Kombolcha Institute of Technology

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Chapter One:- Introduction To Network Analysis

and Synthesis

Jemal H. ( Msc )
[email protected]

October, 2024

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 Contents
• In electric netwo

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 1.1. Basic definitions and Representation of Networks

• A network is a collection of objects or elements connected together to

perform a certain task governed by a certain laws.
• In electric network theory the four basic quantities: voltage, current, charge
and flux.
• Network theory is the study of interrelationships among these variables and
the physical laws governing their behaviour.
• In network analysis and synthesis, there are three key words: the excitation,
the network and the response as depicted in Figure 1.1
• Excitation – source of electrical energy to be connected to the network.
• An electrical network is a combination or interconnection of electrical elements
such as resistors, inductors, capacitors, transmission lines, voltage sources
• Response – output signal produced by the network in response to the input.

Fig.1.1. Key terms in network analysis & synthesis

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 Cont…

• For electrical networks, the excitation and response are given in terms of
voltages and currents which are functions of time, .
• The translation between time and frequency domain representations are
affected by Fourier series, Fourier integral and Laplace transform.
• The basic examples of networks includes:
– Filters − electrical networks which pass selective frequency signals.
– Amplifiers/ Attenuators − electrical networks which are used to magnify
or reduce signal power level from input to output.
– Equalizers − electrical networks used to counteract frequency or phase
distortions.
– Matching networks- electrical networks that match source and load
impedances.

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 Network Analysis

• Network Analysis is concerned with determining the response, given the

excitation and the network.
• If the network and the excitation are given, and the problem is to find
current or voltage across elements of the network.
• Always there is a solution
• But might be complex to find solution sometimes
• The solution is unique
• Use KVL, KCL and ohms law
• Straightforward
• Consists of characterizing the network itself in terms of time and
frequency and determining how the network behaves as a signal processor.
• It focuses on understanding how components such as resistors,
capacitors, inductors, and voltage/current sources interact within a
circuit
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 Network Synthesis

• In network synthesis, we are given the response and the excitation , and
we are required to synthesize the network from the system function
• If the input and the output are given explicitly or implicitly and the
problem is to create a network that meets the given specifications, the
procedure followed is called network synthesis.
• Here the problem is to design/synthesize the network from the system
( )
function ( ) = given the excitation ( ) and the desired response
E( )
( ) is the process of
• It is designing and creating electrical networks or filters that meet specific
performance requirements

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 Representation of Ideal Elements

• In the analysis of electrical networks, we use idealized linear mathematical

models of physical circuit elements.
• The elements most often encountered are:
• The resistor R, given in ohms,
• The capacitor C, given in farads, and
• The inductor L, expressed in henrys.
• The endpoints of the elements are called terminals.
• A port is defined as a pair of terminals in which energy is supplied or
withdrawn or where network variables may be measured or observed.
• The energy sources that make up the excitation functions are ideal current or
voltage sources, as shown in Figures below

Figure (a) voltage source, (b) current source

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 Cont…

• In network analysis, the principal problem is to find the relationships that

exist between the currents and voltages at the ports of the network.
• Certain simple voltage-current relationships for the network elements also
serve as defining equations for the elements themselves.
• When the currents and voltages are expressed as functions of time, then the
R, L, and C elements, shown in Fig, are defined by the equations.

Fig. : (a) Resistor (b) inductor,

(c) capacitor (in time domain)

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 Cont…

• In the time domain, where the independent variable is t, the voltage- current
relationships are given in terms of differential equations.
• But, in the complex-frequency domain, the voltage-current relationships for
the elements are expressed in algebraic equations.
• Algebraic equations are more easily solved than differential equations.
• The equations defining the R, L, and C elements can be expressed as a
function of the frequency variable s as follows Using Laplace transform.

Fig. : (a) Resistor, (b) inductor, (c) capacitor

(in Laplace domain)
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 Network Theorems

• Network theorems are mathematical principles and techniques used to

simplify and analyze electrical circuits.
• These theorems provide tools for solving complex circuits by reducing them
to simpler equivalents or by establishing relationships between different
circuit parameters.
• The following are a few commonly used network theorems:

I. Superposition Theorem
II. Thevenin's Theorem
III. Norton's Theorem
IV. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

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 Superposition Theorem

• It states that the voltage across (or current through) an element in a linear
circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltage across (or currents through) that
element due to each independent source acting alone.
• The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a linear circuit with more
than one independent source by calculating the contribution of each
independent source separately.
Two things have to be kept in mind:
1. When we say turn off all other independent sources:
• Independent voltage sources are replaced by 0 V (short circuit) and
• Independent current sources are replaced by 0 A (open circuit).
2. Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by circuit
variables.

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 Example

• Use the superposition theorem to find v in the circuit shown below.

3A is discarded
by open-circuit

Applying KVL to the loop

v = 10V

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 Thevenin’s Theorems

• Thevenin’s Theorem states that: A linear two-terminal circuit can be

replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source, VTh in series
with a resistor, RTh.
• Steps to be Followed in Thevenin’s Theorem are the following
1. Remove the load resistance RL.
2. Find the open circuit voltage VTh and RTh across points A and B.
3. Replace the network by a voltage source VTh in series with resistance RTh.
4. Find the current through RL using Ohm’s law.
Consider a simple network as shown in Fig

Fig. Calculation of VTh

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 Cont…

• For finding series resistance RTh , replace the voltage source by a short circuit
and calculate resistance between points A and B as shown.

Figure Calculation of RTh

• Finally the Thevenin’s equivalent network is shown below

Thevenin’s equivalent network

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 Example

• Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in Figure below to
the left of the terminals a-b.Then find the current through =6, 16 and
36

We find by turning off the 32-V voltage source (replacing it with a short circuit)
and the 2-A current source (replacing it with an open circuit).

Finding

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 Cont…

• The equivalent circuit looks like the following and can be

determined

To find consider the circuit above. Applying mesh analysis to the two loops,
we obtain
but

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 Cont…

• The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in Figure below

• The current through is

When
When

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 Norton’s Theorems

• Norton's Theorem is similar to Thevenin's Theorem but deals with the

current equivalent of a network.
• It states that any linear two-terminal network can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with a single
resistor.
• Consider the simple circuit shown below

• For finding load current through RL , first remove the load resistor RL from
the network and calculate short circuit current ISC or I N which would flow
in a short circuit placed across terminals A and B

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 Cont…

• For finding parallel resistance RN , replace the voltage source by a short

circuit and calculate resistance between points A and B.

• Then finally Norton’s equivalent network is shown in fig below.

The current through RL by using
current–division rule is determined as.

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 The Maximum Power Transfer

• The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem states that the maximum power is
transferred from a source to a load when the load resistance is equal to the
source resistance.
• This theorem is useful in designing power transfer systems and optimizing
power efficiency.
• Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance equals
the Thevenin resistance as seen from the load ( )

• For maximum power dissipated in , Pmax, for a given , and

RL  RTH  P max 
2
V TH
4R TH

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 Electrical Network

• Electrical network: is an interconnection of electrical components (such as

batteries, resistors, inductors, capacitors, switches, transistors etc.)
• A model of such an interconnection, consisting of electrical elements such
as:
• Voltage & current sources
• Résistances
• Inductances & capacitances etc

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 Classification of Electrical Network

• Based on their behaviour, they are classified as follows:

i). Linear network: is a network that exhibits constant parameters, (R,L C).
• These parameters do not change with the changes in voltage or current.
• Ohm’s law and superposition theorem can be applied
ii).Non-linear Network: is a network whose parameters do not show a linear
relation between voltage and current.
• Ohm’s law and superposition theorem may or may not be applied.
iii).Bi-laterial Network: the relation between voltage and current does not change in
both the directions in the network. e.g purely resistive network
iv).Uni-laterial Network: a network whose behaviour is dependent of the
current through various elements of it.

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 Cont…

Active Elements
• Active elements are dependent sources, transistors, op-amps etc. There are
separate energy sources in these elements, without which they cannot
function.
• Involves the use of active components such as operational amplifiers to
achieve the desired filter response.
Passive Elements
• Passive elements are those that have no energy sources. This includes
resistors, inductors, capacitors and coupled inductors (transformers).
• on the other hand, utilizes passive components such as resistors, capacitors,
and inductors to design filters.

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