Unit 2: Classical Encryption Techniques and Symmetric Ciphers (Detailed Notes)

1. Symmetric Cipher Model:

Symmetric cryptography is a form of encryption where the same key is used for both encryption and

decryption. This model is widely used due to its simplicity and efficiency, particularly for large

amounts of data.

Components of the Symmetric Cipher Model:

- Plaintext: This is the original readable message or data.

- Encryption Algorithm: A method or mathematical function that converts plaintext into an unreadable

format called ciphertext using the shared key.

- Ciphertext: The encrypted form of the message that cannot be understood without decryption.

- Shared Key: A single secret key that is known to both the sender and the receiver. It must be kept

secret to ensure security.

- Decryption Algorithm: A reverse function of the encryption algorithm that converts ciphertext back

into the original plaintext using the same key.

Example: Caesar Cipher

- If we choose a shift value of 3, the letter A becomes D, B becomes E, and so on.

- Plaintext: "HELLO"

- Ciphertext: "KHOOR"

This model forms the foundation for symmetric encryption systems like DES and AES.

2. Substitution Techniques:
Substitution techniques are a class of encryption methods where the characters of the plaintext are

replaced with other characters, symbols, or groups of symbols. It is one of the earliest forms of

encryption.

Types of Substitution Techniques:

a. Caesar Cipher:

- The Caesar Cipher involves shifting each letter of the plaintext by a fixed number of positions in

the alphabet.

- Example:

Plaintext: "ATTACK"

Shift: 3

Ciphertext: "DWWDFN"

b. Monoalphabetic Cipher:

- Unlike the Caesar Cipher, which uses a fixed shift, a monoalphabetic cipher replaces each letter

with a corresponding letter based on a random substitution.

- Example:

Mapping: A -> Q, B -> W, C -> E, etc.

Plaintext: "HELLO"

Ciphertext: "ITSSG"

While more secure than the Caesar Cipher, the monoalphabetic cipher is still vulnerable to

frequency analysis since some letters appear more frequently in the English language (e.g., E, T, A).

c. Playfair Cipher:

- The Playfair Cipher encrypts pairs of letters instead of single letters, which makes it more secure
than simple substitution.

- Steps:

1. Create a 5x5 grid of letters (J is often omitted).

2. Pair up plaintext letters and follow specific rules for substitution.

d. Vigenère Cipher:

- The Vigenère Cipher is a polyalphabetic substitution cipher that uses a keyword to determine

shifts for each letter.

- Steps:

1. Write the plaintext.

2. Repeat the keyword to match the length of the plaintext.

3. Shift each letter of the plaintext based on the corresponding letter of the keyword.

Example:

Plaintext: "HELLO"

Keyword: "KEY"

Ciphertext: "RIJVS"

3. Transposition Techniques:

Unlike substitution techniques, transposition techniques rearrange the positions of the characters in

the plaintext without changing the actual characters.

Types of Transposition Techniques:

a. Rail Fence Cipher:

- The text is written in a zigzag pattern across rows and then read row-by-row.

- Example:
 Plaintext: "HELLO WORLD"

Zigzag Pattern:

H L O O L

ELOWRD

Ciphertext: "HLOOL ELWRD"

b. Columnar Transposition Cipher:

- The plaintext is written in rows under columns, and the columns are reordered based on a

keyword.

- Steps:

1. Write the plaintext row by row.

2. Rearrange the columns based on the order of letters in the keyword.

4. Steganography:

Steganography involves hiding the existence of a message rather than encrypting it. The goal is to

conceal the message in a way that it is not obvious that communication is taking place.

Examples:

- Hiding a message in the pixels of an image file.

- Embedding text in an audio or video file.

- Using invisible ink or spacing tricks to hide text in plain sight.

5. Traditional Block Cipher Structure:

In block ciphers, the plaintext is divided into fixed-size blocks, and each block is encrypted

separately.
Steps:

- Divide the plaintext into blocks of a fixed size (e.g., 64 bits).

- Each block undergoes rounds of encryption, which involve substitution, permutation, and XOR

operations.

Block ciphers form the basis of algorithms like DES and AES.

6. Data Encryption Standard (DES):

The Data Encryption Standard (DES) is a symmetric-key block cipher developed in the 1970s.

Although now considered outdated, it played a key role in the evolution of cryptography.

Features of DES:

- Block size: 64 bits

- Key size: 56 bits (8 bits are reserved for parity).

- Number of rounds: 16

Steps of DES:

1. Initial Permutation: Rearranges the bits of the plaintext.

2. 16 Rounds of Processing:

- Each round involves expansion, XOR with the key, substitution using S-boxes, and permutation.

3. Final Permutation: Rearranges the bits again to produce ciphertext.

Limitations:

- Vulnerable to brute-force attacks due to the small key size.

7. Advanced Encryption Standard (AES):

The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) is a modern block cipher that replaced DES. It is highly

secure and widely used for encrypting sensitive data.

Features of AES:

- Block size: 128 bits

- Key size: 128, 192, or 256 bits

- Number of rounds:

- 10 for 128-bit keys

- 12 for 192-bit keys

- 14 for 256-bit keys

Steps of AES:

1. Key Expansion: Generate round keys from the original key.

2. Rounds (10 for 128-bit keys):

- SubBytes: Substitution of bytes using an S-box.

- ShiftRows: Rows of the state matrix are shifted.

- MixColumns: Columns of the state matrix are mixed.

- AddRoundKey: XOR the state matrix with the round key.

3. Final Round: Similar to other rounds but excludes MixColumns.

Applications of AES:

- Used in SSL/TLS for secure web communication.

- Used in VPNs, disk encryption, and wireless security protocols.

Key Comparison of Techniques:

| Technique | Key Type | Security Level |

|----------------------|--------------|----------------------|

| Substitution Ciphers | Symmetric | Low |

| Transposition | Symmetric | Low-Moderate |

| DES | Symmetric | Moderate (outdated) |

| AES | Symmetric | High |

Conclusion:

This unit covered both classical encryption techniques and modern symmetric ciphers. Classical

techniques like substitution and transposition ciphers laid the groundwork for more advanced

methods like DES and AES, which are widely used today for securing data.