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BIOLOGY FIITJEE CHENNAI CENTRE

Class Learning Improvement Program

(CLIP) Sheet with Extra Notes
Excretory Products And their
elimination
Excretory system of human consists of the following parts :

1. Kidneys (two)
2. Ureters (two)
3. Urinary bladder (one)
4. Urethra (one)

 Kidneys

These are bean-shaped, chocolate brown structures lying in the abdomen,

one on each side of the vertebral column just below the diaphragm. The left
kidney is placed a little higher than the right kidney (but reverse in rabbit).
Concavity of kidney called hilum or hilus is always inwardly directed. These
form the urine and. control osmotic pressure within the organism with
respect to external Environment.
The excretory system of human consists of a pair of kidneys, two ureters, a
urinary bladder and a urethra. The diagrammatic view of human excretory
system showing its different parts is given below:
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The functions and structure of kidney, with its different parts and their
organisation is given in the figure below:
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 Structure of NephronIt is the structural and functional unit of kidney.

These are also called as renal tubules or uriniferous tubules. There
are about one million nephrons in each kidney. Each nephron is about
6 cm long.

It is differentiated into four regions :

 Bowman’s Capsule
It is double walled cup and is lined by thin flat cells called podocytes.
It contains group of capillaries called glomerulus. Glomerulus in the
kidney acts as a dialysing bag.
 Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)
It is highly coiled (convoluted) tubular structure. It is about 12-24 mm
in length.
Almost whole of vitamins, glucose, amino acids, sodium and
potassium, etc., are reabsorbed by active transport.
 Henle’s Loop
It is U-shaped segment. Loop of Henle is long in mammals and birds,
which secrete hypertonic urine, but short in other vertebrates like
reptiles, etc.
 Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)
It is connected to the collecting duct. Active reabsorption of some Na+
takes place. It is impermeable to H20. The DCTs of many nephrons
open into a straight tube called collecting duct, where large amounts
of water could be reabsorbed.
 Ureters

Two narrow tubes arising from the hilum are called ureters. Each of which
is about 30 cm in length. These bring the urine downwards and open into
urinary bladder. ‘

 Urinary Bladder
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Each ureter opens in urinary bladder, It temporarily stores the urine. It can
hold about 0.5-1.0 L of urine. It is absent in birds. In both reptiles and birds,
ureters and rectum open into a common sac called cloaca.

 Urethra

It is a muscular and tubular structure, which extends from neck of bladder

to outside. In females, this tube is small and serves as a passage of urine
only. In males, it is long and functions as a common passage for urine and
spermatic fluids

Urine Formation

Urine is formed by mechanism of glomerular filtration, reabsorption and

secretion as described below:

 Glomerular Filtration

The glomerular capillary blood pressure causes filtration of blood through

three layers, i.e. the endothelium of glomerular blood vessels, the
epithelium of Bowman’s capsule and a basement membrane between
these two layers.
The epithelial cells of Bowman’s capsule called podocytes are arranged in
an intricate manner so as to leave some minute spaces called filtration slits
or slit pores. Blood is filtered very finely through these membranes, so also
considered as ultrafiltration.
The amount of the filtrate formed by the kidneys per minute is called
Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR), i.e. 125 mL/min, i.e. 180 L/day. Juxta-
Glomerular Apparatus (JGA) is a sensitive region formed by cellular
modifications in the distal convoluted tubule and the afferent arteriole.
A fall in GFR can activate the JG cells to release renin, which can stimulate
the glomerular blood flow and thereby the GFR back to normal.
The net driving force, which is responsible for ultrafiltration through
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glomerular blood capillaries and Bowman’s capsule is provided by the

difference between hydrostatic pressure at which the blood enters the
glomerulus and the sum of those pressure which resist the hydrostatic
pressure called Glomerular Filtration Pressure (GFP).

About 99% of the filtrate is usually reabsorbed by the renal tubules. This is
called reabsorption. The tubular epithelial cells in nephron carryout this by
passive or active mechanisms, e.g. glucose, amino acids, Na+, etc., are
reabsorbed actively while nitrogenous wastes are absorbed by passive
transport.

 Secretion

Tubular secretion is opposite to tubular reabsorption. Most substances that

enter the tubule by tubular secretion move by active transport.
It plays a minor role in function of human kidneys but in animals like marine
fishes and desert amphibians, whose nephrons do not have developed
glomeruli. Their urine formed is maintained by the tubular secretion of urea,
creatinine and mineral ions.

Composition of Urine

It is pale yellow coloured fluid due to the presence of urochrome pigment. It

is acidic (average pH 6.0) in nature and is slightly heavier than water. It has
a faint aromatic odour due to urinod. Daily urine output in normal adult is
1.5-1.8 L Water is 95-96%, urea is 2%, salt is 2% (NaCl, chloride) and
some other substances like uric acid, creatinine, etc., are 0.4%.
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Osmoregulation and Regulation of Kidney Functions

 In humans, the kidneys play an important role in osmoregulation.

 Osmotic pressure of the blood influences many cellular activities,
therefore, the amount of H20 in the body fluids must be regulated. In
case, the volume of body fluids falls below the normal, glomerular
filtration slows down due to decrease in blood pressure and filtration
pressure in the glomerular capillaries. This stimulates the posterior
pituitary lobe to release ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone).
 The ADH increases the reabsorption of water in the Distal
Convoluted Tubule (DCT) and the collecting duct. Less filtration and
more reabsorption of water lead to the discharge of small amount of
hypertonic urine. This raises the volume of body fluids to the normal.
 Reabsorption of sodium is controlled by a hormone aldosterone
produced by the cortex of adrenal glands. A reduction in the level of
Na+ stimulates JGA apparatus to form a protein called renin. Renin
acts as an enzyme, which converts plasma protein angiotensinogen
into angiotensin.
 Reabsorption of Na+ brings about the uptake of an osmotically
equivalent amount of water. Absorption of sodium and water
increases the blood volume and pressure.
 Thus, the Renin Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS) maintains
homeostasis. Thus, kidneys regulate body fluid osmoregulation by
controlling amount of water with the help of the hormone ADH and
sodium with the help of aldosterone and proteins by renin and
angiotensin.

Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF)

An increase in blood flow to the atria of the heart can cause the release of
Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF). ANF can cause vasodilation (dilation of
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blood vessels) and thereby decreases the blood pressure. ANF mechanism
keeps check on the renin-angiotensin mechanism.

Role of other Organs in Excretion

 Lungs, liver and skin also help in excretion in addition to kidneys.

 Lungs remove about 18 L/hour of C02 and major quantities of water
everyday.
 Liver secretes bilirubin, biliverdin, cholesterol, degraded steroid
hormones, vitamins and drugs, which passes out along with digestive
water.
 Skin eliminates certain wastes with sweat, such as NaCl, some urea,
lactic acid, etc. Sebaceous glands in skin eliminate substances like
sterols, hydrocarbons and waxes through sebum.

Artificial Kidney and Dialysis

Artificial kidney called haemodialyzer is a machine that is used to filter the

blood of a damaged kidney. This process is called haemodialysis.
Haemodialysis is the separation of small molecules from large molecules in
a solution by interposing a semipermeable membrane between the solution
and water. Blood of the patient is pumped from one of the arteries into the
cellophane tube after cooling it to 0°C and mixing with an anticoagulant
(heparin). Pores of the cellophane tube allow urea, uric acid, creatinine,
excess salts, etc., to diffuse from the blood into the surrounding solution.
The blood is thus, purified and then pumped into a vein of the patient.
Plasma proteins remain in the blood as the pores of the cellophane are too
small to permit the passage of large molecules.

Disorders of Excretory System

Some disorders of excretory system are as follows :

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 Diabetes Insipidus (DI)

It is a condition characterised by excessive thirst and excretion of large

amounts of severely diluted urine, with reduction of fluid intake having no
effect on the concentration of urine. The common DI is caused by the
deficiency of Arginine Vasopressin (AVP) also known as Antidiuretic
Hormone (ADH).

 Uremia

It is the presence of an excessive amount of urea in the blood. It results

from the decreased excretion of urea in the kidney tubules due to bacterial
infection or some mechanical obstruction. Urea poisons the cells at high
concentration. The high concentration of non-protein nitrogen like urea, uric
acid, creatinine exists in blood due to kidney failure.

 Renal Failure (RF)

The partial or total inability of kidneys to carry-out excretory function is

called renal failure or kidney failure. It is caused by tubular injury, bacterial
toxins, inflammation, etc.

 Renal Calculi (Kidney Stones)

Excessive hormonal imbalance, uric acid formation, milk intake,

dehydration, metabolic disturbances, etc., lead to formation of renal stones
or renal calculi.

 Nephritis

It is inflammation of renal pelvis, calyces and interstitial tissues due to local

bacterial infection. Inflammation affects the counter-current mechanism and
the victim fails to concentrate urine.
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Symptoms are back pain and frequent and painful urination.

 Dysuria painful urination

 Polyuria unusually large amounts of urine.
 Phenylketoneuria the presence of increased level of phenylalanine in
blood. It is a genetic disorder.

NCERT CBSE extra questions and

answers for Board support on
Excretory Products and Their Elimination
Multiple Choice Questions
Q1. The following substances are the excretory products in animals. Choose the least
toxic from among them.
(a) Urea (b) Uric acid
(c) Ammonia (d) Carbon dioxide
Ans: (b) Ammonia is the most toxic form and requires large amount of water for its
elimination, whereas uric acid, being the least toxic, can be removed with a minimum loss of
water.

Q2. Filtration of the blood takes place at

(a) PCT (b) DCT
(c) Collecting ducts (d) Malpighian body
Ans: (d) Filtration of the blood takes place at malpighian body.

Q3. Which of the following statements is incorrect?

a. ADH—prevents conversion of angiotensinogen in blood to angiotensin
b. Aldosterone—facilitates water reabsorption
c. ANF—enhances sodium reabsorption
d. Renin—causes vasodilation
Ans: (a) ADH is a hormone released from the posterior pituitary gland that causes an
increase in blood pressure through reabsorption of water.
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Q4. A large quantity of one of the following is removed from our body by lungs
(a) C02 only (b) H20 only
(c) C02 and H20 (d) Ammonia
Ans: (a) A large quantity of C02 is removed from our body by lungs.

Q5. The pH of human urine is approximately

(a) 6.5 (b) 7 (c) 6 (d) 7.5
Ans: (c) The pH of human urine is approximately 6.

Q6. Different types of excretory structures and animals are given below. Match them
appropriately and mark the correct answer from among those given below:

Excretory structure/ organ Animals

A. Protonephridia (i) Prawn

B. Nephridia (ii) Cockroach

C. Malpighian tubules (iii) Earthworm

D. Green gland or Antennal gland (iv) Flatworms

Options:
(a) D—(i), (C)—(ii), B—(iii), A—(iv)
(b) B— (i), (C)—(ii), A—(iii), B—(iv)
(c) D—(i), (C)—(ii), A—(iii), B-(iv)
(d) B—(i), (C)—(ii), B—(iii), D—(iv)

Ans. (a)
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Excretory structure/ organ Animals

A. Protonephridia (iv) Flatworms

B. Nephridia (iii) Earthworm

C. Malpighian tubules (ii) Cockroach •

D. Green gland or Antennal gland (i) Prawn

Q7. Which one of the following statements is incorrect?

(a) Birds and land snails are uricotelic animals.
(b) Mammals and frogs are ureotelic animals.
(c) Aquatic amphibians and aquatic insects are ammonotelic animals.
(d) Birds and reptiles are ureotelic.
Ans: (d) Reptiles (snakes and lizards), birds, land snails and insects excrete nitrogenous
wastes as uric acid in the form of pellet or paste with a minimum loss of water and are called
uricotelic animals.

Q8. Which of the following pairs is wrong?

(a) Uricotelic — Birds (b) Ureotelic — Insects
(c) Ammonotelic — Tadpole (d) Ureotelic — Elephant
Ans: (b) Insects — Uricotelic

Q9. Which one of the following statements is incorrect?

(a) The medullary zone of kidney is divided into a few conical masses called medullary
pyramids projecting into the calyces.
(b) Inside the kidney the cortical region extends in between the medullary pyramids as
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renal pelvis
(c) Glomerulus along with Bowman’s capsule is called the renal corpuscle
(d) Renal corpuscle, proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) and distal convoluted tubule
(DCT) of the nephron are situated in the cortical region of kidney
Ans: (b) The cortex extends in between the medullary pyramids as renal columns called
Columns of Bertini.

Q10. The condition of accumulation of urea in the blood is termed as

(a) Renal Calculi (b) Glomerulonephritis
(c) Uremia (d) Ketonuria
Ans: (c) The condition of accumulation of urea in the blood is termed as uremia.

Q11. Which one of the following is also known as antidiuretic hormone?

(a) Oxytocin (b) Vasopressin (c) Adrenaline (d) Calcitonin
Ans: (b) Vasopressin is also known as antidiuretic hormone (ADH).

Q12. Match the terms given in Column I with their physiological processes given in
Column II and choose the correct answer

Column I Column II

A. Proximal convoluted tubule (i) Formation of concentrated urine

B. Distal convoluted tubule (ii) Filtration of blood

C. Henle’s loop (iii) Reabsorption of 70-80% of electrolytes

D. Counter-current mechanism (iv) Ionic balance

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Maintenance of concentration gradient in

E. Renal corpuscle (v)
medulla

Options:

(a) A—(iii), B—(v), C—(iv), D—(ii), E—(i)

(b) A—(iii), B—(iv), C—(i), D—(v), E—(ii)
(c) A—(i), B—(iii), C—(ii), D—(v), E—(iv)
(d) A—(iii), B—(i), C—(iv), D—(v), E—(ii)

Ans: (b)

A. Proximal convoluted tubule (iii) Reabsorption of 70-80% of electrolytes

B. Distal convoluted tubule (iv) Ionic balance

C. Henle’s loop (i) Formation of concentrated urine

Maintenance of concentration gradient in

D. Counter-current mechanism (v)
medulla

E. Renal corpuscle (ii) Filtration of blood

Q13. Match the abnormal conditions given in Column A with their explanations given in
Column B and choose the correct option.
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Column A Column B

A. Glycosuria (i) Accumulation of uric acid in joints

B. Renal calculi (ii) Inflammation in glomeruli

C. Glomerulonephritis (iii) Mass of crystallised salts within the kidney

D. Gout (iv) Presence of glucose in urine

Options:
(a) A—(i), B—(iii), C—(ii), D—(iv)
(b) A—(iii), B—(ii), C—(iv), D—(i)
(c) A—(iv), B—(iii), C—(ii), D—(i)
(d) A—(iv), B—(ii), C—(iii), D—(i)

Ans. (c)

A. Glycosuria (iv) Presence of glucose in urine

B. Renal calculi (iii) Mass of crystallised salts within the kidney

C. Glomerulonephritis (ii) Inflammation in glomeruli

D. Gout (i) Accumulation of uric acid in joints

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Q14. We can produce concentrated/dilute urine. This is facilitated by a special

mechanism. Identify the mechanism.
(a) Reabsorption from PCT
(b) Reabsorption from collecting duct
(c) Reabsorption/secretion in DCT
(d) Counter current mechanism in Henle’s loop/Vasa recta
Ans: (d) We can produce concentrated/dilute urine. This is facilitated by a special mechanism
called counter current mechanism in Henle’s loop/Vasa recta.

Q15. Dialysing unit (artificial kidney) contains a fluid which is almost same as plasma
except that it has
(a) High glucose
(b) High urea
(c) No urea
(d) High uric acid
Ans: (c) Dialysing fluid = Plasma – nitrogenous wastes (urea)

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Q1. Where does the selective reabsorption of Glomerular filtrate take place?
Ans: DCT

Q2. What is the excretory product from kidneys of reptiles?

Ans: Uric acid

Q3. What is the composition of sweat produced by sweat glands?

Ans: Water, minerals, lactic acid and urea.

Q4. Identify the glands that perform the excretory function in prawns.
Ans: Antennal glands or green glands

Q5. What is the excretory structure in amoeba?

Ans: Contractile vacuole
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Q6. The following abbreviations are used in the context of excretory functions, what do
they stand for?
a.ANF
b. ADH
c. GFR
d. DCT
Ans: a. ANF—Atrial Natriuretic factor
b. ADH—Antidiuretic hormone
c. GFR—Glomerular Filtration Rate
d. DCT—Distal Convoluted Tubule
Q7. Differentiate Glycosuria from Ketonuria.
Ans: Glycosuria—Presence of glucose in urine.
Ketonuria—Presence of ketone bodies in urine.

Q8. What is the role of sebaceous glands?

Ans: Sebaceous glands eliminate certain substances like sterols, hydrocarbons and waxes
through sebum. This secretion provides a protective oily covering for the skin.

Q9. Name two actively transported substances in Glomerular filtrate.

Ans: Glucose and aminoacids

Q10. Mention any two metabolic disorders, which can be diagnosed by analysis of urine.
Ans: Glycosuria and ketonuria

Q11. What are the main processes of urine formation?

Ans: The main processes are filtration, reabsorption, secretion and concentration/ dilution

Q12. Sort the following into actively or passively transported substances during
reabsorption of GFR:
glucose, aminoacids, nitrogenous wastes, Na+, water
Ans: Actively transported—Glucose, aminoacids and Na+
Passively transported—Nitrogenous wastes and water

Q13. Complete the following:

a. Urinary excretion = Tubular reabsorption + tubular secretion
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b. Dialysis fluid = Plasma

Ans: a. Urinary excretion = Glomerular filtration – tubular reabsorption + tubular secretion
b. Dialysis fluid = Plasma – nitrogenous wastes

Q14. Mention the substances that exit from the tubules in order to maintain a
concentration gradient in the medullary interstitium.
Ans: NaCl and Urea.

Q15. Fill in the blanks appropriately .

Organ Excretory wastes

1. Kidneys _____________________
2. Lungs _____________________
3. Liver _____________________
4. Skin _____________________

Ans: a. Kidneys — Urea

b. Lungs — C02 and HzO
c. Liver — Bilirubin, biliverdin, cholesterol, degraded steroid hormones, vitamins and drugs
d. Skin — Sweat (NaCl, urea, lactic acid) and sebum (sterols, hydrocarbons and waxes).

Short Answer Type Questions

Q1. Show the structure of a renal corpuscle with the help of a diagram.
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Ans:

Q2. What is the role played by Renin-Angiotensin in the regulation of kidney function?
Ans: Renin is released from JGA on activation due to fall in the glomerular blood
pressure/flow. Renin converts angiotensinogen in blood to angiotensin-I and further to
angiotensin-II. Angiotensin-II being a powerful vasoconstrictor, increase the glomerular
blood pressure and thereby GFR. Angiotensin-II also activates the adrenal cortex to release
aldosterone. Aldosterone causes reabsorption of Na+ and water from the distal parts of the
tubule. This also leads to.an increase in blood pressure and thereby GFR. This is generally
known as the Renin-Angiotensin mechanism.

Q3. Aquatic animals generally are ammonotelic in nature whereas terrestrial forms are
not. Comment.
Ans: Ammonia is the most toxic form and requires large amount of water for its elimination,
terrestrial adaptation necessitated the production of lesser toxic nitrogenous wastes like urea
and uric acid for conservation of water. Mammals, many terrestrial amphibians and marine
fishes mainly excrete urea and are called ureotelic animals. Ammonia produced by
metabolism is converted into urea in the liver of these animals and released into the blood
which is filtered and excreted out by the kidneys.
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Q4. The composition of glomerular filtrate and urine is not same. Comment.
Ans: A comparison of the volume of the filtrate formed per day (180 litres per
day) with that of the urine released (1.5 litres), suggest that nearly 99% of the filtrate has to
be reabsorbed by the renal tubules. This process is called reabsorption. For example,
substances like glucose, amino acids, Na+, etc.,
in the filtrate are reabsorbed actively so, these substances are not present in urine.

Q5. What is the procedure advised for the correction of extreme renal failure? Give a
brief account of it.
Ans: Kidney transplantation is the ultimate method in the correction of acute renal failures
(kidney failure). A functioning kidney is used in transplantation from a donor, preferably a
close relative, to minimise its chances of rejection by the immune system of the host. Modem
clinical procedures have increased the success rate of such a complicated technique.

Q6. How have the terrestrial organisms adapted themselves for conservation of water?
Ans: Terrestrial adaptation necessitated the production of lesser toxic nitrogenous wastes like
urea and uric acid for conservation of water. Mammals, many terrestrial amphibians and
marine fishes mainly excrete urea and are called ureotelic animals. Ammonia produced by
metabolism is converted into urea in the liver of these animals and released into the blood
which is filtered and excreted out by the kidneys. Some amount of urea may be retained in
the kidney matrix of some of these animals to maintain a desired osmolarity. Reptiles, birds,
land snails and insects excrete nitrogenous wastes as uric acid ‘ in the form of pellet or paste
with a minimum loss of water and are called uricotelic animals.
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Q7. Label the parts in the following diagram

Q8. Explain, why a haemodialysing uhit called’artificial kidney?

Ans: Malfunctioning of kidneys can lead to accumulation of urea in blood, a condition called
uremia, which is highly harmful and may lead to kidney failure. In such patients, urea can be
removed by a process called hemodialysis. Blood drained from a convenient artery is pumped
into a dialysing unit (also called artificial kidney) after adding an anticoagulant like heparin.
The unit contains a coiled cellophane tube surrounded by a fluid (dialysing fluid) having the
same composition as that of plasma except the nitrogenous wastes. The porous cellophane
membrane of the tube allows the passage of molecules based on concentration gradient. As
nitrogenous wastes are absent in the dialysing fluid, these substances freely move out,
thereby clearing the blood. The cleared blood is pumped back to the body through a vein after
adding anti-heparin to it.
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Q9. Comment upon the hormonal regulation of selective reabsorption.

Ans: Osmoreceptors in the body are activated by changes in blood volume, body fluid
volume and ionic concentration. An excessive loss of fluid from the body can activate these
receptors which stimulate the hypothalamus to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or
vasopressin from the neurohypophysis. ADH facilitates water reabsorption from latter parts
of the tubule, thereby preventing diuresis.

Long Answer Type Questions

Q1. Explain the mechanism of formation of concentrated urine in mammals.

Ans: Mechanism of Concentration of the Filtrate:
Mammals have the ability to produce a concentrated urine. The Henle’s loop and vasa recta
play a significant role in this. The flow of filtrate in the two limbs of Henle’s loop is in
opposite directions and thus forms a counter current. The flow of blood through the two limbs
of vasa recta is also in a counter current pattern. The proximity between the Henle’s loop and
vasa recta, as well as the counter current in them help in maintaining an increasing osmolarity
towards the inner medullary interstitium, i.e., from 300 mOsmo1L in the cortex to about 1200
mOsmolLin the inner medulla. This gradient is mainly caused by NaC1 and urea. NaC1 is
transported by the ascending limb of Henle’s loop which is exchanged with the descending
limb of vasa recta. NaCl is returned to the interstitium by the ascending portion of vasa recta.
Similarly, small amounts of urea enter the thin segment of the ascending limb of Henle’s ioop
which is transported back to the interstitium by the collecting tubule. The above described
transport of substances facilitated by the special arrangement of Henle’s loop and vasa recta
is called the counter current mechanism. This mechanism helps to maintain a concentration
gradient in the medullary interstitium. Presence of such interstitial gradient helps in an easy
passage of water from the collecting tubule thereby concentrating the filtrate (urine). Human
kidneys can produce urine nearly four times concentrated than the initial filtrate formed.

Q2. Draw a labelled diagram shewing reabsorption and secretion of major substances at
different parts of the nephron.
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Ans:

Q3. Explain briefly, micturition and disorders of the excretory system.

Ans:
• Micturition: Urine formed by the nephrons is ultimately carried to the urinary bladder where
it is stored till a voluntary signal is given by the central nervous system (CNS). This signal is
initiated by the stretching of the urinary bladder as it gets filled with urine. In response, the
stretch receptors on the walls of the bladder send signals to the CNS. The CNS passes on
motor messages to initiate the contraction of smooth muscles of the bladder and simultaneous
relaxation of the urethral sphincter causing the release of urine. The process of release of
urine is called micturition and the neural mechanisms causing it is called the micturition
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reflex.
• Disorders of the Excretory System: Malfunctioning of kidneys can lead to accumulation of
urea in blood, a condition called uremia, which is highly harmful and may lead to kidney
failure. In such patients, urea can be removed by a process called hemodialysis. Kidney
transplantation is the ultimate method in the correction of acute renal failures (kidney failure).
• Renal calculi: Stone or insoluble mass of crystallised salts (oxalates, etc.) formed within the
kidney.
• Glomerulonephritis: Inflammation of glomeruli of kidney.

Q4. How does tubular secretion help in maintaining ionic and acid-base balance in body
fluids?
Ans: During urine formation, the tubular cells secrete substances like H+, K+ and ammonia
into the filtrate. Tubular secretion is also an important step in urine formation as it helps in
the maintenance of ionic and acid base balance of body fluids. .

 PCT helps to maintain the pH and ionic balance of the body fluids by selective
secretion of hydrogen ions, ammonia and potassium ions into the filtrate
 DCT is also capable of selective secretion of hydrogen and potassium ions and NH3to
maintain the pH and sodium-potassium balance in blood.
 Collecting duct also plays a role in the maintenance of pH and ionic balance of blood
by the selective secretion of H+ and K+

Q5. The” glomerular filtrate in the loop of Henle gets concentrated in the descending
and then gets diluted in the ascending limbs. Explain.
Ans: A hairpin shaped Henle’s loop has a descending and an ascending limb. Reabsorption is
minimum in its ascending limb. However, this region plays a significant role in the
maintenance of high osmolarity of medullary interstitial fluid. The descending limb of loop of
Henle is permeable to water but almost impermeable to electrolytes. This concentrates the
filtrate as it moves down. The ascending limb is impermeable to water but allows transport of
electrolytes actively or passively. Therefore, as the concentrated filtrate pass upward, it gets
diluted due to the passage of electrolytes to the medullary fluid.

Q6. Describe the structure of a human kidney with the help of a labelled diagram.
Ans: In humans, the excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys, one pair of
ureters, a urinary bladder and a urethra. Kidneys are reddish brown, bean shaped structures
situated between the levels of last thoracic and third lumbar vertebra close to the dorsal inner
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wall of the abdominal cavity. Each kidney of an adult human measures 10-12 cm in length, 5-
7 cm in width, 2-3 cm in thickness with an average weight of 120-170 g. Towards the centre
of the inner concave surface of the kidney is a notch called hilum through which ureter, blood
vessels and nerves enter. Inner to the hilum is a broad funnel shaped space called the renal
pelvis with projections called calyces. The outer layer of kidney is a tough capsule. Inside the
kidney, there are two zones, an outer cortex and an inner medulla. The medulla is divided
into a few conical masses (medullary pyramids) projecting into the calyces (sing.: calyx). The
cortex extends in between the medullary pyramids as renal columns called Columns of
Bertini. Each kidney has nearly one million complex tubular structures called nephrons,
which are the functional units.