoned animals and rehabilitate them before
reintroducing them into the forest.
 Wildlife sanctuaries protect and preserve endangered species from humans and predators.
 Wildlife sanctuaries and national parks also serve as a location for researchers to conduct
research on wildlife and their ecosystems.

Some Wildlife Sanctuaries in India

S.No. Name of Wildlife Sanctuaries State
1- Bandipur Wildlife Sanctuary Karnataka
2- Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary Orissa
3- Gibbbon Wildlife Sanctuary Assam
4- Dachigam Wildlife Sanctuary Jammu and Kashmir
5- Sunderbans Wildlife Sanctuary West Bengal
6- Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary Rajasthan
7- Periyar Wildlife Samctuary Kerela
8- Mundanthurai Wildlife Sanctuary Tamil Nadu
9- Govind Wildlife Sanctuary Uttarakhand
10- Chilika Lake Bird Sanctuary Odisha

10.4.2- National parks: National parks are set up for preserving flora, fauna and landscapes
and historic objects of an area. It is a reserve of land, usually owned by a national government
that protected from most human development and pollution. They are large areas of scenic and
national beauty maintained for scientific educational and recreational use. They are not usually
used for commercial extraction of resources. A national park is a protected area for wildlife
where they can freely use the habitats and natural resources. Human intervention is not permitted
in these protected areas. These reserves also prohibit hunting and other related activities.

The primary goal of a national park is to protect the natural environment of the area and to
conserve biodiversity. An international organization, the International Union for Conservation on
Nature (IUCN), and its world commission on protected areas, has defined ―National parks as its
category II type of protected areas. Hailey National Park was established in 1936 as India‘s first
national park. The Indian government has the authority to designate an area as a national park if
it has sufficient ecological, geomorphological and natural significance. All of these national
parks are classified as protected areas by the International Union for the conservation of Nature
(IUCN). According to the December 2020 survey, India has 106 national parks covering an area
of 44,378 KM2, which is 1.35 % of the country‘s geographical area.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 262

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Jim Corbett National Park

Jim Corbett National Park is appropriately known as the "paradise of tigers" as it is home to
numerous tigers and has breathtaking landscapes with a wide variety of flora and fauna. Hailey
national park was rechristened afterwards in honour of Jim Corbett (1875–1955), a renowned
naturalist and conservationist who from 1907 to 1939 hunted down man-eating tigers in Kumaon
region of Uttarakhand. The Jim Corbett National Park covers a total area of 1318.54 sq km and is
located in the districts of Nainital and Pauri in Uttarakhand. The park is famous for royal Bengal
tigers and Asiatic elephants. It contains over 586 species of resident and migratory species of
birds making it one of the richest bird regions in India. Bird life international has declared the
area as ―important bird area‖. The primary objective of the park's establishment was to safeguard
Bengal tigers (Panthera tigris tigris). The Bengal Tiger, Asiatic Elephant, Leopard, Wild Boar,
Sloth Bear, Jackal, Mongoose, and Crocodile are some of Corbett's most well-known native
wildlife. The launch of the "Save the Tigers" project in India took place at Jim Corbett National
Park. Project Tiger was established in 1973 with the stated goals of conserving existing
ecosystems and preserving the ecological balance of the natural world. The goal of the project is
to create a natural connection between people who live on the edges of national parks and
wildlife sanctuaries and the animals and plants that live there.

Some Major National Parks in India

S.No. National parks State Prominent animal

1- Jim Corbett National Park Uttarakhand Royal Bengal Tiger

2- Gir National Park Gujarat Asiatic Lion
3- Kaziranga National Park Assam One-horned rhinoceros
4- Bandipur National park Karnataka Tiger
5- Tadoba national Park Maharashtra Tiger
6- Kanha National Park Madhya Pradesh Swamp deer
7- Manas National Park Assam Pygmy Hog, Water buffalo
8- Keibul Lamjao National Park Manipur Hog deer
9- Ranthambore National Park Rajasthan Tiger
10- Dudhwa National Park Uttar Pradesh Tiger, Swamp deer

In contrast to a wildlife sanctuary, a national park is a protected area reserved for the
conservation of only animals, where human interference in any form, including the harvesting of
timber, the collection of minor forest products, and private ownership rights is not permitted. The
majority of the rules apply to both national parks and sanctuaries, although there are four
significant exceptions:
1-All rights of people within a national park have to be settled, while in a sanctuary certain rights
can be allowed,

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 263

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

2- Grazing livestock is not permitted in national parks, however it is permitted in sanctuaries

under certain conditions.
3-A sanctuary can be upgraded to a national park, but a national park cannot be downgraded as a
sanctuary, and
4-Boundaries of sanctuaries are not well defined and controlled biotic interference is permitted,
while the boundaries of a national park are well defined and no biotic interference is permitted.

10.4.3- Biosphere reserves

'Biosphere Reserves' were established in 1971 as part of UNESCO's 'Man & Biosphere‘ (MAB)
programme. The main purpose of this programme is to achieve a sustainable balance between
natural ecosystems and biodiversity. A biosphere reserve is a habitation area that includes both
terrestrial and coastal ecosystems and provides a pathway for sustainable use. The state
governments meticulously maintain the biosphere reserves, which are widely recognized
internationally. The first biosphere reserve of the worlds was established in 1979. In India, the
government has established 18 Biosphere Reserves whose sole purpose is to protect natural
habitats. All flora, fauna, and humans are completely protected in these areas. Nilgiri Biosphere
Reserve, India's first biosphere reserve, was established in 1986, covering an area of 5520 km.
The second biosphere reserve, the Nanda Devi biosphere reserve, covering an area of 5860
sq.km was established in 1988.
The purpose of the formation of the biosphere reserve is to-
a. Conserve all forms of life in their entirety, including their support systems.
b. Serve as a referral system for monitoring
c. Evaluate changes in natural ecosystems.

Biosphere reserves may include a number of contiguous national parks, sanctuaries, and
reserves. Biosphere reserves are protected areas of land or coastal environment that are divided
into different zones for various purposes. Biosphere reserves are divided into three
interconnected zones: the core area, the buffer zone, and the transition zone.
1- Core Zone: The natural or core zone is an undisturbed ecosystem that is legally protected.
Human involvement is strictly prohibited in this zone and is treated without any disturbance.
It may contain endemic plants and animals.
2- Buffer Zone: The buffer zone surrounds the core area. This is used for research and education
while not interfering with the core zone. It allows for restoration, limited tourism, fishing,
grazing, and other activities to reduce the impact on the core zone. Research and educational
activities will be promoted.
3-Transition Zone: The outermost part is the transition zone. It is an area that protects the
animal, plant, and human communities that live in these areas. This is a zone of cooperation
where conservation knowledge and management skills are applied and uses are managed in
accordance with the purpose of the biosphere reserve.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 264

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

The following are the objectives of the Biosphere Reserve Programme (BRP):
1- Conserve diversity and integrity of plants, animals and micro-organism.
2- Provide long-term in-situ conservation of genetic diversity.
3- Promote and facilitate basic and applied research and monitoring.
4- Provide opportunities for education, awareness and training.
5- Ensure the sustainable use of natural resources by employing the most appropriate technology.
6- Disseminate the experience so as to promote sustainable development elsewhere.

Importance
 Development: Linkages with protected areas will lead to overall economic, cultural and
social development.
 Restoration: Appropriate restoration of all damaged ecosystems and habitats.
 Land Use Planning: Different groups work together to find comprehensive land
management solutions
 Conservation is the preservation of species, ecosystems, genetic diversity and landscapes
without affecting the organisms that inhabit them
 Healthy Ecosystems: Natural problems such as erosion, water resources and soil quality are
regularly monitored and protected.
 Education and Research: provide information on the conservation, restoration and
development of ecosystems, and the steps to restore landscapes affected by human activities

List of Biosphere Reserves in India

S.No. Name Year Location (State)
1- Nilgiri, 1986 Western Ghats
2- Nandadevi 1988 Uttarakhand
3- Nokrek 1988 Meghalaya
4- Gulf of Mannar 1989 Tamil Nadu
5- Sunderbans 1989 West Bengal
6- Manas 1989 Assam
7- Great Nicobar 1989 Andaman and Nicobar Islands
8- Simlipal 1994 Odisha
9- Dibru-Saikhowa 1997 Assam
10- Dehang-Dibang 1998 Arunachal Pradesh
11- Panchmarhi 1999 Madhya Pradesh
12- Khangchendzonga 2000 Sikkim
13- Agasthyamalai 2001 Western Ghats
14- Achanakamar-Amarkantak 2005 Madhya Pradesh
15- Kuchchh 2008 Gujarat
16- Cold desert 2009 Himachal Pradesh

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 265

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

17- Seshachalam 2010 Andhra Pradesh

18- Panna 2011 Madhya Pradesh

10.4.4-Sacred Groves: Sacred groves are a fine example of in-situ conservation of

biodiversity. In many tribal areas, a part of the forest is set aside. All the plants and animals in
this part are worshipped and no harm is done to them. This part is called sacred grove. Sacred
groves are the trees which are considered as socially, religiously, medicinally or culturally
important. The common examples are- Ficus benghalensis (Banyan tree) and Ficus religiosa
(Peepal tree). Sacred groves help in creating awareness about biodiversity conservation. This
consciousness has been passed down through generations to tribal people. Some of the sacred
groves in India are as follows-
Khansi and jaintia hills in Meghalaya, Western ghat regions of Karnataka and Maharashtra,
Aravalli hills of Rajasthan, Sarguja, Bastar and Chanda areas of Madhya Pradesh.

10.4.5-Wetlands: Wetlands are defined as "lands that transition between terrestrial and
aquatic eco-systems, with the water table usually at or near the surface or the land covered by
shallow water." A wetland is an area of land with moist soil. Wetlands are areas of marsh, fen,
peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static
or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low
tide does not exceed six meters (Ramsar 1971). Wetlands include natural wetlands such as
rivers, lakes, and coral reefs as well as man-made wetlands such as farm ponds, canals, and
irrigated agricultural lands. Wetlands are the most biologically diverse ecosystems, supporting
a wide range of animal and plant life.
The characteristic vegetation of aquatic plants, adapted to the special hydric soil, is the main
characteristic that sets wetlands apart from other land forms or bodies of water. Wetlands have a
variety of ecological functions, such as water purification, flood control, carbon sink, and
shoreline stability. The largest wetlands include the Amazon River Basin, the west Siberian
Plain, and the Pantanal in South America. Wetlands naturally occur on every continent except
Antarctica.
Ramsar Convention: An intergovernmental environmental treaty established in 1971 by
UNESCO, the Ramsar convention designates Ramsar as a wetland site. The convention came
into force in 1975. The name of the convention comes from the location, Ramsar, Iran.
However, a site must fulfill at least one of the nine requirements outlined by the Ramsar
convention of 1971 in order to be designated as a Ramsar site. These requirements include
supporting vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species or threatened ecological
communities; regularly supporting 20,000 or more water birds; and serving as an important fish
food source, spawning ground, nursery, or migration route that is necessary for the survival of
fish stocks. The aim of the Ramsar list is ―to develop and maintain an international network of
wetlands which are important for the conservation of global biological diversity and for

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 266

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

sustaining human life, through the maintenance of their ecosystem components, processes and
benefits‖.
During the years 1985/86 the Government of India implemented the National Wetland
Conservation Programme (NWCP) in closed collaboration with the concerned state
government. As of now, the Ministry has identified 115 wetlands under the programme that
urgently need conservation and management efforts. The scheme was started with the
following objectives:
1- To establish national policy guidelines for the management and conservation of wetlands.
2- To undertake intensive conservation measures in priority wetlands
3- To monitor program implementation
4- Creating an inventory of wetlands in India.

Wetlands are land areas that are seasonally or permanently saturated with water. They generally
have unique characteristics of moist soils, aquatic vegetation, frog species, sand turtles, and
waterfowl. The main types of wetlands include marshes, swamps and bogs.

Five major wetland are-

Wetlands can generally be classified into five basic systems, namely: Lacustrine, Riverine,
Palustrine, Marine and Estuarine.
1- Marine: Coastal wetland including coastal lagoons, rocky shores, and coral reefs.
2-Estuarne: It includes deltas, tidal marshes, and mangrove swamps
3- Lacustrine: Wetlands associated with lakes.
4- Riverine: Wetlands along rivers and streams
5- Palustrine: meaning marshy- ‗marshes‘, swamps and bogs.

Categories of Wetlands
Wetlands vary widely because of regional and local differences in soils topography, climate,
vegetation and other factors, including human disturbance.
1-Coastal (Tidal wetlands): As the name suggests, United States coastal/tidal wetlands are
found along the Atlantic, Pacific, Alaska, and Gulf Coasts. They are closely associated with our
country's estuaries, where sea water meets with freshwater to form an environment of different
salinity. Salt water and fluctuating water levels (due to tides) combine to create a fairly
challenging environment for most plants. Certain grasses and grasslike plants that adapt to the
saline conditions form the tidal salt marshes that are found along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific
coasts.
2-Inland (Non-tidal wetlands): Inland/non-tidal wetlands include floodplains along rivers and
streams (riparian wetlands), isolated depressions surrounded by dry land (playas, pools,
―potholes‖, etc.), along the edges of lakes and ponds, and most common in other lowlands lying
areas where groundwater intersects the soil surface or where precipitation sufficiently saturates
the soil (vernal pools and bogs).

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 267

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

3-Man-made wetlands: Any type of wetland that has been formed or maintained by humans for
purposes such as Aquaculture ponds, ponds includes farm ponds, stock ponds, small tanks,
irrigated land, includes irrigation channels and rice fields, Seasonally flooded agricultural land,
Water storage areas, reservoirs, barrages, dams, impoundments, canals and drainage channels,
ditches.

Types of Wetlands
Wetlands have generally been divided under following headings –
1. Marshes – Marshes are grassy areas with shallow water. Marshes can be freshwater or
saltwater, and the amount of water in them varies with the seasons and, in the case of saltwater
marshes, with the tide. Freshwater marshes are home to soft-stemmed and herbaceous plants
(such as grasses) and shrubs (such as rushes, sedges, and saltbush). Marshes are home to a
variety of animals, including beavers, alligators, newts, shrimp, and turtles. Freshwater marshes
are common along the shores of lakes and rivers. Saltwater marshes are found along coastlines,
inlets, and estuaries where they are affected by tides and often receive fresh water from
surrounding land, rivers, or ground water.
2. Swamps – Swamps are slow-moving rivers, streams, or isolated low areas with more open and
deeper water than marshes. Swamps are low-lying areas near rivers or coastal areas with trees
(for example, Cypress trees in freshwater and mangrove trees in saltwater) and woody shrubs
rather than grasses and herbs. The Sunderbans in West Bengal are an example of swamp soil that
is poorly drained and water-logged. Alligators, snakes, insects, bobcats, beavers, and a wide
variety of birds live in swamps.
3. Bogs and Fens – A bog is a freshwater wetland with a spongy peat base that forms in an old
glacial lake. Rain supplies the majority of the bog's water. A fen is a fresh water peat wetland
dominated by grasses, sedges, reeds, and wildflowers that grow in high pH (alkaline) ground
water. Bogs have nutrient-deficient soil. Evergreen trees and shrubs, as well as a thick carpet of
sphagnum moss, cover the floor. Bogs also have some carnivorous plant species. Bogs are home
to a small number of animals. These include red deer, dragonflies, and birds such as grouse and
plover.

Importance of Wetlands:
1- The wetlands primarily provide water for irrigation, fisheries, non-timber forest products,
water supply, and restoration as ecosystem goods.
2- Tanks, ponds, lakes, and reservoirs are examples of wetlands that have provided multiple-use
water services, such as irrigation, domestic use, fisheries, recreational use, ground-water
recharge, flood control, and silt capture.
3- The maintenance of biodiversity, nutrient removal, flood control, ground water recharge,
carbon sequestration, and toxics retention are among the major services.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 268

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

4- Wetland sediments are long-term stores of carbon, while short-term stores are the biomass
(plants, animals, bacteria and fungi) present in wetlands and dissolved constituents in surface and
groundwater.
5- Wetlands help mitigate the effects of floods by absorbing water and slowing the flow of
floodwaters.
6- Wetlands are important in promoting species diversity. Some vertebrates and invertebrates
depend on wetlands throughout their life cycle, while others are associated with these areas only
during certain stages of life.

Wetlands Conservation
Wetlands are one of the most productive environments on earth. They are the cradle of
biodiversity, providing the water and primary productivity on which the country's plant and
animal species depend for survival. They support high concentrations of birds, mammalian,
reptile, amphibian, fish and invertebrate species. Wetlands are also important repositories of
plant genetic material. For example, rice, a common wetland crop, is a staple food for more than
half of humans. In recent years, the multiple roles of wetland ecosystems and their value to
humanity have been increasingly understood and documented. This has resulted in significant
expenditures to restore lost or degraded hydrological and biological functions of wetlands.

Some Important Wetland in India

S.No. Name Location (State)
1- Renuka Himanchal Pradesh
2- Bhoj Madhya Pradesh
3- Chilka Odissa
4- Sundarban Wetland West Bengal
5- Rudra Lake Tripura
6- East Kolkata Wetlands West Bengal
7- Rasikbil West Bengal

10.4.6- Mangroves
Mangroves are actually coastal wetlands, where small trees grow in salt water and provide a
unique ecosystem for wildlife, birds, reptiles and aquatic animals. Salt marshes, marshes,
estuaries and mangrove forests are formed by the coastal environment; it is home to many
species of reptiles and amphibians. The Ministry of Environment and Forests started the
Mangrove Conservation Program in 1987. The ministry has so far identified 38 mangrove areas
for intensive protection and management in the country. According to FAO- Mangroves are the
characteristic littoral plant formations of tropical and subtropical sheltered coastlines. Mangrove
ecosystems are special habitats at the boundary between land and sea. The term 'mangrove'
applies to a particular ecosystem in the intertidal zone of the tropics and subtropics, and the plant
communities in that ecosystem are called 'mangrove vegetation'. Mangroves are small trees that

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 269

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

grow in salty forest habitats or in saline coastal waters and are found in tropical intertidal zones.
Mangrove forests are known to exist in the deltas of the Ganges, Godavari and Kaveri rivers in
India. Mangrove trees and shrubs are unique trees and shrubs that grow in saline and low-oxygen
environments. A wide variety of species and aquatic organisms depend on these forests for their
survival.

Characteristics of Mangroves
1- Mangroves are essentially an evergreen terrestrial plant that grows on protected coasts, usually
tidal flats, deltas, estuaries, bays, streams and offshore islands.
2- The best places are where rivers carry large amounts of silt or on increasingly sandy shores.
3- They have high physiological adaptability to salt stress and water-rich anaerobic mud.
4-It needs to be exposed to strong sunlight and can absorb fresh water from salt water and
brackish water.
5- It produces pneumatophores (blind roots) to overcome respiration problem in the anaerobic
soil conditions.
6- Mangroves come in many different configurations. Some species (e.g. Rhizophora) send
arching prop roots down into the water. While other (e.g. Avicennia) sends vertical
―Pneumatophores‖ or air roots up from the mud.
7- Most mangrove vegetation has lenticellated bank which facilitates more water loss, produces
coppices. The leaves are thick and have glands that secrete salt. Mangroves exhibit a viviparous
mode of reproduction. That is, the seed germinates within the tree itself (before falling to the
ground). This is an adaptive mechanism to overcome germination problems in salt water.
8- Some secrete excess salt through their leaves as if you look closely, you can see crystals of
salt on the back of the leaves; others block absorption of salt at their roots.
9-Adventitious roots that emerge above the ground from the main trunk of a tree are called stilt
roots.

Role of Mangroves
1-Mangrove forests stabilize the coastline by reducing erosion caused by storm surges, currents,
waves and tides.
2- Mangroves protect water quality by removing runoff nutrients and pollutants before rainwater
reaches seagrass habitats and coral reefs.
3- Mangroves enhance natural recycling of nutrients.
4- Provide a safe and favorable environment for breeding, spawning, rearing of several fishes.
5-Mangrove systems provide shelter to a range of wildlife species including birds, deer and
honey bees.
6-It supplies woods, fire wood, medicinal plants and edible plants to local people.
7-Mangroves serve as nesting areas for coastal birds such as little blue herons, great egrets and
brown pelicans. Many birds depend on mangroves for part of their seasonal migrations. Even
dead mangroves play an important role, providing roosting areas for bird species
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 270
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

8-It provides numerous employment opportunities to local communities and augments their
livelihood.
Some mangroves sites in India
S.No. Mangrove sites State/Union territories
1- Sundarban Groves West Bengal
2- Mahanadi Mangroves Orissa
3- Krishna Godavari Mangroves Andhra Pradesh
4- Mangroves of Gujarat Gujarat
5- Ratnagiri Mangroves Maharashtra
6- Goa Mangroves Goa
7- Cauvery Deltaic Mangroves Tamil Nadu
8- Andaman Nicobar Mangroves Andaman and Nicobar

10.4.6 Coral reefs: Coral reefs are shallow-water tropical marine ecosystems characterized
by high biomass production and a rich diversity of flora and fauna. According to Thomas
wayland Vaughan (1917), a ridge of mound of limestone, the upper surface of which is near the
surface of the sea and which is formed of calcium carbonate by the actions of organisms, chiefly
corals. Coral reefs consist of hundreds to thousands of colonies of small individual corals called
polyps. These marine invertebrates have hard calcium carbonate exoskeletons and are sessile.
That is, they are permanently fixed in one place. For the growth of coral reefs water temperature
should not be below 20°C. The optimum temperature for coral reef growth is between 23°C and
25°C. The temperature should not exceed 35°C. Corals can only survive in saltwater conditions
with an average salinity of 27% to 40%. Coral reefs grow in shallow waters less than 50m deep,
but the depth should not exceed 200m.
Coral Reefs are often called the ―Tropical Rainforests of the Sea‖, for their astounding richness
of life and extraordinary uniqueness. They are one of India's oldest and most dynamic
ecosystems. Coral reef ecosystems, often called the rainforests of the sea, account for almost a
quarter of all marine biodiversity, although they cover only 0.2% of the total seafloor area. They
not only provide sanctuary for a myriad of marine life but also play an important role in
protecting coastlines from erosion.

Scientists generally agree on four different classifications of coral reefs i.e. fringing reefs, barrier
reefs, atolls, and patch reefs.
1-Fringing reefs: It grows around islands and continents near the coast. They are separated from
the coast by narrow, shallow lagoons. A fringing reef is the most common type of coral reef.
Examples- South florida reef, Mehetia island, Sakau island in New Hebrides.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 271

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

2-Barrier reefs: Barrier reefs also parallel to the coastline, but are separated by deeper and
wider lagoons. It reaches the surface at its shallowest point and forms a "barrier" for transport.
For example- The great barrier reef of Austria is the largest barrier reef in the world.
3-Atolls: Atolls are rings of coral that form protected lagoons, usually in the middle of the ocean.
Atolls usually form when islands surrounded by fringing reefs are submerged or when the
surrounding sea level rises. For example- Fiji Atoll, Trent Atoll of w-carolinas, suvadivo in the
Maldives (biggest Atoll in the world), Funafoothis Atoll of Ellice.
4-Patch reefs: Patch reefs are small isolated coral reefs that grow from island platforms or open
floors of continental shelves. They usually occur between fringing and barrier reefs. They vary
greatly in size and rarely reach the surface of the water.

Formation of coral reefs: Many theories have been put forward to explain the formation of
coral reefs. Among them two theories are more important.
1- Darwin’s subsidence Theory: According to this theory, coral reefs were first formed as
fringing reefs that were close to sloping shores, they became barrier reefs when the shores sank
with water channel between them and the land. If the land is an island which sinks completely
than an atoll is formed. Thus, sinking or subsidence has caused the thickness of the reefs.
2- Daly’s Glacial- Control theory: The development of ice caps during the last glacial period
decreased the ocean's water level (60 to 70 meters). At that time extreme cold temperatures
predominant. As ice melted and temperature increased which is ideal for the growth of reefs.
Atolls and barrier reefs are created as a result.

Factors affecting Coral Reefs

 Extreme climate conditions: These corals decline as a result of the high water temperatures
because they cannot survive there. Scientists predict that as ocean temperatures rise at an
increasing rate, the majority of the world's coral reefs will soon begin to decline.
 Coastal development: These coral reefs suffer significant harm from the construction of
coastal infrastructure and tourist resorts on or nearby.
 Pollution: The poisoning of coral reefs can result from toxic pollutants that are dumped
directly into the ocean because they raise the seawater's nitrogen level, which promotes an
algal overgrowth.
 Sedimentation: Construction on islands and coasts causes soil erosion, which raises the
amount of sediments in rivers. As a result, it can suffocate corals by depriving them of the
light they require to survive.

Importance of Coral Reefs

1- Coral reefs act as a physical barrier, a wall, against tidal surges, severe weather, ocean
currents, tides, winds, and waves that hit coastlines. By doing this, they prevent coastal erosion,
flooding, and infrastructure damage. As a result, they help to lower the enormous expenses
associated with the destruction and displacement caused by extreme weather occurrences.
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 272
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

2-They provide habitats and shelter for many marine organisms.

3- They provide the nitrogen and other necessary nutrients needed by marine food chains. They
aid in the fixing of both carbon and nitrogen. They help in the recycling of nutrients. For records
of recent climatic events that can be tested scientifically, coral reef research is crucial.
4- Coral reefs play a key role in the fishing industry. There are many fishes that spawn there, and
young fish stay there before moving on to the open ocean. Fishing and tourism at the Great
Barrier Reef bring in more than 1.5 billion dollars annually for Australia's economy.
5- Coral reefs are a major indicator of the health of the world's ecosystems. They act as an early
warning indicator of what might happen to other, less vulnerable systems, like river deltas, if
climate change is not urgently addressed.
6- Coral species are being researched as potential therapies for some cancers or cell ageing. The
Caribbean sea squirt (Ecteinascidia turbinata), has a chemical that is being used to treat difficult
cancers. 50% of current cancer medication research focuses on marine organisms found on coral
reefs. Some hard coral species are used in bone grafts.
7- The skeletons of coral, which are marine invertebrate animals, make up the large underwater
structures known as coral reefs. The largest class of organisms in the phylum Cnidaria is
anthozoans, which include corals.
8- Polyps are the individual corals that make up a coral. The polyp resembles a tin can that has
only one open end, and that end has a mouth that is surrounded by a ring of tentacles. The corals
can catch small organisms that swim too close to the stinging cells on their tentacles, known as
nematocysts.

Threats to Coral Reefs

Coral reefs face a large number of threats, both direct and indirect, from human activities.
Scientists believe all coral reefs will face threats by 2050, with 75% of them facing high-risk
threats. Some of these threats are as follows:
1-Over-fishing for food, aquarium trade, trinket trade, medicinal purposes is a big threat. Over-
fishing of certain species on or adjacent to coral reefs can affect the reef‘s ecological balance and
biodiversity. For example, over fishing of herbivorous fish can lead to high levels of algal
growth.
2-Marine pollution in the form of oil (often spilled into the sea), ballast water discharge, and
solid waste dumping from ships also damages coral reefs in the region.
3- Global warming and associated climate change poses serious new threats to already stressed
coral reefs. It is also threatened by acidification.
4-Coral reefs are being destroyed in many areas as reefs and colorful reef fish are collected for
aquariums and the gem trade.
5-Coral bleaching occurs as ocean temperatures rise. Corals have a narrow temperature
tolerance, so they release symbiotic algae in response to stress. Without algae, there would be no
source of life, it would cease to exist.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 273

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Coral Reefs in India

India has its coastline extending over 7500 kilometres. There are a very small number of coral
reefs in India because of the subtropical climate. India has several significant coral reef systems,
including those in Palk Bay, the Gulf of Mannar, the Gulf of Kutch, the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, and the Lakshadweep Islands. Among all these coral reefs, the Lakshadweep reef is an
example of atoll while the rest are all fringing reefs.

Palk Bay
Situated in the south-east coast of India, Palk Bay is separated from the Gulf of Mannar by the
Mandapam Peninsula and the Rameshwaram Island and is centred on 9 °17‘N and 79° 15′. The
one fringing reef in the Palk Bay is 25-30km long, and less than 200m wide lies in the east-west
direction of the Pamban channel. This coral reef has a maximum depth of about 3m.

The Gulf of Mannar

Situated around a chain of 21 islands, the Gulf of Mannar lies between Tuticorin and
Rameswaram at a stretch of 140 km. These 21 islands are part of the Manor Barrier Reef, which
is 140 km long and 25 km wide, between latitudes 8°47' and 9°15'N, and longitudes 78°12'E and
79°14'E.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands lie between 6°-14° N lat and 91°-94° E longitude. Located in
the southeastern part of the Bay of Bengal, it consists of 350 islands, of which only 38 are
inhabited. These islands stretch south from Burma's Irrawaddy Delta to the Arakan Yoma Range.
All islands in the Andaman and Nicobar group are mostly fringing reefs.

The Gulf of Kutch

The Gulf of Kutch is located in the northern part of the Saurashtra Peninsula, between 22°15'-
23°40' north latitude and 68°20'-70°40' east longitude, covering an area of about 7350 km².
These reefs are fringing reefs, about 170 km long and 75 km wide at the mouth, which narrows
at a longitude of 72° 20′. Due to the accumulation of mud on various reefs, these reefs are in a
state of severe degradation.

Lakshadweep Islands
In the Arabian Sea, the Lakshadweep Islands lie between 8° to 12°3'N latitude and 71° to 74°E
longitude, approximately 225 to 450 km off the coast of Kerala. With an area of 32 km2, the
islands consist of 36 small islands, 12 atolls, 3 coral reefs, 5 submerged banks and lagoons
occupying about 4200 km2. These islands have a warm and humid climate, with water
temperatures of 28-31°C and salinity of 34%-37%.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 274

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Some Coral reef sites

S.No. State Site
1- Gujarat Gulf of Kutch
2- Tamil Nadu Gulf of Mannar
3- Andaman and Nicobar Andaman and Nicobar Coral reef
4- Lakshadweep Lakshadweep
(Source: Annual Report MoEF&CC 2020-21)

10.5 SUMMARY

Biodiversity refers to the variability between living organisms and the forms of terrestrial,
marine, aquatic ecosystems and ecological complexes. Biodiversity can be conserved by
protecting its whole ecosystem. The two basic approaches for the conservation of biodiversity
are in-situ conservation and ex-situ conservation. In-situ method involves the protection of
species in their natural habitat example- wildlife sanctuaries, National parks, biosphere reserve,
wetlands, mangroves, coral reefs etc. There are several international initiatives and structures for
the conservation or protection of biodiversity. Some of the major and high impact conventions
are the world heritage convention. The international union for conservation of nature and natural
resources (now called as world conservation union), the convention on international trade in
endangered species etc. In India, various laws regulate wildlife conservation, as well as overall
biodiversity. The Indian government has taken several steps to protect biodiversity such as
wildlife protection act 1972, crocodile conservation project, Project tiger, project elephant, and
UNDP sea turtle project etc.

10.6 GLOSSARY

In-situ conservation: The process of preserving a threatened plant or animal species in its
natural habitat is known as in-situ conservation.
Biosphere reserves: A biosphere reserve is a habitant area that includes both terrestrial and
coastal ecosystems and provides a pathway for sustainable use.
Coral reef: Formation produced by massive colonies containing billions of tiny coral animals,
called polyps, that secrete a stony substance (calcium carbonate) around themselves for
protection. When the coral die, their empty outer skeletons from layers and cause the reef to
grow. Coral reefs are found in the coastal zones of warm tropical and subtropical oceans.
Wildlife Sanctuary: An area, usually in natural condition which is reserved or set aside by a
governmental or private agency for the protection of natural fauna or particular species of
animals.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 275

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Wetland: An area that is saturated by surface, or ground water having life adapted under those
conditions. Swamps, bogs, fens, marshes, and estuaries are examples of wetlands. These are a
major refuge for wildlife including many rare species.
Mangrove: Mangroves are tropical plants that are adapted to loose, wet soils, salt water, and
being submerged by tides on a regular basis.
Peatland—A generic term of any wetland that accumulates partially decayed plant matter (peat).
Coral bleaching: Coral bleaching is when water is too warm, corals will expel the algae
(zooxanthellae) living in their tissues causing the coral to turn completely white.

10.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION

10.7.1 Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which one of the following is the first national park established in India?
(a) Jim Corbett National Park (b) Kaziranga National Park
(c) Ranthambore National Park (d) Dachigam National Park

2. When was the Project Tiger launched in India?

(a) 1972 (b) 1973
(c) 1970 (d) 1980

3. Which of the following is not a zone of biosphere reserve?

(a) Buffer zone (b) Transition zone
(c) Core zone (d) Mid zone

4- What is the protection and conservation of species in their natural habitat called?
(a) Off-site conservation (b) Ex-situ conservation
(c) In-situ conservation (d) No conservation

5-Bog ecosystem wetland receives water only from-

(a) Ground water (b) Rain
(c) Rivers (d) Streams

6-The state where Jim Corbett National Park is located-

(a) Goa (b) Uttar Pradesh
(c) Uttarakhand (d) Chattisgarh

7-What is the correct abbreviation for IUCN?

(a) International union for conservation of Nuts
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 276
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

(b) International union for conservation of Nature

(c) International union for conservation of Natural habitat
(d) International union for conservation of Numbers

8-Sacred groups are useful in-

(a) Conserving endangered and rare species
(b) Spreading environmental awareness
(c) Ensuring the sustainable flow of water in rivers
(d) Preventing soil erosion

9- A category of threatened species include:

(a) only vulnerable species
(b) endangered and rare species
(c) Only endangered species
(d) endangered, vulnerable and rare species

10-Which of the following is not an example of an in-situ conservation strategy?

(a) Biosphere (b) Sacred groves
(c) Zoo (d) National park

Answer Key:
10.7.1: 1-(a), 2-(b), 3-(d), 4-(c), 5-(b), 6-(c), 7-(b), 8-(a), 9-(d), 10-(c)

10.8 REFERENCES

 http://www.oas.org/dsd/publications/unit/oea04e/ch04.htm
 https://www.cbpbu.ac.in/userfiles/file/2020/STUDY_MAT/BOTANY/27-04-
20/Dr.Aninda%20Mandal%20for%204th%20Sem(%20Special%20Paper%20PRM%20)-
In%20situ%20Conservation..pdf
 https://www.slideshare.net/resgmasheikh/conservation-strategies
 https://legalstudymaterial.com/wildlife-conservation-efforts-in-india-importance-of-wildlife-
conservation/
 https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/environment/ecosystem/complex-ecosystem-in-india-
wetlands-mangroves-coral-reefs-forests/11171
 https://www.cbd.int/brc/
 https://www.vedantu.com/biology/conservation-of-biodiversity
 https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/biodiversity/conservations-of-biodiversity-in-situ-
conservation-and-ex-situ-conservation/30144

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 277

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

 https://www.ranthamborenationalpark.com/blog/wildlife-conservation-initiatives-indian-
government/
 https://wii.gov.in
 https://coral.org/en/coral-reefs-101/types-of-coral-reef-formations/
 https://byjus.com/free-ias-prep/coral-reefs/
 https://www.insightsonindia.com/world-geography/physical-geography-of-the-
world/oceanography/coral-reefs/importance-of-coral-reefs/
 Source: National Wildlife Database, Wildlife Institute of India

10.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

 P.D.Sharma, ‗Ecology and Environment‘, Rastogi Publication, Meerut

 R.S.Shukla & P.S.Chandel, ‗A textbook of Plant Ecology‘, S.Chand & Company pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi
 B.P.Pandey, Botany for Degree Students, S.Chand & Company pvt. Ltd., New Delhi

10.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

10.10.1 Short Answer Type Questions:

1- What is the importance of wildlife sanctuaries?
2-Write short notes on:
(a) Sanctuary
(b) Project tiger
3-What are the benefits of wetlands?
4- How are Coral Reefs formed?
5-What are the benefits of Coral Reefs?

10.10.2 Long Answer Type Questions:

1- What is a biosphere reserve? Write a short account of protected areas network of India.
2- Write a brief account of International agencies engaged with conservation of biodiversity.
3-What are wetlands? Discuss the types and importance of wetlands.
4-Define mangrove. Describe the characteristic of mangroves.
5-What are coral reefs? Discuss the importance and threats of coral reefs.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 278

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

UNIT-11 STRATEGIES FOR EX-SITU CONSERVATION

Contents

11.1 Objectives
11.2 Introduction
11.3 Advantage of Ex-situ Conservation
11.4 Ex-situ Conservation: Principles & Practices
11.5 Conventional methods of ex-situ conservation
11.5.1 Gene Bank
11.5.2 Field Gene Bank
11.5.3 Seed Bank
11.5.4 Community Seed Bank
11.5.5 Botanical Garden
11.6 Biotechnological methods of ex-situ conservation
11.6.1 In-vitro Conservation
11.6.2 In-vitro storage of germplasm and cryopreservation
11.6.3 Other methods
11.6.4 Germplasm facilities in India
11.7 General Account of Important Institutions
11.7.1 BSI
11.7.2 DBT
11.7.3 IARI
11.7.4 NBPGR
11.7.5 CSIR
11.8 Summary
11.9 Self-assessment questions
11.9.1 Multiple choice questions
11.9.2 Fill in the blanks
11.10 References
11.11 Terminal Questions
11.11.1 Short answer type questions
11.11.2 Long answer type questions

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 279

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

11.1 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit student will be able-

 To understand the various components of ex-situ conservation of biological diversity;
 To study the mechanism of ex-situ conservation and strategies for conservation of
plants, animals and micro-organisms;
 To study the conservation process of threatened species;
 To study the institutional mechanism of ex-situ conservation in India.

11.2 INTRODUCTION

For much of the time man lived in a hunter-gather society and thus depended entirely on
biodiversity for sustenance. But, with the increased dependence on agriculture and
industrialization, the emphasis on biodiversity has decreased. Indeed, the biodiversity, in wild
and domesticated forms, is the sources for most of humanity food, medicine, clothing and
housing, much of the cultural diversity and most of the intellectual and spiritual inspiration. It is,
without doubt, the very basis of life. Further that, a quarter of the earth‘s total biological
diversity amounting to a million species, which might be useful to mankind in one way or other,
is in serious risk of extinction over the next 2-3 decades. On realization that the erosion of
biodiversity may threaten the very extinctionof life has awaked man to take steps to conserve it.
During the last decade, the IUCN have developed strategies for Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources with hold up from World Bank and other institutions. On the whole, the
conservation plan has a holistic approach and encompasses whole spectrum of biota and
activities ranging from ecosystems at the macro level (in-situ conservation) to DNA libraries at
the molecular level (ex-situ conservation).
Definition
Ex-situ conservation literally means, "off-site conservation". It is the process of protecting an
endangered species of plant or animal by removing part of the population from a threatened
habitat and placing it in a new location, which may be a wild area or within the care of humans.
While ex-situ conservation comprises some of the oldest and best known conservation methods,
it also involves newer, sometimes controversial laboratory methods.
Ex-situ conservation, using sample populations, is done through establishment of gene banks,
which include genetic resources centres, zoos, botanical gardens, culture collections etc.

11.3 ADVANATAGES OF EX-SITU CONSERVATION

The conservation of biodiversity can be achieved through an integrated approach balancing in-

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 280

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

situ and ex-situ conservation strategies. The preservation of species in-situ offers all the
advantages of allowing natural selection to act, which cannot be recreated ex- situ. The
maintenance of viable and self-sustainable populations of wild species in their natural state
represents the ultimate goal, but habitat destruction is inevitable and endangered species need
to be preserved before they become extinct. Ex-situ conservation provide the opportunity to
study the biology of, and understand the threats to, endangered species in order to eventually
consider successful species recovery programmes, which would include restoration and
reintroduction. It also has the advantage of preserving plant material and making it available for
research purposes, without damaging the natural populations. Their conservation ex-situ is
therefore complementary to in-situ conservation and can act as an "insurance policy" when
species are threatened in their natural habitats It is the process of protecting an endangered
species of plant or animal by removing part of the population from a threatened habitat and
placing it in a new location, which may be a wild area or within the care of humans. Ex-situ
conservation has several purposes:
 Rescue threatened germplasm.
 Produce material for conservation biology research.
 Enlarge the germplasm for storage in various ex-situ facilities.
 Supply material for various purposes to remove or reduce pressure from wildcollecting.
 Grow those species with recalcitrant seeds that cannot be maintained in a seed store.
 Make available material for conservation education and display.
 Produce material for reintroduction, reinforcement, habitat restoration and management.

11.4 EX-SITU CONSERVATION: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES

Ex-situ conservation is the chief mode for preservation of genetic resources, which may include
both cultivated and wild material. Generally seeds or in-vitro maintained plant cells, tissue and
organs are preserved under appropriate conditions for long term‟ storage as gene bank. This
requires considerable knowledge of the genetic structure of population sampling techniques,
methods of regeneration and maintenance of variety of gene pools, particularly in cross-
pollinated plants.
These ex-situ collections of living organisms (living collections, seed banks, pollen, vegetative
propagules, and tissue or cell cultures) need to be managed according to strict scientific and
horticultural standards to maximize their value for conservation purposes. Thus they need to be
correctly identified, documented and managed and an efficient information management system
put in place. Integrated conservation management can also ensure that ex-situ collections can
support in-situ conservation, through habitatrestoration and species recovery.
There are two ways or modes of Ex-situ conservation.
1. Conventional methods
2. Biotechnological aspects

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 281

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

11.5 CONVENTIONAL METHODS OF EX-SITU CONSERVATION

11.5.1 Gene Banks

Plant genetic resources gene banks store, maintain and reproduce living samples of the world's
huge diversity of crop varieties and their wild relatives. They ensure that the varieties and
landraces of the crops and their wild relatives that underpin our food supply are both secure in
the long term and available for use by farmers, plant breeders and researchers.
Gene banks conserve genetic resources. The most fundamental activity in a gene bank is to treat
a new sample in a way that will prolong its viability as long as possible while ensuring its
quality. The samples (or accessions as they are called) are monitored to ensure that they are not
losing viability. A cornerstone of gene bank operations is the reproduction-called regeneration-
of its plant material. Plant samples must periodically be grown out, regenerated, and new seed
harvested because, even under the best of conservation conditions, samples will eventually die.
To conserve and regenerate genetic resources, gene banks first must collect genetic resources.
But gene banks aren't built just to conserve genetic resources; they are intended to ensure that
these resources are used, whether it is in farmers' fields, breeding programmes or in research
institutions. This means making sure the collections areproperly characterized and documented;
and that the documentation is available to those who need it. The information systems used by
gene banks are becoming increasingly important tools for researchers and breeders seeking data
on the distribution of crops and their wild relatives.

11.5.2 Field Gene banks

Field gene banks or living collections are the main conservation strategy for long-lived
perennials, recalcitrant species and vegetatively propagated species. Their main limitation is that
they take a great deal of space and are difficult to maintain and protect from natural disasters.
They are susceptible to the spread of diseases and may suffer from neglect. Furthermore, out-
breeders require controlled pollination for regeneration from seed. In many circumstances they
are the only available option for the conservation of important germplasm. When displayed, the
plants have an important educational value and can easily be accessed for research purposes.
The conservation of germplasm in field gene banks involves the collecting of materials and
planting in the orchard or field in another location. Field gene banks have traditionally been
used for perennial plants, including:
 Species producing recalcitrant seeds;
 Species producing little or no seeds;
 Species that are preferably stored as clonal material; and
 Species that have a long life cycle to generate breeding and/or planting material.
Field gene banks are commonly used for such species as cocoa, rubber, coconut, coffee,
sugarcane, banana, tuber crops, tropical and temperate fruits, vegetatively propagated crops, such
as wild onion and garlic, and forage grasses.
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 282
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

11.5.3 Seed Banks

Undeniably, the most cost-effective method of providing plant genetic resources for long- term
ex-situ conservation is through the storage of seeds under very specific conditions, following
techniques well developed for crop plants by organisations such as the International Plant
Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), previously the International Board of Plant Genetic
Resources (IBPGR) and the Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations (FAO).
The main advantage of seed banking is that it allows large populations to be preserved and
genetic erosion to be minimized by providing optimum conditions and reducing the need for
regeneration (Given, 1987).
Endangered plants may also be preserved in part through seed banks or germplasm banks. The
term seed bank sometimes refers to a cryogenic laboratory facility in which the seeds of certain
species can be preserved for up to a century or more without losing their fertility. It can also be
used to refer to a special type of arboretum where seeds are harvested and the crop is rotated.
For plants that cannot be preserved in seed banks, the only other option for preserving
germplasm is in-vitro storage, where cuttings of plants are kept under strict conditions in glass
tubes and vessels.
However, when a natural population still exists, it may be advisable to re-collect rather than
regenerate a new supply from the previous collection as damage can occur such as mutations
associated with the loss of viability during storage. The success of long-term conservation of
seeds is dependent on continuous viability monitoring and regeneration or re-collection when
the viability of the sample drops below a minimum level (Eberhart, Roos & Towill, 1991). It is
important to realize that however much care is taken during seed collection, regeneration and
storage, natural selection cannot be simulated and some artificial selection will be unavoidable,
which inevitably leads to unpredictable genetic changes (Ashton, 1988).
The recommended preferred standards for long-term seed storage of orthodox species
recommended by IPGRI is to dry the seeds to a moisture content of below 7% and seal the
dried seeds in a moisture-proof container such as laminated foil bags, aluminium cans or glass
jars for storage at a low temperature of -18ºC. Clearly this is only applied to true orthodox
species of crops and their relatives. However because less is known about wild species, a
temperature of -4ºC and moisture content of 7-8% is advisable to begin with. The activities in
seed banks should take the following sequence: collection, seed preparation, seed drying,
packaging, storage, periodic germination tests, seed regeneration, re-storage and documentation
at each stage of activity.
When plant species are recalcitrant or long-term conservation cannot be achieved through seed
banking, different methods have been developed with their respective merits, such as field gene
banks, in vitro germplasm collections, pollen and DNA banks. This is in many cases the main
problem faced by botanic gardens dealing with many different species of which, a great
proportion are be recalcitrant. They need to develop complementary conservation techniques
and adopt different methods. Example:
 Indian clover, Trifolium amoenum, is an example of a species that was thought to be
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 283
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

extinct, but was rediscovered in 1993 by Peter Connors in the form of a single plant a site
in western Sonoma County. Connors harvested seeds and grew specimens of this critically
endangered species in a controlled environment.
 A tank of liquid nitrogen, used to supply a cryogenic freezer (for storing laboratory samples
at a temperature of about −150ºC).
 The Wollemi Pine is an another example of a plant that is being preserved via Ex- situ
conservation, as they are being grown in nurseries to be sold to the general public.
Ex-situ conservation of plant genetic resources can be achieved through different methods such
as seed banks, field gene banks, in vitro storage methods, pollen banks and DNA banks. The
major consideration for long-term conservation of germplasm collections is the determination
of the seed behavior of each individual species to be preserved during storage under dry
conditions and cold temperatures. If the seeds can be dried to low percentage humidity such as
below 8%, in the majority of cases, the seeds will then withstand very cold temperatures of
below 20ºC. When the seeds tolerate these conditions and remain viable after many years of
storage, they are classified as orthodox (desiccation tolerant) as opposed to recalcitrant
(desiccation intolerant) when they do not. However, there might be many other reasons why a
particular species cannot be preserved in seed banks, such as a very low production of seed or
long-life cycle species, such as trees and perennials. Their conservation as seeds would make
the study of their biology difficult.

11.5.4 Community seed banks

Seed banks don't have to be high-tech and managed by governments or businesses. Germplasm
conservation in the form of seed in most convenient since seeds occupies a relatively small
space. Their transport to various introduction centers and gene banks is also economical but the
draw backs in conservation by seed are:
 Loss of viability over passage of time and susceptibility to insect or pathogen attack.
 Inability to maintain distinct clones except for inbreed and apomicts species.
 Non-applicability to vegetatively propagated crop such as Dioscorea, Ipomoea, potato
etc.
In many developing countries, farmers rely on informal seed systems based on local growers
retention of seed from previous harvests, storage, treatment and exchange of this seed within
and between communities. The informal seed sector is typically based on indigenous structures
for information flow and exchange of seed. Seed banks managed within this local seed system
operate on a small scale at the community level with few resources.
These community seed banks and the institutions that support them are extremely important in
the preservation of local varieties and for agricultural production. Much could be gained from
learning more about these seed banks and working with communities to improve them. In spite
of this, informal seed banks have until now received little attention or support from the
scientific community or the state.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 284

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

11.5.5 Botanical gardens

Botanical gardens and zoos are the most conventional methods of ex-situ conservation, all of
which house whole, protected specimens for breeding and reintroduction into the wild when
necessary and possible. These facilities provide not only housing and care for specimens of
endangered species, but also have an educational value. They inform the public of the
threatened status of endangered species and of those factors which cause the threat, with the
hope of creating public interest in stopping and reversing those factors which jeopardize a
species' survival in the first place. They are the most publicly visited ex-situ conservation sites.
The history of botanic gardens can be traced as far back as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon,
built by Nebuchadnezzar in 570 BC as a gift to his wife. Early botanic gardens were designed
mainly for the purpose of recreation. By the 16th Century, however, they had also become
important centers for research. They promoted the study of taxonomy and became a focal point
for the study of aromatic and medicinal plants. More recently, they have taken on significant
conservation responsibilities and they often have conservation facilities, such as seed banks and
tissue culture units.
Botanical gardens hold living collections. Indeed botanical garden conservation could be
considered as field gene bank or seed gene bank or both, depending on the conservation method
being used. However, they tend to focus their conservation efforts on wild, ornamental, rare
and endangered species. Most of the germplasm conserved in botanical gardens do not belong
to the plant genetic resources for food and agriculture.
A botanic garden which wishes to start a small seed bank /gene bank would be advised to start
with collecting germplasm that is very well documented from their living plant collection. This
would allow them to experiment with a wide range of species and find suitable facilities and
techniques for their particular needs. Once the set up is organised and functional, it would be
advisable to collect accessions directly from the wild in order to distribute a wider genetic
variability and to reduce the effect of domestication on the genetic makeup of the accessions.
Last two hundred years, efforts of botanic gardens in collecting plant material, and the great
efforts on crop germplasm collection during the 1970s and the 1980s, there are a large number
of gene banks and germplasm collections around the world. According to the FAO and World
Information & Early Warning System (WIEWS) database, it is estimated that there are now
more than 2000 botanic gardens known around the world in over 150 countries. Together, they
maintain more than 6 million accessions in their living collections and 142 million herbaria
specimens in the botanic garden herbaria. 60% of the total numbers of accessions are known
to be stored in medium-term or long-term facilities, 8% in short-term facilities and 10% in field
gene banks, in vitro and under cryopreservation. Clearly, seed storage is the predominant form
of plant genetic resource conservation, accounting for about 90% of the total accessions held
ex-situ.
It is very difficult to give an estimate of the type of collections stored around the world as such
information is known for only a third of the accessions in the WIEWS database. However, it
has been estimated that 48% of all accessions are advanced cultivars or breeders' lines, while
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 285
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

over a third are landraces or old cultivars and about 15% are wild or weedy plants or crop
relatives.
Some famous international and national botanic gardens/ research centers/ institutes
International
Royal Botanical Garden, Kew, England: Largest botanical garden in world and its
herbarium is also largest in world, having 6 million specimens.
CIAT: International Center for Tropical Agriculture located at Palmira, Columbia
ICARDA: International Center for Agriculture Research in Dry Areas located at Allepo,
Syria
ICRISAT: International Center for Agriculture Research for Semi Arid Tropics located at
Patencheru, (Hyderabad) India.
IRRI: International Rice Research Institute located at Manila, Philippines.
CITES: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Faunaand Flora.
National
Indian Botanical Garden, Calcutta: Largest Botanical Garden in India and its herbarium
is largest in India, having 1 million specimens.
NBRI: National Botanical Research Institute located at Lucknow (UP) formally known as
National Botanical Garden.
BSI: Botanical Survey of India started working in 1890 and is connected with plant
exploration and writing up of regional floras and also preparation of flora of India.
IARI: Indian Agricultural Research Institute or Pusa Institute located at New Delhi. It was
initially established at village Pusa in Darbhanga District of Bihar in 1905 under the name
Imperial Agricultural Research Institute. After a severe earthquake, this institute was shifted
to New Delhi in 1936 under the same name. But after independence, it was renamed as Indian
Agricultural Research Institute.
FRI: Forest Research Institute located at Dehradun (Uttarakhand), established in 1906 under
name Imperial Forest Research Institute (IFRI), but after independence, name was changed to
FI. This institute is connected with researchers on different aspects of forest trees and also
provides training to forest officers.

11.6 BIOTECHNOLOGY METHOD OF EX-SITU CONSERVATION

Biotechnology is the third wave in biological sciences and represents such an interface of basic
and applied sciences, where gradual and subtle transformation of science into technology can
be witness. Biotechnology is also defined as the applications of scientific and engineering
principles to the processing of material by biological agents to provide goods and services.
United States Congress‘s office of Technology Assessment defined biotechnology as any
technique that used living organisms to make or modify a product, to improve plants or
animals or to develop microorganisms for specific used. The document focuses on the
development and application of modern biotechnology based on new enabling techniques or
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 286
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

recombinant-DNA technology, often referred to as genetic engineering.

Since biotechnology involves the use of all life forms for human welfare. Therefore, extinction
of wild species and destruction of ecosystems has been a major concern of policy markers and
environmentalists. A discussion on biotechnology involving biodiversity is relevant, because
biodiversity is being utilized to provide genes from wild species for biotechnological exercises.
Several biotechnological tools are now available to tackle various specific problems and to
enhance the potentials of grass covers such as feeding value, propagation and persistence.
Basically, in range grasses, several tools of biotechnology, comprising endosperm and anther
culture, somaclonal variation protoplast culture and fusion, transformation, etc., can address
breaking the apomictic barrier for recombination for recombination of desired traits. The grass
biotechnologists are actively engaged to achieve this goal. Besides, the mapping of genes,
isolation, cloning and characterization of important genes/ traits in range species as well as in
other crops can ultimatelyimproves the value of grass cover through genetic transformation in
the pasture species. It is envisaged that by following these approaches anti-quality factors can
be suppressed and the digestibility of allows even tracking the genes for polyphonic traits and
the metric traits like seed production; the biomass would also be hopefully improved. The
current certainly go a long way in adding to the fertility and diversity of grass covers.
Propagation of specific genotypes of endangered but useful species on a large scale in a short
time frame is possible through the modern biotechnological approaches.

11.6.1 In-vitro Conservation

Conservation in-vitro is wholly dependent upon the techniques of plant cell, tissue and organ
culture, and is appropriate in situations where conventional seed storage cannot or is not to be
employed.
In particular in-vitro conservation used for vegetatively propagated material species with
recalcitrant seed and material biology. This later material may have been costly and limited in
quantity and have characteristics whose stability during repeated mitotic divisions and
following meiosis are unknown. It is, therefore prudent to conserve stocks of this material to
ensure consistency in subsequent experimentation of production processes, and as definitive
source of reference material.
The material stored in-vitro may be protoplast, isolated cells grown in suspension or on semi-
solid medium, meristem cultures at various stages of development or organized plantlet. It can
be assumed that genetic stability within the in-vitro systems increase as the complexity of the
cultured material, with completely differentiated plantlets in culture having the least risk of
genetic alteration during an in-vitro excursion (Karp, 1989). Consequently, if the storage
conditions are to permit some level of growth and metabolic activity then organized plantlets
are the conservation material of choice, but where growth is to be completely inhabited as in
cryopreservation exercised, shoot meristems may be the more suitable explains (Ford-Lloyd
and Jackson, 1986; Wihters, 1987) where cell or protoplast cultures are to be maintained and
there is no choice as to a preferred level of organization then care must be taken to ensure the
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 287
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

maximum genetic stability, preferable by opting for cryopreservation.

At the simplest level conservation in-vitro is achieved by repeated sub-culture continuing the
protection from adverse environmental conditions and pathogens that is inherent in the in-vitro
systems. This is expensive both in terms of labour and the basic material of the culture process
and whilst least demanding in terms of the level of available technology, has a considerable risk
of material loss due to human error or the failure in- vitro security e.g. the invasion of pathogen
during transfer.

Mode of propagation
There is large number of threatened/ rare/ endangered plant species on which in-vitro
propagation of threatened plants (Table 11.1) could be achieved by the following methods.
1. Clonal propagation
2. Somatic embryogenesis
3. Organogenesis
4. Callus differentiation

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 288

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Table 11.1: In-vitro regeneration of threatened/ rare/ endangered plant species

Name of Plants Explant Used Medium Mode of Regeneration
Aconitum carmichaeli Shoot tips and MS Clonal multiplication
axillary buds
Aconitum nepellus Nodal shoot MS Axillary shoot proliferation
Aconitum noveboraacense Nodal shoot MS Axillary shoot proliferation
Anogeissus sericea Nodal shoot MS Axillary shoot proliferation
(seedling explants)
Caralluma edulis Shoot segments MS Clonal multiplication
Commiphora wightii Shoot segments MS Axillary shoot proliferation
Coptis teeta Hypocotyl segment MS Callus culture
Feronia limonia Axillary branching Axillary shoot proliferation
Gerbera aurantiaca Axillary bud Axillary shoot proliferation
Nepenthes khasiana Mature nodal Axillary shoot proliferation
segment
Nepenthes khasiana Axillary bud MS or wood Axillary shoot proliferation
plant
medium
Ocotea catharinensis Zygotic embryos MS Axillary shoot proliferation
Oncidium catharinensis Seedling Knudson Root tip culture
Medium
Picorrhiza kurroa Axillary bud MS Axillary shoot proliferation
Podophyllum hexandrum Zygotic embryos MS Somatic embryogenesis
Rauvolfia serpentine Low temperature MS Storage
Rheum embodi Axillary bud Liquid Axillary shoot proliferation
Rumex acetosella Axillary bud MS Somatic embryogenesis
Santalum album Zygotic embryos MS Somatic embryogenesis
Trichopus zeyanicus Axillary bud MS Axillary shoot proliferation
Valeriana wallichii Axillary bud MS Callus culture
Wrightia tomentosa Axillary bud MS Axillary shoot proliferation

11.6.2 In-Vitro Storage of Germplasm and Cryopreservation

Assuming that differentiated plantlets are to be stored in-vitro, with all that this implies for
genetic stability and then lowering growth temperature to slow metabolism and development
has previously reduced the labour and expense for repeated subculture. The security of the
culture is also improved as the frequency of the physical interventions of subculture is also
reduced. Similarly, the use of osmotic stress and the addition of growth retardant to the culture
medium have effectively prolonged the interval between culture transfers (Wither 1987;
Prithcard et al., 1986).
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 289
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

The greatest genetic stability is achieved by storage of propagules, capable of regeneration in-
vitro liquid nitrogen i.e. cryopreservation (Kartha 1985) where possible these propagules
will be excised meristems, capable of direct regeneration into plantlets, by isolated cells or
protoplasts.

Cryopreservation
In this system stability is imposed by ultra low temperature and storage is at, or close to -1960C
using liquid Nitrogen (or the vapour immediately above it), as practical and convenient oxygen.
At such temperature normal cellular chemical reactions do not occur as energy level are too low
to allow sufficient molecular motion to complete the reaction. Water exists either in a crystalline
or glassy state under these conditions and such high viscosity (> 1013 poises) that rates of
diffusion are insignificant over time spans measured at least as decades. The majority of the
chemical changes that might occur in a cell are therefore; effectively prevented and so the cell
is stabilized the maximum extent that is practically possible.
Unfortunately, that is not to say that biological material successfully cooled to -1960C is in state
of complete suspended animation. Certain type of chemical reaction can still occur at these
temperatures, such as the formation of the free radicals and macromolecular damage due to
ionizing radiation. The only real threat to genetic stabilitycomes from such reactions, especially
those that damage nucleic acids. Any damage that does occur will necessarily be cumulative as
enzyme repair mechanisms are also totally inhibited at these low temperatures.
While there are as yet few quantitative data on genetic stability at ultra low temperature for
higher organisms, studied by Ash wood, Smith and Grant (1977) indicate that to reach a D10
level (where D10 is the radiation dose resulting in 90% mortality of the population) a frozen
cell population would have to be exposed to back ground radiation for some 32,000 years. It is
also noteworthy that dimethyl sulphoxide, probably the most commonly used cryoprotectant in-
vitro preservation and may aid in radiation damage.
The potential of conservation system for in-vitro material based upon cryogenic storage is
therefore, clear and the technique has become relatively widely used.

11.6.3 Other Methods

i) Cold storage
Germplasm conservation by storing material in cultures at low and no-freezing temperature the
ageing of plant material is slow but not completely stopped as in freezes prevention.
ii) Low Pressure and Low Oxygen Storage
Attempts have been made to development Low Pressure Storage (LPS) and Low Oxygen
Storage (LOS) as feasible techniques for future conservation of cultured plant materials. In
LPS, the atmospheric pressure surrounding the tissue cultures is reduced resulting in partial
decrease of the pressure created by gases in contact with the plant material. On the other hand,
in LOS, the atmospheric pressure (760 mm Hg) is not reduced but the inert gases (particularly
nitrogen) are combined with oxygen to create low oxygen pressure.
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 290
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

These are found useful in both short term and long term storage. There is also belated
recognition that nature is infinitely more tough tests of survival for millions of years. An effort
is now onto revive culturing of plant in-vitro. A biotechnology firm in USA, Phytera, has for
example set up and stored plant cell cultures of 5,000 spp in glass vials.

11.6.4 Germplasm Facilities in India

Recognizing the need for sophisticated facilities for research and development and providing
services, the following additional germplasm facilities have been set up:
1. The National Facility for Microbial Type Culture Collection at the Institute of Microbial
Technology, Chandigarh, with over 1,600 cultures in its stock.
2. The National Facility on Blue-green Algal Collection at the Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, with over 500 strains and several pure culture as well as soil- based cultures,
which have been supplied to farmers for production of bio-fertilizers.
3. The National Facility for marine Cyanobacteria at the Bharatidasan University,
Tiruchirapalli, which is coordinating extensive surveys on the southern coast.
4. The National Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Respository at NBPGR, New Delhi, which
has undertaken in vitro conservation of germplasm (Cell, Tissue, organ), for medium and
long term, particularly for those species for which conventional methods are inadequate. It
has 850 accessions of crop species and employes molecular methods of characterization
and classification.
5. The National Facility for Laboratory Animals at Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow
and the National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad has made available quality animals for
biomedical research and industry in the country.
6. The National Facility for Animal Tissue and Cell Culture, Pune, and autonomous
institutions under Department of Biotechnology (DBT) has 1127 stock cultures comprising
594 different cell strains. The facility has supplied 401 culture consignments to 84
insttutions throughout the country. It also has 50 rectors, plasmids and genomic libraries.
7. Three National Gene Bank for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants at the Central Institute of
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow and NBPGR, New Delhi, for the northern
region; and the Tropical Botanical Garden and Research Institute,Trivendrum, for
peninsular India have been established. These banks will conserve important species of
proven medicinal value, which are categorized as endangered, threatened or rare and are
used extensively in traditional systems of medicine, difficult to propagate, have
significance for research and developmet for the future, and are of commercial values.
India is the regional coordinator for Asia and also the overall coordinator for the
establishment of Gene banks of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants among G-15 countries.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 291

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

11.7 GENERAL ACCOUNT OF IMPORTANT INSTITUTIONS

11.7.1 Botanical Survey of India

Botanical Survey of India (BSI) was established in 1890 with the basic objectives of carrying
out floristic surveys of the Indian empire. It was reviewed and reorganised in 1954. During the
successive plan periods its functions have been gradually expanded. After reorganisation and
establishment of 10 different regional centres throughout the country, the aims and objectives
of the Survey were redefined in 1976 with a view to encourage taxonomic research and to
accelerate the scientific expertise for the preparation of a comprehensive flora of the country.
The objectives and perspectives of BSI were thoroughly reviewed in 2002 by the subcommittee
constituted by Programme Advisory Committee for BSI & ZSI. Activities like survey and
exploration of plant resources, listing of endangered species, publication of national flora,
preparation of national Data Bank on herbarium and live collection, plant distribution and
nomenclaturewere strengthened.

History
The British East India Company had established botanical gardens at Sibpur, Poona,
Saharanpur and Madras as centres for improving botanical knowledge and experimentation
under the local Governments. For example, the Saharanpur botanical garden, which dates from
before 1750, was acquired by the East India Company in 1817 for growing medicinal plants.
Most of the EIC botanical gardens' work was for the cultivation of plants of interest in
commerce and trade.
The Botanical Survey was formally instituted on February 13, 1890 under the direction of Sir
George King, who had been superintendent of Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta since 1871.
King became the first ex-officio Director of BSI. The Calcutta Garden became the headquarters
of the Survey and was given regional responsibility for Bengal, Assam, North East, Burma, and
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Objective
The prime objectives of the Survey were:
 To undertake intensive floristic surveys and collect accurate and detailed information on
the occurrence, distribution, ecology and economic utility of plants in the country.
 To collect, identify and distribute materials which may be of use to educational and
research institutions and,
 To act as custodian of authentic collections in well planned herbaria and to document the
plant resources in the form of local, District, State and National Flora.

Research Center/ Circle

To cope up with this enormous task assigned to the Survey, the following 4 circles were

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 292

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

established after independence, in different Botanical regions to cover the vast stretches of the
country:
1. Botanical Survey of India, Southern Circle at Coimbatore on 10th October 1955.
2. Botanical Survey of India, Eastern Circle at Shillong on 1st April 1956.
3. Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle at Pune on 12th December 1955.
4. Botanical Survey of India, Northern Circle at Dehra Dun on 1st August 1956.
Simultaneously, a Central Botanical Laboratory at Lucknow was established in December,
1957 for studying the various aspects of plant biology like – cytology, plant physiology, plant
chemistry, seed biology, ecology, etc.- in order to provide multidisciplinary approach to
conventional taxonomy.
During the same year (1957), the Herbarium belonging to ―Royal Botanic Garden‖, Calcutta,
which was renamed as the ―Indian Botanic Garden‖ in 1950, was transferred to Botanical
Survey of India and soon this herbarium shot into fame as the ―Central National Herbarium‖
(CAL).
In order to further strengthen the Survey for carrying out its assigned mandate more effectively
and expeditiously, a number of new Circles in different phytogeographical regions were opened
as follows:-
1. Botanical Survey of India, Central Circle at Allahabad in 1962
2. Botanical Survey of India, Arid Zone Circle at Jodhpur in 1972
3. Botanical Survey of India, Andaman & Nicobar Circle at Port Blair in 1972
4. Botanical Survey of India, Arunachal Pradesh Circle at Itanagar in 1977
5. Botanical Survey of India, Sikkim Himalayan Circle at Gangtok in 1979
6. Botanic Garden of Indian Republic at Noida in 2002
7. Botanical Survey of India, Deccan Circle at Hyderabad in 2005

Mandate
During the successive five year plan periods, the functions of Botanical Survey of India were
further diversified to include various new areas such as assessment and inventorisation of
endemic, rare and threatened plant species; evolving conservation strategies; studies on fragile
ecosystems and protected areas like Sanctuaries, National Parks and Biosphere Reserves;
monitoring of changes in floristic components; ex-situ conservation, multiplication and
maintenance of germplasm of plant genetic resources, endemic and threatened species, wild
ornamentals, etc.; ethnobotanical and geobotanical studies and the development of National
Database on Herbarium (including Type specimens) live collections, plant genetic resources,
plant distribution and nomenclature. The aims and objective of the department were redefined,
reviewed during the year 1987 and survey and exploration of plant resources and
inventorisation of threatened species, publication of National and State Floras and development
of National database were given top priority.
After the ratification of the Convention on Biological Diversity by the Govt. of India in
February, 1994 a greater role for Botanical Survey of India was envisaged, particularly with

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 293

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

reference to the article – 7, 8, 12, 16 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

Following which the objectives and strategies of the Botanical Survey of India were further
diversified.
Following are the main functions of Botanical Survey of India:
Primary Functions
 Exploration, inventorisation and documentation of phytodiversity (including non-
flowering plants) in general and protected areas, hotspots, fragile ecosystems,
wetlands, sacred groves in particular; publication of National, State and District Floras.
 Identification of Red list species and species rich areas needing conservation; ex- situ
conservation of critically threatened taxa in the Botanical Gardens.
 Survey and documentation of traditional knowledge (ethnobotany) associated with
plants
 Develop a national database of Indian plants including herbarium specimens, live
specimens, Botanical paintings /illustrations etc.
Secondary Functions
 Revisionary/Monographic studies on selected plant groups.
 Qualitative analysis of nutritive value of ethno-food plants and other economicallyuseful
species.
 Capacity building in plant taxonomy through refresher courses and post M.Sc.
certificate course.
 Environmental Impact Assessment of areas assigned to BSI for study.
 Develop and maintain Botanical Gardens, Museum and Herbaria.
 Preparation of Seed, Pollen and Spore Atlas of Indian Plants.
 Recently, the Survey has also extended its activities to Antarctica from 16th
expedition (1996 – 97) onwards for the study of Bryophytes, Fungi and Algae (except
the blue-green).

11.7.2 Department of Biotechnology (DBT)

The setting up of a separate Department of Biotechnology (DBT), under the Ministry of
Science and Technology in 1986 gave a new impetus to the development of the field of modern
biology and biotechnology in India. In more than a decade of its existence, the department has
promoted and accelerated the pace of development of biotechnology in the country. Through
several Research & Development projects, demonstrations and creation of infrastructural
facilities a clear visible impact of this field has been seen. The department has made significant
achievements in the growth and application of biotechnology in the broad areas of agriculture,
health care, animal sciences, environment, and industry.
The impact of the biotechnology related developments in agriculture, health care, environment
and industry, has already been visible and the efforts are now culminating into products and
processes. More than 5000 research publications, 4000 post-doctoral students, several

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 294

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

technologies transferred to industries and patents filed including US patents, can be considered
as a modest beginning. Department of Biotechnology (DBT) has been interacting with more
than 5,000 scientists per year in order to utilize the existing expertise of the universities and
other national laboratories. A very strong peer reviewing and monitoring mechanism has been
developed. There has been close interaction with the State Governments particularly through
State S & T Councils for developing biotechnology application projects, demonstration of
proven technologies, and training of human resource in States and Union Territories.
Programmes with the states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal,
Haryana, Punjab, Jammu & Kashmir, Mizoram, Andhra Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh have been
evolved. Biotechnology Application Centres in Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal have already
been started.
A unique feature of the department has been the deep involvement of the scientific community
of the country through a number of technical task forces, advisory committees and individual
experts in identification, formulation, implementation and monitoring of various programmes
and activities.
In India, more than a decade of concerted effort in research and development in identified areas
of modern biology and biotechnology has given rich dividends. The proven technologies at the
laboratory level have been scaled up and demonstrated in field. Patenting of innovations,
technology transfer to industries and close interaction with them have given a new direction to
biotechnology research. Initiatives have been taken to promote transgenic research in plants
with emphasis on pest and disease resistance, nutritional quality, silk-worm genome analysis,
molecular biology of human genetic disorders, brain research, plant genome research,
development, validation and commercialization of diagnostic kits and vaccines for
communicable diseases, food biotechnology, biodiversity conservation and bioprospecting,
setting up of micropropagation parks and biotechnology based development for SC/ST, rural
areas, women and for different States. Necessary guidelines for transgenic plants, recombinant
vaccines and drugs have also been evolved. A strong base of indigenous capabilities has been
created. The field of biotechnology both for new innovations and applications would form a
major research and commercial endeavor for socio-economic development in the next
millennium.
Mandate
 Promote large scale use of Biotechnology
 Support R&D and manufacturing in Biology
 Responsibility for Autonomous Institutions
 Promote University and Industry Interaction
 Identify and Set up Centres of Excellence for R&D
 Integrated Programme for Human Resource Development
 To serve as Nodal Point for specific International Collaborations
 Establishment of Infrastructure Facilities to support R&D and production
 Evolve Bio Safety Guidelines, manufacture and application of cell based vaccines
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 295
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

 Serve as nodal point for the collection and dissemination of information relating to
biotechnology.
The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) since its inception has been working for the creation
of a strong and indigenous base of modern biology. Biotechnology has made incredible
progress in the last two decades all over the world. Rapid advances have been achieved in the
fields of recombinant DNA techniques, cell and tissue culture, immunology, enzymology,
bioprocess engineering and vaccinology. Availability of new biotechnological tools and
production of microbes, plants and animals with improved traits have opened up great
opportunities for better products and processes. These applications have great potential in
developing countries for providing opportunities for employment through value added
products, and for generation of non-polluting andenvironmentally friendly technologies.
Areas where biotechnology plays a significant role are agriculture, health, environment and
industry. In order to expedite field evaluation of technologies and products generated through
R&D efforts, DBT has evolved a system for contract research through which such programmes
will bring forth either a product or a new process in a time bound format for field testing and
subsequent large scale production. Special programmes have been launched for the welfare of
the poorer sections of society in terms of generation of employment and improvement in the
living standards, nutrition and health etc.

Manpower Development
The Department has formulated an Integrated Programme of Manpower Development to
generate a critical mass of well trained scientific personnel for the many biotechnological
research, teaching and industrial activities in the country. These include Post-Graduate
Teaching and Post-Doctoral Programme; Biotechnology Associateship (Overseas and
National); Short-term Training Courses for Mid-Career scientists and Industrial R & D
scientists; Technician Training and School Teachers Training Programmes; Programmes for
Biology Teaching in Schools. DBT scholarship in biology and schemes like biotechnology
publications, popular lectures by renowned scientists, support to seminar/symposia, film
production etc., aimed at the popularisation of biotechnology in the country, are in full flow.

Infrastructural Facilities
To provide scientists working in the field of biotechnology adequate assistance and support, the
Department had set up facilities such as, germplasm banks (microbial type culture collection,
blue green algal collection, marine cyanobacteria and plant tissue culture repository), animal
house facilities, biochemical engineering research and process development, genetic
engineering units, oligonucleotide synthesis etc. The animal house facilities at Central Drug
Research Institute, Lucknow and National Institute of Nutrition (NIN), Hyderabad have
supplied over two lakh laboratory animals of around 20 speciesto several scientists in the field
of biomedical research. The biomedical engineering research and process development facility
has a computer controlled fermentation system ranging 30 ltr to 1,500 ltr capacity. The

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 296

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

operational facilities are available to research personnel and industry to upgrade their processes
and products. The National Facility for Marine Cyanobacteria at Tiruchinapally, is developing
a technology for aquaculture feed and for the production of natural colorant. Genetic
Engineering Unit at MKU, Madurai has tied up with industries to work on several industrial
products.

Immunodiagnostics
A number of programmes have been adopted to develop simple, inexpensive but sensitive
diagnostic kits for early detection of a variety of communicable and non- communicable
diseases. The technology transfer of eight products that has taken place so far are amoebic liver
abscess, hepatitis-B, blood grouping, typhoid (blood test) pregnancy detection (all developed
by the National Institute of Immunology, an autonomous body under DBT), typhoid (urine test)
(developed by AIIMS, New Delhi) filariasis (developed by Mahatma Institute of Medical
Sciences, Wardha) and leishmaniasis (developed by CDRI, Lucknow), technology for diagnosis
of leishmaniasis in another format aspergillosis, a quantitative test for typhoid fever as well as
reproductive hormones are ready for transfer to industry.To accelerate the development of
immuno-diagnostics a pilot plant has been established at the National Institute of Immunology,
New Delhi. A recombinant DNA based AIDS detection kit with merely one drop of blood has
reached at an advanced stage of development.

Vaccine Production
The Department of Biotechnology has promoted a R&D cum manufacturing unit, Bharat
Immunologicals and Biological Cooperation Limited (BIBCOL) at Bulandshahr, Uttar Pradesh.
Manufacturing activities are divided into two phases, Phase I involving the formulation,
packaging and distribution from imported bulk of OPV and Phase II involving the indigenous
production of vaccine. Phase I has already been completed. Manufacturing licence has been
obtained from competent authorities.

Immunological Approaches to Fertility Control

A composite programme of Immunological Approaches to Fertility Control is being undertaken
in National Institute of Immunology (NII), New Delhi; Post Graduate Institute of Medical
Education and Research, Chandigarh; IISC, Bangalore; CDRI, Lucknow; Institute for Research
in Reproduction, Bombay and National Institute of Health and Family Welfare (NIH&FW),
New Delhi with the objective of developing safe, cost-effective, durable and reversible
contraceptive vaccines for controlling fertility in men and women. Two projects, one at Indian
Institute of Science, Bangalore and the other at Institute of Research in Reproduction, Bombay
have carried out research to demonstrate the termination of pregnancy by interrupting vitamin
carrier protein through antibodies.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 297

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Crop Biotechnology
Genetic engineering for gene isolation, transformation, transgenic plants and molecular maps
based on RFLP/RAPD are the emerging areas of research to facilitate agricultural productivity.
Consequently, the Department has made a concerted effort to support specific priority crops
like, rice, rape mustard, chickpea, pigeon pea and wheat by R&D projects and has also set up
six centres for plant molecular biology all over the country. Some of the important
achievements of these programmes are:
i. To improve the nutritional quality of cereals and to study the regulation of seed storage
protein gene, a gene encoding for a protein of high lysine and sulphur containing amino
acid from Amaranthus has been cloned and sequenced.
ii. Nuclear coded male sterile genetic lines as well as their restorers are under trial in
mustard.
iii. Two molecular marker technologies - RFLP and RAPD have been utilised for tagging
genes responsible for blast resistance in rice.
iv. Plant regeneration from mesophyll protoplast has been achieved.
v. Two multi-institutional projects on development of cotton and quality improvement of
wheat by molecule transgenic techniques were successfully launched.

Animal Biotechnology
The main areas of research in the sphere of animal biotechnology are embryo transfer
technology, health care and diagnostics, nutrition, genetic resource conservation, leather
biotechnology and development of bio-products. Research programmes in upstream areas of
embryo transfer technology (ETT) have been funded. Significant progress has been recorded in
the fields of in-vitro fertilization, in-vitro maturation, splitting and cloning of embryos.
Development of indigenous hormones and biological is another rapidly emerging potential area
of research. A major programme on down-stream activities of ETT, principally to take the
various technologies developed to the grass-root level, has been put into action. Diagnostics
and vaccines are being developed for animals including poultry. Projects involving genetic
resource conservation attempts to conserve invaluable indigenous breeds have also been
launched.

Aquaculture
Projects in the field of aquaculture revolve around feed development, production of transgenic
fish, extraction of bio-active compounds, cryopreservation of embryos and development of
disease diagnostics. A production of 8 to 10 tons in two crops per year has been demonstrated
in a semi-intensive system for tiger shrimp. Carp production upto 15 tonnes per hectare per
year has been demonstrated. A mission-mode programme on shrimp aquaculture under
different agroclimatic zones has been launched.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 298

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Biomass, Horticulture and Plantation Crops

Research and Development projects have commenced on selected forest tree species for
developing and standardizing protocols for plantlet regeneration using tissue culture techniques
from ex-plants collected from elite genotypes. Nationally important forest tree species requiring
immediate attention for development of tissue culture protocol have been identified as a priority
for conducting such studies during the Eighth Plan.
Protocols have been standardized for plantlet regeneration via tissue culture technology for
Eucalyptus camaldulensis, E. tereticornis, Dendrocalamus strictus, Tectona grandis, Bambusa
tulda, Populus deltoides and Anogeissus pendula. These protocols have now been adopted for
large scale production. Research programmes have been initiated on horticulture and plantation
crops of economic importance - mango, citrus, banana, tea, coffee, rubber, cashew and spices.
Protocols have been developed for pepper, rubber and cocoa. Large scale production of elite
forest trees is under process at the Culture Pilot Plant units at NCL, Pune and TERI, New
Delhi. Approximately 6.67 lakh plantlets have been produced, of which five lakh have been
field planted covering an area of 150 ha in nine different states. Preliminary field data collected
indicates an initial survival of 90-95per cent.

Biological Control of Plant Pests, Diseases and Weeds

The biocontrol network programme is under implementation with 29 research and development
projects at various institutions/universities throughout the country for the control of serious
insects, pests and diseases affecting cotton, sugarcane, pulses, oilseeds and vegetables. The
principal objective has been achieved by laying greater emphasis on development of better
formulations and cost effective commercially viable pilot scale technology for the production
of biocontrol agents to be used under IPM of key pests and diseases. The target of 11.600 ha
has been crossed in the fields of cotton, chickpea, sugarcane, tobacco, oilseeds and vegetables.
With a view to promote commercialisation of biopesticides, two biocontrol pilot plants (BCPP)
have been set up at two centres, TNAU and MKU. Each BCPP aims to produce sufficient
quantity of biocontrol agents to cater to the requirements of 10,000 ha of chickpea, groundnut,
cotton, sunflower, tobacco, castor, sugarcane, blackgram and green gram. The targets of the
BCPPs have been achieved as per schedule. Sufficient quantities of Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus
(NPV) of Helicoverpa armigera, Spodoptera litura, Granulo viruses (GV) of Chilo
infuscatellus, Trichogramma, Trichoderma have been produced to cover an area of 18,000 ha
in the fields of the crops mentioned above. These two BCPPs serve as a model unit for private
entrepreneurs taking up such a venture. The Department also supports some projects on
breeding varieties resistant to biotic stresses through biotechnology in crops such as chickpea,
sugarcane, rice and tobacco.
For popularising biopesticides and ensuring their large scale adaptation by the farmers, the
Department arranged field days, workshops-cum-farmers mela under the Biocontrol Network
Programme. During 1994-95, 10 more production units were set up in several states.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 299

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Biofertilizers
The project on Technology Development and Demonstration of Biofertilizers has resulted in
technology packages like polyalkene bioreactor designs to optimise the biomass production of
blue green algae, specific media components, their concentration and simple bioassay method
and 136 tonnes of high quality soil based innoculum was produced.

Biotechnology Information System

A national network of distributed information centres (DICs) and distributed information sub-
centres (DISCs) in specialized areas of Biotechnology under its Biotechnology Information
System (BTIS) Programme has been set up. The network provides a complete information
source on a) genetic material as hard data. (eg. protein and nucleic acid sequences, gene bank
etc.); b) soft information (eg. bibliographic reference through CDROM etc.) and management
information. Ten distributed information centres and 23 distributed information sub-centres in
selected areas have been established under this system to meet the end user's information
requirements. These centres are equipped with international networks like Internet, bitnet,
ICGEB net etc., for accessing several biological information resources.

Industrial Biotechnology
Steps are being taken to develop products and processes with specific need based inputs in
order to transform semi-finished R&D results into industrially usable products. The Task Force
on Industrial Biotechnology helps in identifying such projects. At present, 30 product oriented
projects are in operation which include development of diagnostic kits, liposome intercalated
drug delivery system, biotechnological methods for enrichment of ores, gathering field data on
efficacies of bio-pesticides, gene cloning and gene expression of epidermal growth factor in
E.coli, optimisation of process parameters for the production of enzymes and carbohydrates,
standardization of production process for edible mushrooms and process development of high
fructose syrup. The areas of development include agriculture, forestry, human and animal
health, as well as industrial products.
The Biotech Consortium India Limited (BVIL) has played a crucial role in bridging the gap
between R&D industrial and financial institutions. A new programme, Farmers Agricultural
Resource Management (FARM), a UNDP-FAO-UNIDO supported activity, was implemented.
DBT will coordinate the Asian Biodiversity and Biotechnology Sub- Programme.

International Collaboration
International research and development cooperation progammes have been signed with
Germany, Switzerland, USA, UK, Sweden and Russia. A programme of cooperation in
biotechnology has been developed among the members of SAARC countries in the fields of
health care, agriculture, animal sciences and environment. India has also been handed the
overall responsibility for coordinating the activities of the G-15 nations for the establishment of
gene banks for medicinal and aromatic plants. Under the aegis of this programme, a network of

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 300

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

three national gene banks at Tropical Botanical Garden and research Institute,
Thiruvananthapuram; Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow; and
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi have been set up for the conservation
of medicinal and aromatic plants.

Autonomous Institutions
The Department of Biotechnology has set up two autonomous institutions, National Institute of
Immunology (NII), New Delhi and National Facilities for Animal Tissue and Cell Culture
(NFATCC), Pune.
NII has been working on the mechanisms of the immune system so as to work out
comprehensive solutions to a plethora of health problems. Till now the focus has been on the
control of fertility and the diagnosis and control of communicable diseases. The main areas of
research are birth control vaccines; vaccine for communicable diseases; immunodiagnostics kit
development along with DNA probe for communicable diseases; drug delivery system to
deliver all doses of vaccine at a single point; animal related biotechnology for reproduction of
genetically superior animals of economic value; predetermination of sex of embryos;
preservation of genes of rare species of animals; aquaculture biotechnology; induced breeding
of major Indian crops; transgenic animals and recombinant products. So far, the Institute has
delivered eight products to the industry.
Since its inception, the NFATCC has been actively involved in cell repository and supplyof cell
lines. The principal objectives of the Facility are to identify, maintain, store, propagate and
supply of human and animal cell lines, establishment of technology for collection, maintenance
and supply of various human organs like cornea, skin and bone marrow. Presently, the Facility
holds a stock of 1,500 different cell lines. The technology that maintains human cornea for an
extended period has been standardized and the procedures for preservation of heart valves are
being developed. The Facility has successfully developed cell culture from human foetal
tissues. Studies on screening anti-malarials against chloroquine resistant malaria parasite strains
have been carried out. The cell biology laboratory is functional to screen anti-cancer drugs
using cell lines. The technology for maintenance and cultivation of skin as organ culture and
3D epithelia from human keratinocytes and its subsequent grafting to burns, nevi and
vitiligo cases has been standardised and the results are promising. Newer approaches towards
cryopreservation of tissues are being developed at the institute.

11.7.3 Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI)

Agriculture in India is the means of livelihood of almost two thirds of the workforce in the
country. It employs nearly 62% of the country‘s total population and occupies 42% of its total
geographical area. From a nation dependent on food imports to feed its population, India today
is not only self-sufficient in grain production, but also has a substantial reserve. The progress
made by agriculture in the last four decades has been one of the biggest success stories of free
India. Agriculture and allied activities constitute one of the main contributors to the Gross
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 301
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Domestic Product of the nation. The increase in agricultural production has been brought about
by bringing additional area under cultivation, extension of irrigation facilities, the use of seed
of improved high yielding varieties, better production technologies evolved through agricultural
research, water management, and plant protection through judicious use of fertilizers, pesticides
and cropping practices.
The Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), a centenarian, is the country‟s premier
national Institute for agricultural research, education and extension. It has served the country by
developing appropriate technologies through basic, strategic and need-based research resulting
in crop improvement and agricultural productivity in harmony with the environment leading to
the Green Revolution and served as a centre for academic excellence in the area of postgraduate
education and human resource development in agricultural sciences.
Originally established in 1905 at Pusa (Bihar) with the financial assistance of an American
Philanthropist, Mr Henry Phipps, the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) started
functioning from New Delhi since 1936 when it was shifted to its present site after a major
earthquake damaged the Institute‘s building at Pusa (Bihar). The institute‘s popular name
―Pusa Institute‖ traces its origin to the establishment of the Institute at Pusa.
The Indian Agricultural Research Institute is the country‘s premier national Institute for
agricultural research, education and extension. It has the status of a ―Deemed-to-be-
University‖ under the UGC Act of 1956, and awards M. Sc. and Ph. D. degrees in various
agricultural disciplines.
The growth of India‘s agriculture during the past 100 years is closely linked with the researches
done and technologies generated by the Institute. The Green Revolution stemmed from the
fields of IARI. Development of high yielding varieties of all major crops which occupy vast
areas throughout the country, generation and standardization of their production techniques,
integrated pest management and integrated soil-water- nutrient management have been the
hallmarks of the Institute‘s research. The Institute has researched and developed a large
number of agrochemicals which have been patented and licensed and are being widely used in
the country. Over the years, IARI has excelled as a centre of higher education and training in
agricultural sciences at national and international levels.

Function
The Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) is India's premier institution in the field of
agricultural research, higher education in agriculture (post-graduate programme) and extension
education. The primary functions of the Institute are
i. Basic and applied research in the various branches of agricultural sciences,
ii. Teaching at the post-graduate level and organisation of special short-term training
programmes in several aspects of agricultural sciences, both at the national and
international levels and,
iii. Extension advisory work for improving farm productivity and socio-economic
conditions of the farming community.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 302

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Mandate
To realize the mission laid down by the Institute, i.e., to explore new frontiers of science and
knowledge, to develop human resources and policy guidance to create a vibrant, responsive and
resilient agriculture, the mandate of the institute is as follows:
 To conduct basic and strategic research with a view to understanding the processes, in all
their complexity, and to undertake need-based research that leads to crop
improvement and sustained agricultural productivity in harmony with the environment.
 To serve as a centre for academic excellence in the area of post-graduate education and
human resources development in agricultural sciences.
 To provide national leadership in agricultural research, extension, and technology
assessment and transfer by developing new concepts and approaches and serving as a
national referral point for quality and standards.
 To develop information systems, add value to information, share the information nationally
and internationally, and serve as a national agricultural library and database.

Growth
IARI is India premier national institute for research and higher education in agricultural
sciences. The Institute received the status of a ―Deemed University‖ in 1958 under the UGC
Act of 1956 and was empowered to award M. Sc. and Ph.D. degrees. Headquartered at New
Delhi, it is the largest and most prestigious of the research institutes financed and administered
by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).
The administrative and technical head of IARI is its Director. The Board of Management, with
the Director as its chairman, served by four councils, namely, Research Advisory Council,
Academic Council, Extension Council and Executive Council, provides the overall
management direction. The Director is assisted by a Joint Director (Research), a Dean & Joint
Director (Education) and a Joint Director (Extension) who is equivalent to the Directors of
ICAR institutes, which are not deemed universities. A Joint Director (Administration) looks
after the day-to-day administrative work. The Chief Finance and Accounts Officer has overall
charge of the audit and accounts matters.

Centers
Presently the research, education, and extension activities of the Institute are carried out
through a network of 20 discipline-based divisions, 5 multidisciplinary centers situated in Delhi,
8 regional stations, 2 off-season nurseries, 10 centers of All India Coordinated Research
Projects and a common set of service units. The Institute also serves as the headquarters of 3
All India Coordinated Research Projects. In addition, some of the institutes like National
Research Centre on Plant Biotechnology, NCIPM and Directorate of Maize Research are
located in the campus.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 303

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

11.7.4 The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR)

The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources has its Headquarters at New Delhi, located at
latitude of 28° 35‟ N, longitude of 70° 18‟ E and an altitude of 226 m above mean sea level.
NBPGR functions under the administrative control of the Crop Science Division of the ICAR.
The Bureau draws guidelines from the Crop Science Division of ICAR, Bureau‘s Management
Committee, Research Advisory Committee and Germplasm Advisory Committees.
The Bureau has four Divisions, two units, three cells and an experimental farm at its
Headquarters in New Delhi and 10 regional/ base stations located in different phyto-
geographical zones of India. Besides this, a National Research Centre on DNA fingerprinting
and an All India Coordinated Research Project on Under-utilized Crops are also located at the
Bureau.
Plant Exploration and Collection Division has the objectives to plan, coordinate and conduct
explorations for collecting germplasm. Germplasm Evaluation Division is entrusted with the
prime responsibility of characterization and evaluation of all the indigenous and exotic
germplasm collections for their field performance and other important traits like resistance to
biotic/ abiotic stresses and phytochemical attributes along with maintenance and regeneration.
This division has an experimental farm located at Issapur about 45 km from the main campus
covering an area of 40 ha. Germplasm Conservation Division is vested with the task of
conservation of germplasm of various crop plants, and to undertake basic research on various
aspects of seed storage and longevity. Plant Quarantine Division has the power vested by Plant
Protection Advisor to the Government of India, under the Plant Quarantine (Regulation of
Import into India) Order 2003 under the Destructive Insects and Pests Act (1914), to carry out
quarantine of the plant germplasm imported for research purposes. It also undertakes the
quarantine of material under export and issues the phytosanitary certificate. Germplasm
Exchange Unit has the responsibility of introducing genetic resources of diverse crop plants and
their wild relatives and distributing the same within the country, and also exports the
germplasm. There is also a Tissue Culture and Cryopreservation Unit, with the main objective
to conserve economic plants, for which conventional methods of storage are unsuccessful or
inadequate, through in vitro and cryopreservation techniques. In addition, the Bureau has three
cells, namely PGR Policy, Agriculture Research Information System and Technical Cell.
The NRCDF has facilities for molecular fingerprinting of released varieties and genetic stocks
of crop plants of India. It has the objectives of standardization of molecular marker systems for
DNA profiling and their application in variety identification. The NBPGR Headquarters, along
with the network of 11 regional /base/ satellite stations covering different agro-climatic regions,
and the linkages with 59 National Active Germplasm Sites constitute the Indian Plant Genetic
Resource Management System.

Mandate
To act as nodal institute at national level for acquisition and management of indigenous and
exotic plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, and to carry out related research and
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 304
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

human resource development, for sustainable growth of agriculture.

Objectives of NBPGR
 To plan, organize, conduct and coordinate exploration and collection of indigenous
and exotic plant genetic resources.
 To undertake introduction, exchange and quarantine of plant genetic resources.
 To characterize, evaluate, document and conserve crop genetic resources and promote
their use, in collaboration with other national organizations.
 To develop information network on plant genetic resources.
 To conduct research, undertake teaching and training, develop guidelines and create
public awareness on plant genetic resources.

Regional station of NBPGR

1) Regional Station, Akola
The Regional Station was established at Akola in 1977 to cater to the needs of Plant Genetic
Resources activities in central-peninsular India, especially Maharashtra, Goa, Daman and Diu
and parts of Southern districts of Madhya Pradesh and parts of northern Karnataka. This region
is a vast plateau comprising hilly tract of Satpura, Gawilgarh and Maikala ranges, plain cotton
belt of erstwhile Berar, undulating Western Ghats and coastal regions (now referred to as
Central Indian Region, Zone IX under NATP-PB). The experimental farm of 20 hactares is
located in university campus. Amravati centre now is working as satellite centre of Akola
station.

2) Regional Station, Bhowali

The Regional Station was initially established at Almora as an exploration base centre for
germplasm collection activities in Kumaon and Garhwal hills. Mandate area of the regional
station is now referred to at Central Himalayan Region, Zone V under NATP- PB). The centre
was shifted to Bhowali in April 1986 and designates NBPGR Regional Station when Wheat
Research Station (of Vivekanand Parvatiya Krishi Anushandhan Shala VPKAS) was merged
with it. Earlier to shifting, this station has a long history. The Imperial Potato Research Station
established in 1943, for potato seed multiplication and brown rot (Pseudomonas solanacearum)
test was known as hot spot for the development of plant diseases. In 1956, with the
commencement of wheat improvement scheme under PL-480, it was transferred to Indian
Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) and name was changed as Wheat Research Station,
Bhowali. In 1984 it was again transferred to VPKAS, till shifted NBPGR. Year of
establishment: 1986.

3) Exploration Base Center, Cuttack

This Base Centre was established in the campus of Central Rice Research Institute with the

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 305

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

objective of exploration and collection of indigenous crops from Orissa, West Bengal and
adjoining areas in parts of Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh (now referred to as Humid/Moist
Tropical East Coastal Region, Zone III under NATP-PB). Climatically, the area is sub-humid to
humid in eastern and south-eastern plains. Northern plateau is an extension of Chhotanagpur
plateau and spreads upto Mayurbhanj and Keonjhar districts and districts of Ganjam,
Kalahandi, Phulbani and Koraput in the southern portion. The whole area is potential for
collecting. Year of establishment: 1986

4) Regional Station, Hyderabad

This Regional Station was established initially as Plant Quarantine Station in ARI campus of
Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural University at Rajendranagar, Hyderabad to cater to the needs
of Plant Quarantine clearance work particularly on five mandate crops of ICRISAT and paddy
international trial material received from IRRI, Philippines meant for research organizations in
south India. A modest beginning was made in 1977, by taking possession of 16 acres of land
that was provided by the University. Central Plant Protection and Trainging Institute in
collaboration with Directorate of Rice Research were authorized to take up the plant quarantine
clearance work until the establishment of PQRS of NBPGR in 1985.

5) Regional Station, Jodhpur

This Regional Station was established in 1965 as a sub-station of erstwhile Plant Introduction
Division of Indian Agricultural Research Institute in the campus of Central Arid Zone Research
Institute at Jodhpur, Rajasthan (now referred to as Arid Region, Zone I under NATP-PB). The
main task assigned was to acclimatize the genetic resources of tropical plants procured from
abroad on a systematic basis and to collect the indigenous germplasm suited to arid/semi-arid
conditions. With the creation of NBPGR in 1976, the substation was transferred to it. It has a
farm area of about 6 ha with irrigation facility. The station is entrusted with the responsibility
to carry out Plant Genetic Resources (PGR) activities in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat
and adjoiningareas in Haryana.

6) Regional Station, Shillong

This Regional Station was established in 1978 as the northeastern region of India at Shillong,
Meghalaya representing the humid, subtropical to sub temperate ecology and climate. It is
surrounded by Tibet, China in the north, Bangladesh in southwest, Myanmar in the east and
Bhutan and Nepal in the north-west. The jurisdiction of this station for collection activities
encompass all the eight states, namely, Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Nagaland, Tripura,
Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram (now referred to as Northeastern Region, Zone IV
under NATP-PB). The station was under the administrative control of ICAR Research
complex for NEH region for some period (Feburary 1983 to September 1985). Since 1986
it is again under administrative control of NBPGR. The office cum laboratory building and
experimental farm at Umiam (1000m altitude) in district Ribohi are situated 20kms away from

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 306

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Shillong City.

7) Exploration Base Center, Ranchi

This Base centre was established in 1988 to carry out systematic exploration for germplasm
collection in the states of Bihar, parts of Jharkhand and adjoining areas in Uttar Pradesh and
West Bengal (now referred to as Sub-tropical/sub-humid Region, Zone V under NATP-PB).
The tribal belt of Chhotanagpur and adjoining region is a potential area for germplasm
collection. It is fast developing as a centre for evaluation and maintenance of germplasm of
tropical fruits and other field crops suited to the region.

8) Regional Station, Shimla

This Regional Station was established as Plant Introduction Station under Botany Division of
IARI in 1960. Since 1976, it came under the control of NBPGR. Apart from the office building
and laboratories, it has 7 hectares of farmland. The station has the major responsibility for the
conservation and management of plant genetic resources of western Himalayas comprising
Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir (now referred to as Northwest sub-Himalayan and
high attitude Himalayan Region, Zone VI under NATP-PB). A field genebank of temperate
fruits and newly introduced fruit plants, and largest germplasm collection of french bean,
amaranth, buckwheat is being maintained at the station. The station has also a facility of
medium-term storage for conserving orthodox seeds where seeds can be stored up 12-15 years
without losing viability. This station also acts as National Active Germplasm Site (NAGs) for
amaranth, french bean, buckwheat and temperate fruits. It has strong linkages with State
Agriculture Universities of Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir as well as Himachal
Pradesh University, Shimla.

9) Regional Station, Srinagar

This Regional Station was established in 1988 to carry out systematic exploration for
germplasm collection in Jammu and Kashmir. This area has a potential for the collection of
temperate fruits, vegetables, rice, millets, medicinal and aromatic plants and temperate tribal
food.

10) NBPGR Regional Station, Thrissur, Kerala

This station was established in 1977 in the Kerala Agricultural University campus near
Pineapple Research Station on the Mannuthy-Chirakkakode road with a farm area of 10.4 ha.
Thrissur is well connected by road, rail and air. Nearest airport is Kochi International Airport at
Nedumbassery (60 km). The area of jurisdiction for exploration and collection by the station is
southern India comprising Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, Goa and Andaman &
Nicobar Islands.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 307

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

11.7.5 Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)

The Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR) is the premier industrial research and
development (R&D) organization in India. It was founded on 26 September 1942, by a
resolution of the then Central Legislative Assembly. It is funded mainly by the India Ministry of
Science and Technology and it is one of the world‘s largest publicly funded (R&D)
organisations, having linkages to academia, other R&D organisations and industry.
Although CSIR is mainly funded by Science and Technology Ministry, it operates as an
autonomous body registered under the Registration of Societies Act of 1860. The R & D
activities of CSIR include various fields such as aerospace engineering, structural engineering,
ocean sciences, molecular biology, metallurgy, chemicals, mining, food, petroleum, leather,
and environment.
Presently Dr. (Mrs.) N. Kalaiselvi is the first woman Director-General of CSIR since August
065, 2022.

CSIR Achievements
 Achieved the first breakthrough of flowering of Bamboo within weeks as against
twenty years in nature.
 First to analyze genetic diversity of the indigenous tribes of Andaman and toestablish their
origin out of Africa 60,000 years ago.
 Developed the first transgenic Drosophila model for drug screening for HumanCancer.
 First to introduce DNA fingerprinting in India.
 Helped India to be the first Pioneer Investor under the UN law of Sea Treaty.
 Invented the first ever only once a week non-steroidal family planning pill in theworld
by the name of Saheli.
 Designed India's first ever parallel processing computer Flosolver.
 Partnered more than 50,000 companies with turnover ranging from Rs 5 lakhs to Rs
500,000 crores.
 Rejuvenated India's one hundred year old refinery at Digboi using the most modern
molecular distillation technology.
 Provided the critical technology for the NMP Lube Extraction Plant of capacity of
2,50,000 tonnes per year.
 Development of a versatile portable PC-based software ‗Bio-Suite‘ for bioinformatics.
 Design of 14 seater plane 'SARAS'.
 Established first ever in the world 'Traditional Knowledge Digital Library' accessiblein 8
international languages.
 Remained in Top 3 in the list of PCT patent applications amongst all developing
countries.
 Topped list of USA patents holders.
 Successfully challenged the grant of patent in the USA for use of haldi (turmeric) for

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 308

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

wound healing and neem as insecticide.

Research Laboratories under CSIR

 C-MMACS - CSIR Centre for Mathematical Modelling and Computer Simulation,
Bangalore
 CBRI - Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee
 CCMB- Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad
 CDRI - Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow
 CECRI- Central Electro Chemical Research Institute, Karaikudi
 CEERI - Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute, Pilani
 CFRI - Central Fuel Research Institute, Dhanbad
 CFTRI - Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore
 CGCRI - Central Glass and Ceramic research Institute, Calcutta
 CIMAP - Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow
 CLRI - Central Leather Research Institute, Chennai
 CMERI - Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute, Durgapur
 CMRI - Central Mining Research Institute, Dhanbad
 CRRI - Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi
 CSIO - Central Scientific Instruments Organisation, Chandigarh
 CSMCRI - Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar
 IGIB - Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, Delhi
 IHBT - Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology, Palampur
 IICB - Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Calcutta
 IICT - Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad
 IIP - Indian Institute of Petroleum, Dehradun
 IMT - Institute of Microbial Technology, Chandigarh
 IITR - Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow (Formerly known as
Industrial Toxicology Research Centre)
 NAL - National Aerospace Laboratories, Bangalore
 NBRI - National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow
 NCL - National Chemical Laboratory, Pune
 NEERI - National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur
 NGRI - National Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderabad
 NIO - National Institute of Oceanography, Goa
 NISCAIR – National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources,
New Delhi
 NISTADS - National Institute of Science, Technology and Development Studies,
New Delhi

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 309

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

 NML - National Mettalurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur

 NPL - National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi
 RRL, Bhopal - Regional Research Laboratory, Bhopal
 RRL, Bhubaneshwar - Regional Research Laboratory, Bhubaneshwar
 RRL, Jammu - Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu
 NEIST (RRL), Jorhat - North East Institute of Science and Technology, Jorhat,
Jorhat
 NIIST- National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology-
Thiruvananthapuram
 SERC - Structural Engineering Research Centre, Chennai

11.8 SUMMARY

After going through this unit, you would have achieved the objectives stated earlier in the unit.
Let us recall what we have discussed so far.
 India is one of the 12-megadiversity countries in the world. Around 1,27,000 species of
microorganisms, plants and animals have been described in the country till date.
 India has had a long history of conservation and sustainable use of natural resources.
National strategies and plans for the conservation, sustainable and equitable use of
biological diversity are rooted in the long and rich spiritual and cultural traditions of the
country.
 Institutionalized ex-situ conservation of biological diversity in India started with the
establishment of Botanic and Zoological Gardens.
 India has a number of gene banks for the ex-situ conservation for plants and animals.
 Systemic surveys of flora and fauna of the country covering all the ecosystems started with
the establishment of Botanical Survey of India in 1890 and the Zoological Survey of India
in 1916.
 Institutional support in the assessment of biological diversity in, little known agricultural
crops & their wild relatives, and floristic surveys are provided by BSI, IARI and NBPGR.
 CSIR and DBT have involved in conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants,
industries development in the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity.
 India has taken important steps in developing new strategies and further strengthening the
existing strategies for effective conservation and sustainable use of its biological diversity.
Various systems and approaches for the conservation and sustainable use of biological
diversity have been evolved by Government, Non- Government Organizations and local
communities.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 310

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

11.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

11.9.1 Multiple choice questions

1. Largest Botanical Garden in India is in
a) Kanpur b) Lucknow
c) Mumbai d) Calcutta

2. NBPGR, is a institute of …………..

a) DBT b) ICMR
c) ICAR d) CSIR

3. Which are two ways or modes of Ex-situ conservation?

a) Conventional and non-conventional b) Conventional and Biotechnological
c) Biotechnological and Bioinformatics d) None of the above

4. Which are the conventional methods of Ex-situ conservation?

a) Gene banks b) Community seed banks
c) Botanical Gardens d) All of the above

5. CIMAP, Lucknow is an institute of …………..

a) DBT b) CSIR
c) ICAR d) ICMR

6. Cryopreservation is done at temperature

a) -140C b) -193C
c) -196C d) -180C

7. An ex-situ conservation method for endangered species is –

a) National Parks b) Biosphere reserves
c) Wildlife sanctuaries d) Cryopreservation

8. Most active centre of biodiversity studies in India is :

a) Chennai b) New Delhi
c) Allahabad d) Varanasi

11.9.2 Fill in the blanks

a) IBP stands for…………………………………………..
b) Silent valley, which contains vary rare species of plants and animals is in…………..
c) CITES protects the trade in endangered species at …………………. Level.
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 311
PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

d) Department of Biotechnology (DBT), came under the Ministry of…………………

e) India has a number of gene banks for the……………conservation for plants and animals.

Answer key:
11.9.1: 1-(d); 2-(c); 3-(b); 4-(d); 5-(b); 6-(c); 7-(d); 8-(b);
11.9.2: a) International Biological Programme; b) Kerala; c) International; d) Science and
Technology; e) Ex-situ

11.10 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

 Alfred JRB (1990). Taxonomy in Environment and Biology. Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta, India.
 Alfred JRB, Darlong VT, & Sati JP (1989). Wildlife Conservation in North-East India:
Problems and Realities. Exposure 21: 11-17.
 Arora GS and Julka JM (1994). Status Report on Biodiversity Conservation: Western
Himalayan Ecosystem. IIPA, New Delhi.
 Cohen JI et al., (1991). Ex-situ Conservation of Plant Genetic Resources : Global
Development and Environmental Concern. Science 253: 866-872.
 Connors PG (1994). Rediscovery of showy Indian clover. Fremontia 22: 3–7.
 Engels JMM and Visser L (2003). A Guide to Effective Management of Germplasm
Collections. CABI, IFPRI, IPGRI, SGRP. 174 p.
 Government of India (1994). Conservation of Biological Diversity in India: An Approach.
MoEF, GOI, New Delhi pp 48.
 Kameswara N, Hanson J, Dulloo ME, Ghosh K, Nowell A and Larinde M (2006). Manual
of Seed Handling in Genebanks. Bioversity International, CTA (Technical Center for
Agricultural and Rural Cooperation), FAO, ILRI..
 Klemn C (1993). Biological Diversity, Conservation and Law. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
 Koo B, Pardey PG and Wright BD (2004). Saving Seeds. CABI, IFPRI, IPGRI, SGRP.
 Pant DD (1999). Biodiversity Conservation and Evolution of Plants. Current Science 76:
21-23.
 Singh JS (1992). Restoration of Degraded Land: Concept and Strategies. Rastogi
Publication, Meerut, India.
 US Fish and Wildlife Service, Arcata Division, 1655 Heindon Road, Arcata, Ca.
 Veeresh GK, Rajagopal D and Viraktamath CA (1989). Advances in Management and
Conservation of Soil Fauna. Oxford & IBH, New Delhi.
 Wilson EO (1988). The current state of Biological Diversity. In : Biodiversity. National
Academy Press, Washington DC pp. 3-5.
 World Conservation Monitoring Center (1992). Global Biodiversity: Status of Earth’s

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 312

PLANT RESOURCE UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION MSCBOT-603

Living Resources. Chapman and Hall, London.

 World Conservation Monitoring Center (1993). Global Biodiversity. Chapman and Hall,
London.
 World Resources Institute (1992). World Resources, 1992-93. Oxford University Press,
New York.

11.11 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

11.11.1 Short Answer Type Questions

1- Define NBPGR and its role in ex-situ conservation
2- Write short notes on CSIR and IARI.
3- Write a note on in-vitro storage of germplasm and cryopreservation.
4- Describe in brief about Field Gene Bank (FGB)
5- Write a short note on DBT

11.11.2 Long Answer Type Questions

1- What is ex-situ conservation? Discuss about conventional methods of ex-situ conservation.
2- What are advantages of ex-situ conservation? Explain about biotechnological methods of ex-
situ conservation.
3- Give a detailed account on principles and practices of ex-situ conservation.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 313