A cell is the smallest unit of life that can replicate independently.

Both animal and plant cells have a cell membrane(organelle that controls what goes in and what comes
out of the cell),a nucleus that contains genetic material or DNA of the cell while actively controlling the
activities of the cell, a jelly like substance called cytoplasm where all chemical reactions occur as well as
mitochondria whose job it is to provide cells with energy that they need to function by breaking down
glucose in the process of aerobic respiration, cells also contain ribosomes which are the site of protein
synthesis which is a process in which proteins are produced.
Plant cells also have a few extra structures such as a rigid cell wall around the entire cell that is made up
of cellulose and as cellulose is really strong the cell wall provides support and structure to the cell, a
large/permanent vacuole that contains cell sap(mixture of sugars, salts and water) as well as chloroplasts
which is where photosynthesis occurs and gives plants their green color.

Bacterial cell- cell wall, cell membrane, ribosomes a cell wall and a cytoplasm , however no nucleus but
rather a single strand of DNA that floats around the cytoplasm, that contains all the genes they need to
survive and reproduce which may also be labeled as the nucleoid/circular chromosome, but they all
mean basically the same thing. Which is just a big loop of DNA. Some bacteria also have additional small
rings of DNA called plasmids which carry extra genes like antibiotic resistance which bacteria don’t need
on a daily basis but may sometimes come in handy. Some bacteria also have flagella which are thread
like structures which protrude out from the bacteria and are able to rotate to propel the bacteria along,
allowing the bacteria to move around

Levels of organization-

Organelles<cells<tissues<organs<organ systems<organisms Magnification:

Object: The real sample that you’re looking at

Image: The image that we see when we look down the microscope

Light microscopes work by light hitting a mirror and be reflected upward through the object that we
want to look at that passes through one of the objective lenses and then through the eyepiece lens and
finally into our eye. The idea behind the entirety of this is that lenses spread out the light rays so that the
image we see is far larger than the actual object.

Magnification-How many times larger the image is than the actual object. For example, if the image is a
1000x larger than the object the magnification is 1000x.

Magnification= image size/object size

Resolution: The shortest distance between two points on an object that can still be distinguished as two
separate entities. (or the shortest distance two objects can be apart without appearing blurred/a
measure of how detailed an image is)
Cell Organelles:

The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is a thin, flexible barrier composed primarily of a lipid bilayer
that surrounds every living cell. It serves as a protective boundary, regulating the passage of substances
into and out of the cell while maintaining the cell's internal environment

A centrosome is a cellular organelle composed of two cylindrical structures called centrioles surrounded
by pericentriolar material. ( A centrosome is the cell's command center for building and organizing
microtubules. It's like a tiny traffic cop directing the cell's internal transportation system. Centrosomes
are made up of two barrel-shaped structures called centrioles, which help organize the cell's shape and
movement.)

Golgi apparatus/Golgi complex is a membrane bound organelle, made of flattened

sacs(cisternae).Responsible for transporting, modifying and packaging proteins to targeted destinations.(
The Golgi apparatus is like the cell's post office. It packages and ships proteins and other molecules
where they need to go. Imagine it as a stack of flattened sacs where these molecules are processed and
prepared for delivery.)

Mitochondria are double-membrane organelles with a folded inner membrane (cristae) that function as
the cell's powerhouses, producing energy in the form of ATP through cellular respiration.

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the cell's factory and delivery system.

Rough ER: This part has ribosomes attached, which are like tiny protein-making machines. It produces
proteins and sends them to other parts of the cell or outside.

Smooth ER: This part doesn't have ribosomes. It makes fats (lipids) and helps break down toxins.

Peroxisomes are membrane-bound organelles containing oxidative enzymes for detoxification, lipid
metabolism, and other cellular processes.
Peroxisomes are like tiny cleanup crews in cells, breaking down harmful substances and helping with
various cellular tasks.

A lysosome is a membrane-bound cell organelle that contains digestive enzymes. Lysosomes are
involved with various cell processes. They break down excess or worn-out cell parts. They may be used
to destroy invading viruses and bacteria.( Lysosomes are like the cell's recycling and cleanup crew. They
break down worn-out cell parts, digest food particles, and even help destroy harmful bacteria. Imagine
them as tiny garbage disposals that keep the cell clean and healthy by occasionally digesting harmful
microorganisms(suicide cell-When a cell needs to be eliminated, lysosomes release their digestive
enzymes, breaking down the cell's components in a controlled manner. This process is crucial for
development, tissue repair, and eliminating cells that are no longer functional or are a threat to the
organism.) The nucleus:

Nucleoid is an irregularly shaped region within a prokaryotic cell that contains the cell's genetic
material.

Think of it as a simple, loose bundle of DNA floating free inside a bacterial cell, without a
protective membrane around it.

Nucleolus
The nucleolus is a dense region within the nucleus where ribosome assembly begins. It's like a
ribosome factory.

Nuclear Pores
Nuclear pores are channels in the nuclear envelope that regulate the passage of molecules
between the nucleus and cytoplasm. They act as gatekeepers for the nucleus.

Nuclear Membranes
The nuclear envelope is a double-layered membrane surrounding the nucleus. It protects the
nucleus and its contents, while also serving as a barrier between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

Chromosomes
Chromosomes are thread-like structures made of DNA and proteins. They contain genetic
information and are essential for cell division and inheritance.
Nucleoplasm
Nucleoplasm is the jelly-like substance that fills the nucleus. It supports the nucleus and its
components, providing a medium for biochemical reactions.

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Plastids-

Plastids are membrane-bound organelles found in plant and algal cells, responsible for photosynthesis,
pigment synthesis, and storage of food.

• Chloroplasts: These are green-colored plastids containing chlorophyll, the pigment

essential for photosynthesis. They convert light energy into chemical energy.
• Chromoplasts: These plastids contain carotenoid pigments, responsible for the vibrant
colors in flowers, fruits, and some roots. They attract pollinators and seed dispersers.
• Leucoplasts: These are colorless plastids primarily involved in storage functions, such as
starch, lipids, or proteins. Vacuoles-

Plant cells typically have a large, central vacuole that occupies a significant portion of the cell's
volume. It's a membrane-bound organelle with several functions:

• Storage: Holds water, nutrients, waste products, and pigments.

• Turgor pressure: Maintains cell shape and rigidity by exerting outward pressure on the cell
wall.
• Digestion: Contains enzymes for breaking down macromolecules.
• Animal Cell Vacuoles
• Animal cells have smaller vacuoles, often multiple, and their primary function is to store
waste products before they are expelled from the cell. They are also involved in processes
like endocytosis (bringing substances into the cell) and exocytosis (releasing substances
from the cell).