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Basics of

Web Design
HTML5 & CSS
Sixth Edition
This page intentionally left blank
Basics of

Web Design
HTML5 & CSS
Sixth Edition

Terry Ann Felke-Morris, Ed.D.

Professor Emerita
Harper College
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Title: Basics of web design : HTML5 & CSS / Terry Ann Felke-Morris, Ed.D.,
Professor Emerita.
Description: Sixth edition. | Hoboken : Pearson, 2022.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020030388 | ISBN 9780137313266 (Print Offer) | ISBN 9780137313211 (Rental)
Subjects: LCSH: HTML (Document markup language) | Cascading style sheets. |
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Preface

Basics of Web Design: HTML5 & CSS is intended for use in a beginning web design or
web development course. Topics are introduced in two-page sections that focus on key
points and often include a hands-on practice exercise. The text covers the basics that web
designers need to develop their skills:
◗◗ Introductory Internet and World Wide Web concepts
◗◗ Creating web pages with HTML5
◗◗ Configuring text, color, and page layout with Cascading Style Sheets
◗◗ Configuring images and multimedia on web pages
◗◗ Exploring CSS Flexbox and CSS Grid layout systems
◗◗ Web design best practices
◗◗ Creating responsive web pages that display well on both desktop and mobile devices
◗◗ Accessibility, usability, and search engine optimization considerations
◗◗ Obtaining a domain name and a web host
◗◗ Publishing to the Web
Student files include solutions to the Hands-On Practice exercises, starter files for the
Hands-On Practice exercises, and the starter files for the Case Study. The eText offers stu-
dent file downloads by chapter (where used) wiithin each chapter introduction. Student files
are also available for download from the companion website for this book at www.pearson.
com/felke-morris.
Building on this textbook’s successful fifth edition, the sixth edition features:
◗◗ Additional Hands-On Practice exercises
◗◗ Updated code samples, case studies, and web resources
◗◗ Updates for HTML5 elements and attributes
◗◗ Expanded treatment of page layout design and responsive web design techniques
◗◗ Expanded treatment of CSS Flexible Layout Module (Flexbox) and CSS Grid Layout
systems
◗◗ Expanded coverage of responsive image techniques including lazy loading
◗◗ Updated reference sections for HTML5 and CSS

Features of the Text

Design for Today and Tomorrow. The textbook prepares students to design web pages
that work today in addition to being ready to take advantage of new HTML5 and CSS coding
techniques of the future.
Well-Rounded Selection of Topics. This text includes both “hard” skills such as HTML5
and Cascading Style Sheets (Chapters 1–2 and 4–11) and “soft” skills such as web design

Preface v
 (Chapter 3) and publishing to the Web (Chapter 12). This well-rounded foundation will help
students as they pursue careers as web professionals. Students and instructors will find
classes more interesting because they can discuss, integrate, and apply both hard and soft
skills as students create web pages and websites. The topics in each chapter are typically-
introduced on concise two-page sections that are intended to provide quick overviews and
timely practice with the topic.
Two-Page Topic Sections. Most topics are introduced in a concise, two-page section.
Many sections also include immediate hands-on practice of the new skill or concept.
This approach is intended to appeal to your busy students—especially the millennial
multitaskers—who need to drill down to the important concepts right away.
Hands-On Practice. Web design is a skill, and skills are best learned by hands-on practice.
This text emphasizes hands-on practice through practice exercises within the chapters,
end-of-chapter exercises, and the development of a website through ongoing real-world
case studies. This variety provides instructors with a choice of assignments for a particular
course or semester.
Website Case Study. There are case studies that continue throughout most of the text
(beginning at Chapter 2). The case studies serve to reinforce skills discussed in each
chapter. Sample solutions to the case study exercises are available on the Instructor
Resource Center available through https://pearsonhighered.com/felke.
Focus on Web Design. Every chapter offers an additional activity that explores web design
topics related to the chapter. These activities can be used to reinforce, extend, and enhance
the course topics.

FAQs. In her web design courses, the author is frequently asked similar questions by
students. They are included in the book and are marked with the identifying FAQ icon.

Focus on Accessibility. Developing accessible websites is more important than ever, and
this text is infused with accessibility techniques throughout. The special icon shown here
makes accessibility information easy to find.

Focus on Ethics. Ethical issues related to web development are highlighted throughout the
text with the special ethics icon shown here.

Quick Tips. Quick tips, which provide useful background information, or help with productiv-
ity, are indicated with this Quick Tip icon.

Explore Further. The special icon identifies enrichment topics along with web resources
useful for delving deeper into a concept introduced in book.

Reference Materials. The appendices offer reference material, including an HTML5

reference, a Cascading Style Sheets reference, a WCAG 2.1 Quick Reference, an overview
of ARIA Landmark Roles and a Web Safe Color Palette.

VideoNotes. VideoNotes are Pearson’s visual tool designed for teaching students key
programming concepts and techniques. These short step-by-step videos demonstrate
how to solve problems from design through coding. VideoNotes allow for self-placed
instruction with easy navigation including the ability to select, play, rewind, fast-forward,

vi Preface
and stop within each VideoNote exercise. Margin icons in your textbook let you know when
a VideoNote video is available for a particular concept or hands-on practice.

Supplemental Materials
Student Resources. Student resources provide both reinforcement and practice of new con-
cepts and skills include:
◗◗ VideoNotes
◗◗ Student Files containing the following:
◗◗ Hands-On Practice starter files
◗◗ Hands-On Practice solutions
◗◗ Case Study starter files

Author’s Website. In addition to the publisher’s companion website for this book, the
author maintains a website at https://www.webdevbasics.net. This website contains a
page for each chapter with additional resources and updates. This website is not sup-
ported by the publisher.

Acknowledgments
Very special thanks go to the people at Pearson, including Tracy Johnson, Carole Snyder,
Scott Disanno, and Erin Sullivan.
Most of all, I would like to thank my family for their patience and encouragement. My wonder-
ful husband, Greg Morris, has been a constant source of love, understanding, support, and
encouragement. Thank you, Greg! A big shout-out to my children, James and Karen, who grew
up thinking that everyone’s Mom had their own website. Thank you both for your understand-
ing, patience, and timely suggestions. Finally, a very special dedication to the memory of my
father who will be greatly missed.

About the Author

Dr. Terry Ann Felke-Morris is a Professor Emerita at Harper College in Palatine, Illinois. She
holds a Doctor of Education degree, a Master of Science degree in information systems,
and numerous certifications, including Adobe Certified Dreamweaver 8 Developer, WOW
Certified Associate Webmaster, Microsoft Certified Professional, Master CIW Designer, and
CIW Certified Instructor.
Dr. Felke-Morris received the Blackboard Greenhouse Exemplary Online Course Award in
2006 for use of Internet technology in the academic environment. She is the recipient of
two international awards: the Instructional Technology Council’s Outstanding e-Learning
Faculty Award for Excellence and the MERLOT Award for Exemplary Online Learning
Resources—MERLOT Business Classics.

Preface vii
 With more than 25 years of information technology experience in business and industry,
Dr. Felke-Morris published her first website in 1996 and has been working with the
Web ever since. A long-time promoter of web standards, she was a member of the Web
Standards Project Education Task Force. Dr. Felke-Morris is the author of the popular
textbook Web Development and Design Foundations with HTML5, currently in its tenth
edition. She was instrumental in developing the Web Development degree and certificate
programs at Harper College. For more information about Dr. Terry Ann Felke-Morris, visit
https://terrymorris.net.

viii Preface
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CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 Website Organization 74

Principles of Visual Design 76
Internet and Web Basics 1 Design to Provide for Accessibility 78
The Internet and the Web 2 Use of Text 80
Web Standards and Accessibility 4 Web Color Palette 82
Web Browsers and Web Servers 6 Design for Your Target Audience 84
Internet Protocols 8 Choosing a Color Scheme 86
Uniform Resource Identifiers Use of Graphics and Multimedia 90
and Domain Names 10 More Design Considerations 92
Information on the Web 14 Navigation Design 94
HTML Overview 16 Wireframes and Page Layout 96
Under the Hood of a Web Page 18 Fixed and Fluid Layouts 98
Your First Web Page 20 Design for the Mobile Web 100
Review and Apply 24 Responsive Web Design 102
Web Design Best Practices Checklist 104
CHAPTER 2 Review and Apply 106
HTML Basics 27
CHAPTER 4
Heading Element 28
Paragraph Element 30 Cascading Style Sheets Basics 111
Line Break and Horizontal Rule 32 Cascading Style Sheets Overview 112
Blockquote Element 34 CSS Selectors and Declarations 114
Phrase Element 36 CSS Syntax for Color Values 116
Ordered List 38 Configure Inline CSS 118
Unordered List 40 Configure Embedded CSS 120
Description List 42 Configure External CSS 122
Special Entity Characters 44 CSS Selectors: Class, Id,
HTML Syntax Validation 46 and Descendant 124
Structural Elements 48 Span Element 126
Practice with Structural Elements 50 Practice with CSS 128
More Structural Elements 52 The Cascade 130
Anchor Element 54 Practice with the Cascade 132
Practice with Hyperlinks 56 CSS Syntax Validation 134
E-Mail Hyperlinks 60 Review and Apply 136
Review and Apply 62
CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 3
Graphics & Text Styling Basics 143
Web Design Basics 71 Graphics on the Web 144
Your Target Audience 72 Img Element 148

Contents ix
 Image Hyperlinks 150 Horizontal Navigation with
Configure Background Images 152 an Unordered List 236
Position Background Images 154 CSS Interactivity with Pseudo-Classes 238
CSS Multiple Background Images 156 Practice with CSS Two-Column Layout 240
Fonts with CSS 158 CSS for Print 242
CSS Text Properties 160 CSS Sprites 244
Practice with Graphics and Text 162 Positioning with CSS 246
Configure List Markers with CSS 164 Fixed Position Navigation Bar 250
The Favorites Icon 166 Fragment Identifiers 252
Image Maps 168 Single Page Website 254
Figure and Figcaption Elements 170 Review and Apply 256
Review and Apply 172
CHAPTER 8
CHAPTER 6
Responsive Layout Basics 265
More CSS Basics 181 CSS Flexible Box Layout 266
Width and Height with CSS 182 More About Flex Containers 268
The Box Model 184 Flexbox Image Gallery 270
Margin and Padding with CSS 186 Configure Flex Items 272
Borders with CSS 188 Practice with Flexbox 274
CSS Rounded Corners 190 CSS Grid Layout 276
Center Page Content with CSS 192 Grid Columns, Rows, and Gap 278
CSS Box Shadow and Text Shadow 194 Two-Column Grid Page Layout 280
CSS Background Clip and Origin 196 Layout with Grid Areas 284
CSS Background Resize and Scale 198 Progressive Enhancement with Grid 288
Practice with CSS Properties 200 Centering with Flexbox and Grid 290
CSS Opacity 202 Viewport Meta Tag 292
CSS RGBA Color 204 CSS Media Queries 294
CSS HSLA Color 206 Responsive Layout with Media Queries 296
CSS Gradients 208 Responsive Grid Layout with
Review and Apply 210 Media Queries 300
Flexible Images with CSS 304
Picture Element 306
CHAPTER 7
Responsive Img Element Attributes 308
Page Layout Basics 219 Testing Mobile Display 310
Normal Flow 220 Review and Apply 312
Float 222
Clear a Float 224 CHAPTER 9
Overflow 226
CSS Box Sizing 228 Table Basics 325
Basic Two-Column Layout 230 Table Overview 326
Vertical Navigation with Table Rows, Cells, and Headers 328
an Unordered List 234 Span Rows and Columns 330

x Contents
 Configure an Accessible Table 332 Video Element and Source Element 400
Style a Table with CSS 334 Practice with Video 402
CSS Structural Pseudo-classes 336 Iframe Element 404
Configure Table Sections 338 CSS Transform Property 406
Review and Apply 340 CSS Transition Property 408
Practice with Interactivity 410
CSS Drop-Down Menu 412
CHAPTER 10 Details Element and Summary Element 414
Form Basics 347 JavaScript & jQuery 416
Form Overview 348 HTML5 APIs 418
Input Element and Text Box 350 Review and Apply 420
Submit Button and Reset Button 352
Check Box and Radio Button 354 CHAPTER 12
Textarea Element 356
Select Element and Option Element 358 Web Publishing Basics 427
Label Element 360 File Organization 428
Fieldset Element and Legend Element 362 Register a Domain Name 430
Style a Form with CSS 364 Choose a Web Host 432
Form Layout with CSS Grid 366 Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) 434
Server-Side Processing 368 Publish with File Transfer Protocol 436
Practice with a Form 370 Search Engine Submission 438
Password, Hidden, and File Upload Search Engine Optimization 440
Controls 372 Accessibility Testing 442
More Text Form Controls 374 Usability Testing 444
Datalist Element 376 Review and Apply 446
Slider and Spinner Controls 378
Date and Color-Well Controls 380
APPENDIX
More Form Practice 382
HTML5 Cheat Sheet 450
Review and Apply 384 CSS Cheat Sheet 455
WCAG 2.1 Quick Reference 463
CHAPTER 11 Landmark Roles with ARIA 465
Web Safe Color Palette 467
Media and Interactivity Basics 395
Getting Started with Audio and Video 396 Index 468
Audio Element and Source Element 398 Credits 484

Contents xi
VideoNotes
Locations of VideoNotes
www.pearson.com/felke-morris

CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 7
Internet and Web Basics Page Layout Basics
Evolution of the Web 3 Interactivity with CSS Pseudo-Classes 238
Your First Web Page 20 Linking to a Named Fragment 252

CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 8
HTML Basics Responsive Layout Basics
HTML Validation 46 CSS Grid Layout 280

CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 9
Web Design Basics Table Basics
Principles of Visual Design 76 Configure a Table 328

CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 10
Cascading Style Sheets Basics Form Basics
External Style Sheets 122 Connect a Form to Server-side Processing 368
CSS Validation 134

CHAPTER 11
CHAPTER 5 Media and Interactivity Basics
Graphics & Text Styling Basics HTML5 Video 400
Background Images 154 Configure an Inline Frame 405

CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 12
More CSS Basics Web Publishing Basics
CSS Rounded Corners 190 Choosing a Domain Name 430

xii VideoNotes
 CHAPTER 1

Internet and
Web Basics
The Internet and the Web are parts of our daily lives. How did they begin? What
networking protocols and programming languages work behind the scenes to display a web

page? This chapter provides an introduction to some of these topics and is a foundation for the

information that web developers need to know. This chapter also gets you started with your

very first web page. You’ll be introduced to Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), the language

used to create web pages.

You’ll learn how to...

◗ Describe the evolution of the Internet and ◗ Describe the purpose of web browsers and
the Web web servers
◗ Explain the need for web standards ◗ Identify Internet protocols
◗ Describe universal design ◗ Define URIs and domain names
◗ Identify benefits of accessible web design ◗ Describe HTML, XHTML, and HTML5
◗ Identify reliable resources of information ◗ Create your first web page
on the Web ◗ Use the body, head, title, and meta elements
◗ Identify ethical uses of the Web ◗ Name, save, and test a web page

1
The Internet
and the Web

The Internet
The Internet, the interconnected network of computer networks, seems to be everywhere
today. You can’t watch television or listen to the radio without being urged to visit a website.
Even newspapers and magazines have their place on the Internet. It is possible that you may
be reading an electronic copy of this book that you downloaded over the Internet. With the
increased use of mobile devices, such as tablets and smartphones, being connected to the
Internet has become part of our daily lives.

The Birth of the Internet

The Internet began as a network to connect computers at research facilities and universities.
Messages in this network would travel to their destinations by multiple routes or paths,
allowing the network to function even if parts of it were broken or destroyed. The message
would be rerouted through a functioning portion of the network while traveling to its destination.
This network was developed by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)—and the
ARPAnet was born. Four computers (located at University of California, Los Angeles; Stanford
Research Institute; University of California, Santa Barbara; and the University of Utah) were con-
nected by the end of 1969.

Growth of the Internet

As time went on, other networks, such as the National Science Foundation’s NSFnet, were
created and connected with the ARPAnet. Use of this interconnected network, or Internet,
was originally limited to government, research, and educational purposes. The ban on
commercial use of the Internet was lifted in 1991.
The growth of the Internet continues—Internet World Stats1 reported that over 4.8 billion
users, about 62% of the world’s population, were using the Internet by 2020.
When the restriction on commercial use of the Internet was lifted, the stage was set for
future electronic commerce. However, while businesses were no longer banned, the Inter-
net was still text based and not easy to use. The further developments addressed this
issue.

2 Chapter 1 ◗ Internet and Web Basics

The Birth of the Web
While working at CERN, a research facility in Switzerland, Tim Berners-Lee envisioned a
means of communication for scientists by which they could easily “hyperlink” to another Evolution of
the Web
research paper or article and immediately view it. For this purpose, Berners-Lee created
the World Wide Web. In 1991, Berners-Lee posted the code in a newsgroup and made
it freely available. This version of the World Wide Web used Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP) to communicate between the client computer and the web server, and it was text
based, employing Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) to format the documents.

The First Graphical Browser

In 1993, Mosaic, the first graphical web browser, became available. Marc Andreessen and
graduate students working at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA)
at the University of Illinois Urbana–Champaign developed Mosaic. Some individuals in
this group later created another well-known web browser, Netscape Navigator, which is an
ancestor of today’s Mozilla Firefox.

Convergence of Technologies
By the early 1990s, personal com-
puters with easy-to-use graphical
operating systems (such as Microsoft’s
Windows, IBM’s OS/2, and Apple’s
Macintosh OS) were increasingly
available and affordable. Online ser-
vice providers such as CompuServe,
AOL, and Prodigy offered low-cost
connections to the Internet. Figure 1.1
depicts this convergence of available
computer hardware, easy-to-use oper-
ating systems, low-cost Internet con-
nectivity, the HTTP protocol and HTML
language, and a graphical browser
that made information on the Internet
much easier to access. The World
Wide Web—the graphical user inter-
face providing access to information
stored on web servers connected to
the Internet—had arrived! FIGURE 1.1 Convergence of technologies.

The Internet and the Web 3

Web Standards
and Accessibility

You are probably aware that no single person or group runs the World Wide Web. However,
the World Wide Web Consortium, commonly referred to as the W3C, takes a proactive role
in developing recommendations and prototype technologies related to the Web.2 Topics
that the W3C addresses include web architecture, standards for web design, and acces-
sibility. In an effort to standardize web technologies, the W3C produces guidelines called
recommendations.

W3C Recommendations
The W3C Recommendations are created in working groups with input from many major
corporations involved in building web technologies. These recommendations are not rules;
they are guidelines. Major software companies that build web browsers do not always fol-
low the W3C Recommendations. This makes life challenging for web developers because
not all web browsers will display a web page in exactly the same way. The good news is
that there is a trend toward conforming to the W3C Recommendations in new versions of
major web browsers. You’ll follow W3C Recommendations as you code web pages in this
book. Following the W3C Recommendations is the first step toward creating a website that is
accessible.

Web Standards and Accessibility

The Web Accessibility Initiative, referred to as the WAI, is a major area of work by the W3C.3
The Web can present barriers to individuals with visual, auditory, physical, and neurologi-
cal disabilities. An accessible website provides accommodations that help individuals
overcome these barriers. The WAI has developed the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines
(WCAG) for web content developers, web authoring tool developers, and web browser
developers to facilitate use of the Web by those with special needs.4 The most recent
version of WCAG is WCAG 2.1, which extends WCAG 2.0 and introduces additional suc-
cess criteria including requirements for increased support of mobile device accessibility,
low vision accessibility, and cognitive and learning disability accessibility.

Accessibility and the Law

The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 is a federal civil rights law that prohibits
discrimination against people with disabilities. The ADA requires that business, federal, and
state services are accessible to individuals with disabilities.

4 Chapter 1 ◗ Internet and Web Basics

Section 508 of the Federal Rehabilitation Act was amended in 1998 to require that U.S.
government agencies give individuals with disabilities access to information technology that
is comparable to the access available to others. This law requires developers creating infor-
mation technology (including web pages) for use by the federal government to provide for
accessibility. The GSA Government-wide IT Accessibility Initiative provides accessibility require-
ment resources for information technology developers.5 As the Web and Internet technologies
developed, it became necessary to revise the original Section 508 requirements. In 2017, an
update to Section 508 Standards became official which requires meeting the requirements of
WCAG 2.0 Level A & AA Success Criteria. This textbook focuses on WCAG 2.0 and 2.1 guide-
lines to provide for accessibility.
In recent years, state governments have also begun to encourage and promote web acces-
sibility. The Illinois Information Technology Accessibility Act (IITAA) guidelines are an example
of this trend.6

Putting It All Together: Universal Design for the Web

Universal design is a “strategy for making products, environments, opera-
tional systems, and services welcoming and usable to the most diverse
range of people possible”.7 Examples of universal design are all around
us. The cutouts in sidewalk curbs providing for wheelchair accessibility also
benefit a person pushing a stroller or riding a Segway Personal Transporter
(Figure 1.2). Doors that open automatically improve accessibility and also
benefit people carrying packages. A ramp is useful for a person dragging a
rolling backpack or carry-on bag.
Awareness of universal design by web developers has been steadily
increasing. Forward-thinking web developers design with accessibility in
mind because it is the right thing to do. Providing access for visitors with
FIGURE 1.2 A smooth ride is a
visual, auditory, and other challenges should be an integral part of web
benefit of universal design.
design rather than an afterthought.
A person with visual difficulties may not be able to use graphical navigation buttons and may
use a screen reader device to provide an audible description of the web page. By making a
few simple changes, such as providing text descriptions for the images and perhaps providing
a text navigation area at the bottom of the page, web developers can make the page acces-
sible. Often, providing for accessibility increases the usability of the website for all visitors.
Accessible websites with alternate text for images, headings used in an organized manner,
and captions or transcriptions for multimedia are more easily used not only by visitors with
disabilities but also by visitors using a mobile browser. Finally, accessible websites may be
more thoroughly indexed by search engines, which can be helpful in bringing new visitors
to a site. As this book introduces web development and design techniques, corresponding
web accessibility and usability issues are discussed.

Web Standards and Accessibility 5

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Web Browsers
and Web Servers

Network Overview
A network consists of two or more computers connected for the purpose of communicating
and sharing resources. A diagram of a small network is shown in Figure 1.3. Common com-
ponents of a network include the following:
◗ Server computer(s)
◗ Client computer(s)
◗ Shared devices such as printers
◗ Networking devices (routers, hubs, and switches) and the media that connect them

The clients are the computer workstations

used by individuals, such as a PC on a desk.
The server receives requests from clients for
resources, such as a file. Computers used
as servers are usually kept in a protected,
secure area and are only accessed by
network administrators. Networking devices
such as hubs and switches provide network
connections for computers, and routers direct
FIGURE 1.3 Common components of a network. information from one network to another.
The media connecting the clients, servers,
peripherals, and networking devices may consist of copper cables, fiber optic cables,
or wireless technologies.

The Client/Server Model

The term client/server dates from the 1980s and refers to computers joined by a network.
Client/server can also describe a relationship between two computer programs—the cli-
ent and the server. The client requests some type of service (such as a file or database
access) from the server. The server fulfills the request and transmits the results to the cli-
ent over a network. While both the client and the server programs can reside on the same
computer, typically they run on different computers (Figure 1.4). It is common for a server
to handle requests from multiple clients.
The Internet is a great example of client/server architecture at work. Consider the following
scenario: A person is at a computer using a web browser client to access the Internet. The
person uses the web browser to visit a website, say http://www.google.com. The server is
the web server program running on the computer with an IP address that corresponds to
google.com. The web server is contacted, it locates the web page and related resources that

6 Chapter 1 ◗ Internet and Web Basics

 FIGURE 1.4 Web client and web server.

were requested, and it responds by sending them. Here’s how to distinguish between web
clients and web servers:
Web Client
◗ Connected to the Internet when needed
◗ Usually runs web browser (client) software such as Edge or Firefox
◗ Uses HTTP
◗ Requests web page from a web server
◗ Receives web page and associated files from a web server

Web Server
◗ Continually connected to the Internet
◗ Runs web server software (such as Apache or Microsoft Internet Information Server)
◗ Uses HTTP
◗ Receives a request for the web page
◗ Responds to the request and transmits the status code, web page, and associated files
When clients and servers exchange files, they often need to indicate the type of file that is
being transferred; this is done through the use of a Multi-Purpose Internet Mail Extensions
(MIME) type, which is a standard for the exchange of multimedia documents among different
computer systems. MIME was initially intended to extend the original Internet e-mail protocol,
but it is also used by HTTP. MIME provides for the exchange of seven different media types on
the Internet: audio, video, image, application, message, multipart, and text. MIME also uses
subtypes to further describe the data. The MIME type of a web page is text/html. MIME types
of gif and jpeg images are image/gif and image/jpeg, respectively.
A web server determines the MIME type of a file before it is transmitted to the web
browser. The MIME type is sent along with the document. The web browser uses the MIME
type to determine how to display the document.
How does information get transferred from the web server to the web browser? Clients (such
as web browsers) and servers (such as web servers) exchange information through the use of
communication protocols such as HTTP, TCP, and IP, which are introduced in the next section.

Web Browsers and Web Servers 7

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of eccentrics and epicycles on the geocentric hypothesis, there was
no published heliocentric theory which could bear a comparison with
that hypothesis.

It is true, that all the contrivances of epicycles, and the like, by

which the geocentric hypothesis was made to represent the
phenomena, were susceptible of an easy adaptation to a heliocentric
method, when a good mathematician had once proposed to himself
the problem: and this was precisely what Copernicus undertook and
executed. But, till the appearance of his work, the heliocentric
system had never come before the world except as a hasty and
imperfect hypothesis; which bore a favorable comparison with the
phenomena, so long as their general features only were known; but
which had been completely thrown into the shade by the labor and
intelligence bestowed upon 259 the Hipparchian or Ptolemaic
theories by a long series of great astronomers of all civilized
countries.

But, though the astronomers who, before Copernicus, held the

heliocentric opinion, cannot, on any good grounds, be considered as
much more enlightened than their opponents, it is curious to trace
the early and repeated manifestations of this view of the universe.
The distinct assertion of the heliocentric theory among the Greeks is
an evidence of the clearness of their thoughts, and the vigour of their
minds; and it is a proof of the feebleness and servility of intellect in
the stationary period, that, till the period of Copernicus, no one was
found to try the fortune of this hypothesis, modified according to the
improved astronomical knowledge of the time.

The most ancient of the Greek philosophers to whom the ancients

ascribe the heliocentric doctrine, is Pythagoras; but Diogenes
Laertius makes Philolaus, one of the followers of Pythagoras, the
first author of this doctrine. We learn from Archimedes, that it was
held by his contemporary, Aristarchus. “Aristarchus of Samos,” says
he, 1 “makes this supposition,—that the fixed stars and the sun
remain at rest, and that the earth revolves round the sun in a circle.”
Plutarch 2 asserts that this, which was only a hypothesis in the hands
of Aristarchus, was proved by Seleucus; but we may venture to say
that, at that time, no such proof was possible. Aristotle had
recognized the existence of this doctrine by arguing against it. “All
things,” says he, 3 “tend to the centre of the earth, and rest there,
and therefore the whole mass of the earth cannot rest except there.”
Ptolemy had in like manner argued against the diurnal motion of the
earth: such a revolution would, he urged, disperse into surrounding
space all the loose parts of the earth. Yet he allowed that such a
supposition would facilitate the explanation of some phenomena.
Cicero appears to make Mercury and Venus revolve about the sun,
as does Martianus Capella at a later period; and Seneca says 4 it is a
worthy subject of contemplation, whether the earth be at rest or in
motion: but at this period, as we may see from Seneca himself, that
habit of intellect which was requisite for the solution of such a
question, had been succeeded by indistinct views, and rhetorical
forms of speech. If there were any good mathematicians and good
observers at this period, they were employed in cultivating and
verifying the Hipparchian theory.
1 Archim. Arenarius.

2 Quest. Plat. Delamb. A. A. vi.

3 Quoted by Copernic. i. 7.

4 Quest. Nat. vii. 2.

 Next to the Greeks, the Indians appear to have possessed that 260
original vigor and clearness of thought, from which true science
springs. It is remarkable that the Indians, also, had their heliocentric
theorists. Aryabatta 5 (a. d. 1322), and other astronomers of that
country, are said to have advocated the doctrine of the earth’s
revolution on its axis; which opinion, however, was rejected by
subsequent philosophers among the Hindoos.
5 Lib. U. K. Hist. Ast. p. 11.

Some writers have thought that the heliocentric doctrine was

derived by Pythagoras and other European philosophers, from some
of the oriental nations. This opinion, however, will appear to have
little weight, if we consider that the heliocentric hypothesis, in the
only shape in which the ancients knew it, was too obvious to require
much teaching; that it did not and could not, so far as we know,
receive any additional strength from any thing which the oriental
nations could teach; and that each astronomer was induced to adopt
or reject it, not by any information which a master could give him, but
by his love of geometrical simplicity on the one hand, or the
prejudices of sense on the other. Real science, depending on a clear
view of the relation of phenomena to general theoretical ideas,
cannot be communicated in the way of secret and exclusive
traditions, like the mysteries of certain arts and crafts. If the
philosopher do not see that the theory is true, he is little the better for
having heard or read the words which assert its truth.

It is impossible, therefore, for us to assent to those views which

would discover in the heliocentric doctrines of the ancients, traces of
a more profound astronomy than any which they have transmitted to
us. Those doctrines were merely the plausible conjectures of men
with sound geometrical notions; but they were never extended so as
to embrace the details of the existing astronomical knowledge; and
perhaps we may say, that the analysis of the phenomena into the
arrangements of the Ptolemaic system, was so much more obvious
than any other, that it must necessarily come first, in order to form an
introduction to the Copernican.

The true foundation of the heliocentric theory for the ancients was,
as we have intimated, its perfect geometrical consistency with the
general features of the phenomena, and its simplicity. But it was
unlikely that the human mind would be content to consider the
subject under this strict and limited aspect alone. In its eagerness for
wide speculative views, it naturally looked out for other and vaguer
principles of connection and relation. Thus, as it had been urged in
261 favor of the geocentric doctrine, that the heaviest body must be
in the centre, it was maintained, as a leading recommendation of the
opposite opinion, that it placed the Fire, the noblest element, in the
Centre of the Universe. The authority of mythological ideas was
called in on both sides to support these views. Numa, as Plutarch 6
informs us, built a circular temple over the ever-burning Fire of
Vesta; typifying, not the earth, but the Universe, which, according to
the Pythagoreans, has the Fire seated at its Centre. The same
writer, in another of his works, makes one of his interlocutors say,
“Only, my friend, do not bring me before a court of law on a charge of
impiety; as Cleanthes said, that Aristarchus the Samian ought to be
tried for impiety, because he removed the Hearth of the Universe.”
This, however, seems to have been intended as a pleasantry.
6 De Facie in Orbe Lunæ, 6.
 The prevalent physical views, and the opinions concerning the
causes of the motions of the parts of the universe, were scarcely
more definite than the ancient opinions concerning the relations of
the four elements, till Galileo had founded the true Doctrine of
Motion. Though, therefore, arguments on this part of the subject
were the most important part of the controversy after Copernicus, the
force of such arguments was at his time almost balanced. Even if
more had been known on such subjects, the arguments would not
have been conclusive: for instance, the vast mass of the heavens,
which is commonly urged as a reason why the heavens do not move
round the earth, would not make such a motion impossible; and, on
the other hand, the motions of bodies at the earth’s surface, which
were alleged as inconsistent with its motion, did not really disprove
such an opinion. But according to the state of the science of motion
before Copernicus, all reasonings from such principles were utterly
vague and obscure.

We must not omit to mention a modern who preceded Copernicus,

in the assertion at least of the heliocentric doctrine. This was
Nicholas of Cusa (a village near Treves), a cardinal and bishop, who,
in the first half of the fifteenth century, was very eminent as a divine
and mathematician; and who in a work, De Doctâ Ignorantiâ,
propounded the doctrine of the motion of the earth; more, however,
as a paradox than as a reality. We cannot consider this as any
distinct anticipation of a profound and consistent view of the truth.

We shall now examine further the promulgation of the Heliocentric

System by Copernicus, and its consequences. ~Additional material
in the 3rd edition.~ 262
 CHAPTER II.

Induction of Copernicus.—The Heliocentric Theory asserted on formal

grounds.

I Tgrounds
will be recollected that the formal are opposed to the physical
of a theory; the former term indicating that it gives a
satisfactory account of the relations of the phenomena in Space and
Time, that is, of the Motions themselves; while the latter expression
implies further that we include in our explanation the Causes of the
motions, the laws of Force and Matter. The strongest of the
considerations by which Copernicus was led to invent and adopt his
system of the universe were of the former kind. He was dissatisfied,
he says, in his Preface addressed to the Pope, with the want of
symmetry in the Eccentric Theory, as it prevailed in his days; and
weary of the uncertainty of the mathematical traditions. He then
sought through all the works of philosophers, whether any had held
opinions concerning the motions of the world, different from those
received in the established mathematical schools. He found, in
ancient authors, accounts of Philolaus and others, who had asserted
the motion of the earth. “Then,” he adds, “I, too, began to meditate
concerning the motion of the earth; and though it appeared an
absurd opinion, yet since I knew that, in previous times, others had
been allowed the privilege of feigning what circles they chose, in
order to explain the phenomena, I conceived that I also might take
the liberty of trying whether, on the supposition of the earth’s motion,
it was possible to find better explanations than the ancient ones, of
the revolutions of the celestial orbs.
 “Having then assumed the motions of the earth, which are
hereafter explained, by laborious and long observation I at length
found, that if the motions of the other planets be compared with the
revolution of the earth, not only their phenomena follow from the
suppositions, but also that the several orbs, and the whole system,
are so connected in order and magnitude, that no one part can be
transposed without disturbing the rest, and introducing confusion into
the whole universe.”

Thus the satisfactory explanation of the apparent motions of the

planets, and the simplicity and symmetry of the system, were the 263
grounds on which Copernicus adopted his theory; as the craving for
these qualities was the feeling which led him to seek for a new
theory. It is manifest that in this, as in other cases of discovery, a
clear and steady possession of abstract Ideas, and an aptitude in
comprehending real Facts under these general conceptions, must
have been leading characters in the discoverer’s mind. He must
have had a good geometrical head, and great astronomical
knowledge. He must have seen, with peculiar distinctness, the
consequences which flowed from his suppositions as to the relations
of space and time,—the apparent motions which resulted from the
assumed real ones; and he must also have known well all the
irregularities of the apparent motions for which he had to account.
We find indications of these qualities in his expressions. A steady
and calm contemplation of the theory is what he asks for, as the
main requisite to its reception. If you suppose the earth to revolve
and the heaven to be at rest, you will find, he says, “si serio
animadvertas,” if you think steadily, that the apparent diurnal motion
will follow. And after alleging his reasons for his system, he says, 7
“We are, therefore, not ashamed to confess, that the whole of the
space within the orbit of the moon, along with the centre of the earth,
moves round the sun in a year among the other planets; the
magnitude of the world being so great, that the distance of the earth
from the sun has no apparent magnitude when compared with the
sphere of the fixed stars.” “All which things, though they be difficult
and almost inconceivable, and against the opinion of the majority,
yet, in the sequel, by God’s favor, we will make clearer than the sun,
at least to those who are not ignorant of mathematics.”
7 Nicolai Copernici Torinensis de Revolutionibus Orbium
Cœlestium Libri VI. Norimbergæ, m.d.xliii. p. 9.

It will easily be understood, that since the ancient geocentric

hypothesis ascribed to the planets those motions which were
apparent only, and which really arose from the motion of the earth
round the sun in the new hypothesis, the latter scheme must much
simplify the planetary theory. Kepler 8 enumerates eleven motions of
the Ptolemaic system, which are at once exterminated and rendered
unnecessary by the new system. Still, as the real motions, both of
the earth and the planets, are unequable, it was requisite to have
some mode of representing their inequalities; and, accordingly, the
ancient theory of eccentrics and epicycles was retained, so far as
was requisite for this purpose. The planets revolved round the sun
by means of a Deferent, and a 264 great and small Epicycle; or else
by means of an Eccentric and Epicycle, modified from Ptolemy’s, for
reasons which we shall shortly mention. This mode of representing
the motions of the planets continued in use, until it was expelled by
the discoveries of Kepler.
8 Myst. Cosm. cap. 1.

Besides the daily rotation of the earth on its axis, and its annual
circuit about the sun, Copernicus attributed to the axis a “motion of
declination,” by which, during the whole annual revolution, the pole
was constantly directed towards the same part of the heavens. This
constancy in the absolute direction of the axis, or its moving parallel
to itself, may be more correctly viewed as not indicating any
separate motion. The axis continues in the same direction, because
there is nothing to make it change its direction; just as a straw, lying
on the surface of a cup of water, continues to point nearly in the
same direction when the cup is carried round a room. And this was
noticed by Copernicus’s adherent, Rothman, 9 a few years after the
publication of the work De Revolutionibus. “There is no occasion,” he
says, in a letter to Tycho Brahe, “for the triple motion of the earth: the
annual and diurnal motions suffice.” This error of Copernicus, if it be
looked upon as an error, arose from his referring the position of the
axis to a limited space, which he conceived to be carried round the
sun along with the earth, instead of referring it to fixed or absolute
space. When, in a Planetarium (a machine in which the motions of
the planets are imitated), the earth is carried round the sun by being
fastened to a material radius, it is requisite to give a motion to the
axis by additional machinery, in order to enable it to preserve its
parallelism. A similar confusion of geometrical conception, produced
by a double reference to absolute space and to the centre of
revolution, often leads persons to dispute whether the moon, which
revolves about the earth, always turning to it the same face, revolves
about her axis or not.
9 Tycho. Epist. i. p. 184, a. d. 1590.

It is also to be noticed that the precession of the equinoxes made

it necessary to suppose the axis of the earth to be not exactly
parallel to itself, but to deviate from that position by a slight annual
difference. Copernicus erroneously supposes the precession to be
unequable; and his method of explaining this change, which is
simpler than that of the ancients, becomes more simple still, when
applied to the true state of the facts.

The tendencies of our speculative nature, which carry us onwards

in 265 pursuit of symmetry and rule, and which thus produced the
theory of Copernicus, as they produce all theories, perpetually show
their vigor by overshooting their mark. They obtain something by
aiming at much more. They detect the order and connection which
exist, by imagining relations of order and connection which have no
existence. Real discoveries are thus mixed with baseless
assumptions; profound sagacity is combined with fanciful conjecture;
not rarely, or in peculiar instances, but commonly, and in most cases;
probably in all, if we could read the thoughts of the discoverers as
we read the books of Kepler. To try wrong guesses is apparently the
only way to hit upon right ones. The character of the true philosopher
is, not that he never conjectures hazardously, but that his
conjectures are clearly conceived and brought into rigid contact with
facts. He sees and compares distinctly the ideas and the things,—
the relations of his notions to each other and to phenomena. Under
these conditions it is not only excusable, but necessary for him, to
snatch at every semblance of general rule;—to try all promising
forms of simplicity and symmetry.

Copernicus is not exempt from giving us, in his work, an example

of this character of the inventive spirit. The axiom that the celestial
motions must be circular and uniform, appeared to him to have
strong claims to acceptation; and his theory of the inequalities of the
planetary motions is fashioned upon it. His great desire was to apply
it more rigidly than Ptolemy had done. The time did not come for
rejecting this axiom, till the observations of Tycho Brahe and the
calculations of Kepler had been made.

I shall not attempt to explain, in detail, Copernicus’s system of the

planetary inequalities. He retained epicycles and eccentrics, altering
their centres of motion; that is, he retained what was true in the old
system, translating it into his own. The peculiarities of his method
consisted in making such a combination of epicycles as to supply the
place of the equant, 10 and to make all the motions equable about the
centres of motion. This device was admired for a time, till Kepler’s
elliptic theory expelled it, with all other forms of the theory of
epicycles: but we must observe that Copernicus was aware of some
of the discrepancies which belonged to that theory as it had, up to
that time, been propounded. In the case of Mercury’s orbit, which is
more eccentric than that of the other planets, he makes suppositions
which are complex indeed, but which show his perception of the
imperfection of 266 the common theory; and he proposes a new
theory of the moon, for the very reason which did at last overturn the
doctrine of epicycles, namely, that the ratio of their distances from
the earth at different times was inconsistent with the circular
hypothesis. 11
10 See B. iii. Chap. iv. Sect. 7.

11 De Rev. iv. c. 2.

It is obvious, that, along with his mathematical clearness of view,

and his astronomical knowledge, Copernicus must have had great
intellectual boldness and vigor, to conceive and fully develop a
theory so different as his was from all received doctrines. His pupil
and expositor, Rheticus, says to Schener, “I beg you to have this
opinion concerning that learned man, my Preceptor; that he was an
ardent admirer and follower of Ptolemy; but when he was compelled
by phenomena and demonstration, he thought he did well to aim at
the same mark at which Ptolemy had aimed, though with a bow and
shafts of a very different material from his. We must recollect what
Ptolemy says, Δεῖ δ’ ἐλευθέρον εἶναι τῇ γνώμῃ τὸν μέλλοντα
φιλοσοφεῖν. ‘He who is to follow philosophy must be a freeman in
mind.’” Rheticus then goes on to defend his master from the charge
of disrespect to the ancients: “That temper,” he says, “is alien from
the disposition of every good man, and most especially from the
spirit of philosophy, and from no one more utterly than from my
Preceptor. He was very far from rashly rejecting the opinions of
ancient philosophers, except for weighty reasons and irresistible
facts, through any love of novelty. His years, his gravity of character,
his excellent learning, his magnanimity and nobleness of spirit, are
very far from having any liability to such a temper, which belongs
either to youth, or to ardent and light minds, or to those τῶν μέγα
φρονούντων ἐπὶ θεωρίᾳ μικρῂ, ‘who think much of themselves and
know little,’ as Aristotle says.” Undoubtedly this deference for the
great men of the past, joined with the talent of seizing the spirit of
their methods when the letter of their theories is no longer tenable, is
the true mental constitution of discoverers.

Besides the intellectual energy which was requisite in order to

construct a system of doctrines so novel as those of Copernicus,
some courage was necessary to the publication of such opinions;
certain, as they were, to be met, to a great extent, by rejection and
dispute, and perhaps by charges of heresy and mischievous
tendency. This last danger, however, must not be judged so great as
we might infer from the angry controversies and acts of authority
which occurred in 267 Galileo’s time. The Dogmatism of the
stationary period, which identified the cause of philosophical and
religious truth, had not yet distinctly felt itself attacked by the
advance of physical knowledge; and therefore had not begun to look
with alarm on such movements. Still, the claims of Scripture and of
ecclesiastical authority were asserted as paramount on all subjects;
and it was obvious that many persons would be disquieted or
offended with the new interpretation of many scriptural expressions,
which the true theory would make necessary. This evil Copernicus
appears to have foreseen; and this and other causes long withheld
him from publication. He was himself an ecclesiastic; and, by the
patronage of his maternal uncle, was prebendary of the church of St.
John at Thorn, and a canon of the church of Frauenburg, in the
diocese of Ermeland. 12 He had been a student at Bologna, and had
taught mathematics at Rome in the year 1500; and he afterwards
pursued his studies and observations at his residence near the
mouth of the Vistula. 13 His discovery of his system must have
occurred before 1507, for in 1543 he informs Pope Paulus the Third,
in his dedication, that he had kept his book by him for four times the
nine years recommended by Horace, and then only published it at
the earnest entreaty of his friend Cardinal Schomberg, whose letter
is prefixed to the work. “Though I know,” he says, “that the thoughts
of a philosopher do not depend on the judgment of the many, his
study being to seek out truth in all things as far as that is permitted
by God to human reason: yet when I considered,” he adds, “how
absurd my doctrine would appear, I long hesitated whether I should
publish my book, or whether it were not better to follow the example
of the Pythagoreans and others, who delivered their doctrines only
by tradition and to friends.” It will be observed that he speaks here of
the opposition of the established school of Astronomers, not of
Divines. The latter, indeed, he appears to consider as a less
formidable danger. “If perchance,” he says at the end of his preface,
“there be ματαιολόγοι, vain babblers, who knowing nothing of
mathematics, yet assume the right of judging on account of some
place of Scripture perversely wrested to their purpose, and who
blame and attack my undertaking; I heed them not, and look upon
their judgments as rash and contemptible.” He then goes on to show
that the globular figure of the earth (which was, of course, at that
time, an undisputed point among astronomers), had been opposed
on similar grounds by Lactantius, who, 268 though a writer of credit in
other respects, had spoken very childishly in that matter. In another
epistle prefixed to the work (by Andreas Osiander), the reader is
reminded that the hypotheses of astronomers are not necessarily
asserted to be true, by those who propose them, but only to be a
way of representing facts. We may observe that, in the time of
Copernicus, when the motion of the earth had not been connected
with the physical laws of matter and motion, it could not be
considered so distinctly real as it necessarily was held to be in after
times.
12 Rheticus, Nar. p. 94.

13 Riccioli.

The delay of the publication of Copernicus’s work brought it to the

end of his life; he died in the year 1543, in which it was published. It
was entitled De Revolutionibus Orbium Cœlestium Libri VI. He
received the only copy he ever saw on the day of his death, and
never opened it: he had then, says Gassendi, his biographer, other
cares. His system was, however, to a certain extent, promulgated,
and his fame diffused before that time. Cardinal Schomberg, in his
letter of 1536, which has been already mentioned, says, “Some
years ago, when I heard tidings of your merit by the constant report
of all persons, my affection for you was augmented, and I
congratulated the men of our time, among whom you flourish in so
much honor. For I had understood that you were not only acquainted
with the discoveries of ancient mathematicians, but also had formed
a new system of the world, in which you teach that the Earth moves,
the Sun occupies the lowest, and consequently, the middle place,
the sphere of the fixed stars remains immovable and fixed, and the
Moon, along with the elements included in her sphere, placed
between the orbits (cœlum) of Mars and Venus, travels round the
sun in a yearly revolution.” 14 The writer goes on to say that he has
heard that Copernicus has written a book (Commentarios), in which
this system is applied to the construction of Tables of the Planetary
Motions (erraticarum stellarum). He then proceeds to entreat him
earnestly to publish his lucubrations.
14 This passage has so important a place in the history, that I will
give it in the original:—“Intellexeram te non modo veterum
mathematicorum inventa egregie callere sed etiam novam mundi
rationem constituisse: Qua doceas terram moveri: solem imum
mundi, atque medium locum obtinere: cœlum octavum immotum
atque fixum perpetuo manere: Lunam se una cum inclusis suæ
spheræ elementis, inter Martis et Veneris cœlum sitam,
anniversario cursu circum solem convertere. Atque de hac tota
astronomiæ ratione commentarios a te confectos esse, ac
erraticarum stellarum motus calculis subductos tabulis te
contulisse, maxima omnium cum admiratione. Quamobrem vir
doctissime, nisi tibi molestus sum, te etiam atque etiam oro
vehementer ut hoc tuum inventum studiosis communices, et tuas
de mundi sphæra lucubrationes, una cum Tabulis et si quid habes
præterea quod ad eandem rem pertineat primo quoque tempore
ad me mittas.”

269 This letter is dated 1536, and implies that the work of
Copernicus was then written, and known to persons who studied
astronomy. Delambre says that Achilles Gassarus of Lindau, in a
letter dated 1540, sends to his friend George Vogelin of Constance,
the book De Revolutionibus. But Mr. De Morgan 15 has pointed out
that the printed work which Gassarus sent to Vogelin was the
Narratio by Rheticus of Feldkirch, a eulogium of Copernicus and his
system prefixed to the second edition of the De Revolutionibus,
which appeared in 1566. In this Narration, Rheticus speaks of the
work of Copernicus as a Palingenesia, or New Birth of astronomy.
Rheticus, it appears, had gone to Copernicus for the purpose of
getting knowledge about triangles and trigonometrical tables, and
had had his attention called to the heliocentric theory, of which he
became an ardent admirer. He speaks of his “Preceptor” with strong
admiration, as we have seen. “He appears to me,” says he, “more to
resemble Ptolemy than any other astronomers.” This, it must be
recollected, was selecting the highest known subject of comparison.
~Additional material in the 3rd edition.~
15Ast. Mod. i. p. 138. I owe this and many other corrections to
the personal kindness of Mr. De Morgan.
 CHAPTER III.

Sequel to Copernicus.—The Reception and Development of the

Copernican Theory.

Sect. 1.—First Reception of the Copernican Theory.

T HE theories of Copernicus made their way among astronomers,

in the manner in which true astronomical theories always obtain
the assent of competent judges. They led to the construction of
Tables of the motion of the sun, moon, and planets, as the theories
of Hipparchus and Ptolemy had done; and the verification of the
doctrines was to be looked for, from the agreement of these Tables
with observation, through a sufficient course of time. The work De
Revolutionibus contains such Tables. In 1551 Reinhold improved
and republished Tables founded on the principles of Copernicus.
“We owe,” he says in his preface, “great obligations to Copernicus,
both for his laborious 270 observations, and for restoring the doctrine
of the Motions. But though his geometry is perfect, the good old man
appears to have been, at times, careless in his numerical
calculations. I have, therefore, recalculated the whole, from a
comparison of his observations with those of Ptolemy and others,
following nothing but the general plan of Copernicus’s
demonstrations.” These “Prutenic Tables” were republished in 1571
and 1585, and continued in repute for some time; till superseded by
the Rudolphine Tables of Kepler in 1627. The name Prutenic, or
Prussian, was employed by the author as a mark of gratitude to his
benefactor Albert, Markgrave of Brandenbourg. The discoveries of
Copernicus had inspired neighboring nations with the ambition of
claiming a place in the literary community of Europe. In something of
the same spirit, Rheticus wrote an Encomium Borussiæ, which was
published along with his Narratio.

The Tables founded upon the Copernican system were, at first,

much more generally adopted than the heliocentric doctrine on which
they were founded. Thus Magini published at Venice, in 1587, New
Theories of the Celestial Orbits, agreeing with the Observations of
Nicholas Copernicus. But in the preface, after praising Copernicus,
he says, “Since, however, he, either for the sake of showing his
talents, or induced by his own reasons, has revived the opinion of
Nicetas, Aristarchus, and others, concerning the motion of the earth,
and has disturbed the established constitution of the world, which
was a reason why many rejected, or received with dislike, his
hypothesis, I have thought it worth while, that, rejecting the
suppositions of Copernicus, I should accommodate other causes to
his observations, and to the Prutenic Tables.”

This doctrine, however, was, as we have shown, received with

favor by many persons, even before its general publication. The
doctrine of the motion of the earth was first publicly maintained at
Rome by Widmanstadt, 16 who professed to have received it from
Copernicus, and explained the System before the Pope and the
Cardinals, but did not teach it to the public.
16See Venturi, Essai sur les Ouvrages Physico-Mathématiques
de Leonard da Vinci, avec des Fragmens tirés de ses Manuscrits
apportés d’Italie. Paris, 1797; and, as there quoted, Marini
Archiatri Pontificii, tom. ii. p. 251.

Leonardo da Vinci, who was an eminent mathematician, as well as

painter, about 1510, explained how a body, by describing a kind of
spiral, might descend towards a revolving globe, so that its apparent
motion relative to a point in the surface of the globe, might be in a
271 straight line leading to the centre. He thus showed that he had
entertained in his thoughts the hypothesis of the earth’s rotation, and
was employed in removing the difficulties which accompanied this
supposition, by means of the consideration of the composition of
motions.

In like manner we find the question stirred by other eminent men.

Thus John Muller of Konigsberg, a celebrated astronomer who died
in 1476, better known by the name of Regiomontanus, wrote a
dissertation on the subject “Whether the earth be in motion or at
rest,” in which he decides ex professo 17 against the motion. Yet such
discussions must have made generally known the arguments for the
heliocentric theory.
17 Schoneri Opera, part ii. p. 129.

We have already seen the enthusiasm with which Rheticus, who

was Copernicus’s pupil in the latter years of his life, speaks of him.
“Thus,” says he, “God has given to my excellent preceptor a reign
without end; which may He vouchsafe to guide, govern, and
increase, to the restoration of astronomical truth. Amen.”

Of the immediate converts of the Copernican system, who

adopted it before the controversy on the subject had attracted
attention, I shall only add Mæstlin, and his pupil, Kepler. Mæstlin
published in 1588 an Epitome Astronomiæ, in which the immobility of
the earth is asserted; but in 1596 he edited Kepler’s Mysterium
Cosmographicum, and the Narratio of Rheticus: and in an epistle of
his own, which he inserts, he defends the Copernican system by
those physical reasonings which we shall shortly have to mention, as
the usual arguments in this dispute. Kepler himself, in the outset of
the work just named, says, “When I was at Tübingen, attending to
Michael Mæstlin, being disturbed by the manifold inconveniences of
the usual opinion concerning the world, I was so delighted with
Copernicus, of whom he made great mention in his lectures, that I
not only defended his opinions in our disputations of the candidates,
but wrote a thesis concerning the First Motion which is produced by
the revolution of the earth.” This must have been in 1590.

The differences of opinion respecting the Copernican system, of

which we thus see traces, led to a controversy of some length and
extent. This controversy turned principally upon physical
considerations, which were much more distinctly dealt with by
Kepler, and others of the followers of Copernicus, than they had
been by the 272 discoverer himself. I shall, therefore, give a separate
consideration to this part of the subject. It may be proper, however, in
the first place, to make a few observations on the progress of the
doctrine, independently of these physical speculations.

Sect. 2.—Diffusion of the Copernican Theory.

The diffusion of the Copernican opinions in the world did not take
place rapidly at first. Indeed, it was necessarily some time before the
progress of observation and of theoretical mechanics gave the
heliocentric doctrine that superiority in argument, which now makes
us wonder that men should have hesitated when it was presented to
them. Yet there were some speculators of this kind, who were
attracted at once by the enlarged views of the universe which it
opened to them. Among these was the unfortunate Giordano Bruno
of Nola, who was burnt as a heretic at Rome in 1600. The heresies