ELASTICITY:

In case of rigid bodies, the distance between any two particles or

molecules remains unaltered whatever external forces are
applied to it. In other words, the body remains un-deformated in
shape, size or volume.
However in real practice, we never find such a body. Every
material body gets deformated to a smaller or a larger extent
depending upon the way in which the forces act. Moreover, it has
a tendency to recover its original shape and size on the removal
of the external applied forces, within some limit called an elastic
limit. This property of a body is known as elasticity.
Thus, elasticity is the property by virtue of which the body
regains their original shape and size on the removal of the
external deforming forces.
When an external force acts on a body , there is a change in its
length, volume or shape. The body is then said to be strained. On
the removal of the deforming force, the strained body tries to
regain its original state or condition. Such a body is known as
elastic body. For eg. Steel, Quartz, Rubber, etc.
The body which completely regains its original state on
the removal of the deforming forces at a given temperature is
said to be perfectly elastic.
On the other hand, if the body remains deformed and
shows no tendency to recover its original condition even after the
removal of the deforming forces, then it is said to be perfectly
plastic.
In practice however, there exist no such perfectly elastic
or plastic bodies. All materials in general lie in between the two
extremes.
Stress:
If F be the deforming force applied uniformly over an area A,
then stress can be defined as the force per unit area.

i.e. Stress = F A
Its SI unit is Newton / m 2 . Its unit is same as that of pressure.

Strain:
When a stress is applied, a body undergoes a change in terms of
length, volume or shape. The change in the dimension of the
body with respect to the original dimension is called strain.
Change in dimension
i.e. Strain =
Original dimension
Strain has no unit, therefore it is a dimensionless quantity.
Hooke’s Law:
This is the fundamental law of elasticity and was first formulated
by Robert Hooke in the year 1679, according to which
“Provided the strain is small, the stress is proportional to the
strain.”
It follows, therefore, that if the strain is small, the ratio between
the stress and the strain is a constant which is called the modulus
of elasticity or coefficient of elasticity, denoted by the symbol E.

Stress
Thus, E =
Strain
Elastic Limit:
In the case of a solid, if the stress is gradually increased, the strain
too increases with it. Then a certain point is reached at which the
linear relationship between the stress and the strain just ceases to
exist and beyond which the strain increases much more rapidly.
The value of the stress for which the Hooke’s law just
ceases to be obeyed is called the elastic limit of the material of the
body. The body thus recovers its original state on removal of the
stress within this elastic limit, but fails to do so when this limit is
exceeded, acquiring a permanent residual strain.
Thus, Hooke’s law is obeyed only within this elastic limit.
Factors affecting elasticity:
There are mainly three factors that affect elasticity in certain ways.
These are:
➢ Hammering and annealing:
It is observed that operations like hammering and rolling, which
break up the crystal grains of a material into smaller units,
strengthen the elastic properties, because the smaller units
together resist deformation. This increases the binding energy
inside the material provides greater resistance to the deforming
forces. On the other hand, operations like annealing, which tend
to orient the crystal grains into one particular direction (thus
forming a larger crystal) results in the weakening of the elastic
properties or strengthening of its plastic properties.
➢ Addition of impurities:
The addition of impurities to the metals to bind their crystals
better together also plays an important role in affecting the elastic
properties. For example: Addition of carbon to iron or potassium
to gold, affect the elastic properties of the metal depending on the
impurity that is being added.
If the impurity is more elastic in nature, then it will
strengthen the elastic property, and if the impurity is rather a
plastic one, then it will weaken the elastic property of the metal.
In the two examples cited above, both carbon and potassium will
strengthen the elastic properties of iron and gold, since both are
highly elastic in nature.
➢ Change in temperature:
A change in temperature also affects the elastic properties of a
material. Generally speaking, a rise in temperature results in the
weakening of the elastic properties, while a fall in temperature
results in strengthening them.
Thus, carbon which is highly elastic in nature at the
ordinary temperature, becomes plastic when heated by a current
through it.
On the other hand, lead which is hardly elastic at the
ordinary temperature, becomes highly elastic when cooled in
liquid air.
Different types of elasticity:
According to the different types of strain, the elasticity can be
divided into three types.
1. Young’s modulus of elasticity (Elasticity of length):
If a deforming force is applied to a body linearly along a particular
direction, then the force applied per unit area of cross-section is
called linear or longitudinal stress and the change per unit length
is called linear or longitudinal strain. The ratio between the two
within the elastic limit, gives the Young’s modulus of the material
denoted by the letter Y.
Thus, if F is the force applied normally to a cross-sectional
area A, such that an increase in length ‘ l ’ is produced in an
original length ‘ L ’, then we have
F A
Young’s modulus (Y) = (1)
l L
2. Bulk modulus of elasticity (Elasticity of volume):
If the force F is applied normally and uniformly over the surface of
a body of area A, such that there is a change of volume ‘ v ’ with
respect to the original volume ‘ V ’, but no change of shape, then

Stress or Pressure = F A

and Volumetric Strain = − v V

The negative sign indicates that if pressure increases, the volume

decreases and vice-versa.
The ratio between the two gives the Bulk modulus of
elasticity of the material denoted by the letter K.

Thus, F A V
K =− =−P (2)
vV v
3. Modulus of rigidity (Torsion modulus or elasticity of shape):
There is a movement of the layers of the body one over the other
under a tangential force which will result in the change of the
shape of the body, but there is no change in its volume. For eg. A
deck of cards placed on a table and pushed to one side.

Let us consider a cube ABCD as

shown in the figure. If a
tangential force FT is applied
to the upper face ABGF of each
edge L. The lower face DEHC is
kept fixed on a horizontal
surface . Then the layers of the
cube parallel to the upper and
lower faces move one over the
other, with point A shifting to A,
B to B, F to F , and G to G, through an angle  .
This angle  through which a line perpendicular to the fixed face
is turned thus gives the shear strain or the angle of shear of the
face ABCD.
Clearly  = l L, where l is the relative displacement of the upper
face of the cube with respect to the lower fixed face at a distance L
from it. Therefore, if L = 1, then  = l .
Thus, we may also define shear strain as the relative displacement
between any two planes in the body unit distance apart.
The ratio between the tangential stress and shear strain then gives
the modulus of rigidity and is denoted by the letter n.
Thus, F A F A
n = = (3)
 l L
Eq. (3) is similar to that of Young’s modulus. The difference is that
here, F A is tangential and not linear and l is the displacement
at right angles and not along L.
Poisson’s ratio:
We know that when a stress is applied on a wire or a rod, its length
increases and along with it, its diameter or the cross-section also
decreases. In other words, a linear or a longitudinal strain i.e. a
strain in the direction of the applied force also known as the
primary strain is always accompanied by a lateral strain which is
perpendicular to the direction of force also called the secondary
strain.
The ratio between the lateral strain to that of
the longitudinal strain due to a given stress,
within the elastic limit is a constant, known as
the Poisson’s ratio. It is denoted by the letter 
Therefore, Lateral Strain
 = Longitudinal Strain
R R
Here,  =−
l l
Relations connecting the elastic constants:
The elastic constants Y, K, n and the Poisson’s ratio (  ) are all
interconnected in the following ways.
1. Relation connecting Y , K and  :
Let us consider a cube ABCDPQRS as
shown in the figure, having each side
of length l . Since, there are six faces
in a cube, we have to apply a tensile
force (tension) normally to each of the
six faces in the outward direction.
Here, X, Y and Z represent the
corresponding axes of the cube. Now,
let us see what happens if we apply a
force or tension parallel to the X-axis.
As soon as the force is applied, there will be an elongation in
length along the X-axis. But at the same time, it will produce a
compression along Y and Z direction that are perpendicular to the
X-axis. Similarly, if a tension is applied along Y-direction, it will
have an elongation along Y and compression along X and Z-
direction. Similarly, for the Z-Direction as well.
Now, the extension parallel to X-axis= Change in length
= Longitudinal strain * Original length
= Stress/Young’s modulus* Original length
= T l (1)
Y
Next, compression parallel to Y-axis= Lateral Strain*Original length
=(Poisson’s ratio *longitudinal strain)*original length
T l
=  (2)
Y
Similarly, compression parallel to Z-axis =  T  l (3)
Y
Now proceeding in a similar manner, the tension T parallel to Y-
axis produces
T l
(i) The extension parallel to Y-axis = (4)
Y
T l
(ii) The compression parallel to X-axis=  (5)
Y
T l
(iii) The compression parallel to Z-axis=  (6)
Y
The tension T parallel to Z-axis produces
(i) The extension parallel to Z-axis = T  l (7)
Y
T l
(ii) The compression parallel to X-axis=  (8)
Y
T l
(iii) The compression parallel to Z-axis=  (9)
Y
Therefore, net extension parallel to X-axis = T l Y − T l Y − T l Y
= T l Y (1 − 2 ) (10)
Now, new length of each side of the cube
=Original length+Extension
= l 1 + T Y (1 − 2 ) (11)

New volume = l 1 + T Y (1 − 2 ) 3

= l 1 + T Y (1 − 2 ) 
3 3
(12)

Let us expand the term inside the curly bracket binomially.

According to Binomial Expansion,
(1 + x ) n
=1 + nx + n(n − 1) x 2 2!+..... (13)
Therefore, new volume = l 1 + 3 T Y (1 − 2 )
3
(14)
neglecting the higher order terms, since x is very small.
Change in volume = New volume – Original volume

= l 3 1 + 3 T Y (1 − 2 )− l 3
= l 3 3 T Y (1 − 2 ) (15)
Now, volumetric strain= Change in volume/original volume
= 3 T Y (1 − 2 ) (16)
Bulk modulus of elasticity, K = Stress/ Volumetric strain
T
K=
3T Y (1 − 2 )
Thus, Y
K= (17)
3(1 − 2 )
2. Relation connecting Y , n &  :
Let us consider a cube ABCDPQRS having length l. A stress ‘T’ has
been applied along X and Y direction but no stress is acting along Z
axis. The direction of the stress is as shown in Fig.1.
𝑇
We know shear stress, 𝑛 = 𝜃 (1)

where T is the tangential stress and θ

is the shear strain
Extension along X-axis = longitudinal
𝑇𝑙
strain × original length = (2)
𝑌
Compression along Y-axis = lateral
strain × original length = σ𝑇𝑙 (3)
𝑌
𝑇𝑙
Total extension = (1+σ) (4)
𝑌
Extension strain = Total extension/Original extension
𝑇𝑙(1 + 𝜎)
𝑌 𝑇(1 + 𝜎) (5)
= =
𝑙 𝑌
𝑇(1 + 𝜎) (6)
Similarly, compression strain =
𝑌
Now, shear strain θ = Extension strain + Compression strain
𝑇(1 + 𝜎)
𝜃=2 (7)
𝑌
Therefore, 𝑇 𝑇 𝑌
𝑛= = = (8)
𝜃 𝑇 1+𝜎 2(1+𝜎)
2
𝑌

𝑌
𝑛= (9)
2(1 + σ)
3. Relation connecting Y , K & n :
We know that the relationship among Y, K & n is given by
Y
K=
3(1 − 2 )
Thus, Y 3K = (1 − 2 ) (1)
Again, the relation among Y, n &  is given by
Y = 2n (1 +  )
which implies Y n = 2 + 2 (2)
Adding (1) and (2) we have,

Y 3K + Y n = 3  Y = 3
(n + 3K ) 3K n
9 Kn
Therefore, Y= (3)
(n + 3K )
4. Relation connecting K , n &  :
From eq. (1), we have Y 3K = (1 − 2 ) (4)
and from eq. (2), we have Y n = 2 + 2 (5)

Now dividing eq. (4) by (5), we get

n 1 − 2
=
3K 2 + 2

 2 n + 2 n = 3 K − 6 K 
  ( 2n + 6 K ) = 3K − 2n
Therefore,
=
(3K − 2n) (6)
( 2n + 6 K )
Twisting Couple on a wire or cylinder:

Let us consider a cylindrical rod (or

wire) of length L and radius r which is
fixed at the upper end and the lower
end is free. Let us draw a line AB
parallel to the axis O O of the cylinder
and join them from O to A and O to B,
as shown in the figure. Now, let a
twisting or deflecting couple is applied
to the lower end of the cylinder in an
anti-clockwise direction twisting it
through an angle  known as the
angle of twist.
Due to the elasticity of the material of the rod, a restoring couple
is also set up which will try to oppose the twisting couple applied,
and it will balance each other at the equilibrium position.
In order to find out the expression of the twisting couple, let us
imagine the solid cylinder to consist of large number of coaxially
hollow cylinders, one inside the other, and consider one such
cylinder of radius x and thickness dx.
We know that AB was the line parallel
to O O before the cylinder has been
twisted. After twisting, the line AB is
shifted to A B . Now, if the cylinder is
cut along AB and flattened out, it will
form a rectangle ABCD, and after
twisting , if it is cut along A B , it will
form a parallelogram A BC D as shown
in figure 3. The angle BAB  through
which the hollow cylinder is sheared is
called the angle of shear  .
Let us now represent  in terms of the
angle of twist  and for this we have
to consider two triangles O BB  and
BAB  .
In O BB  , Arc BB  = radius * angle
BB = x   (1)
In BAB  , Arc BB = L   (2)

Comparing (1) and (2), we have

 x =  L  =  x (3) Fig. 3
L
This is the representation of the shearing strain  in terms of the
twisting angle  .
Now, shearing stress on elementary hollow cylinder
Force F
T= = (4)
Area 2xdx
Shearing Stress T
Therefore, modulus of rigidity (n)= = (5)
Shearing Strain 
Using (3), (4) in (5), we have

F L 2nx 2 dx
n=  F= (6)
2xdx  x L

Now, the torque acting on the elementary hollow cylinder is

given by
d = F  Perpendicular distance
2nx 2 dx 2nx 3 dx
 d = x  d = (7)
L L
Integrating eq. (7) on both sides, we get
2n 2n  x 
r 4 r

 d =   =  
3
x dx
L 0 L  4 0

Therefore, nr 4
= (7)
2L
This is the required expression for the twisting couple for a
cylinder i.e. the amount of torque required to twist the cylinder
by an angle  .

Therefore, the torsional rigidity (i.e., twisting couple per unit

twist on the cylinder) is now given by

 nr 4
C= = (8)
 2L
Bending of beams:
Beam:
A beam is a rod or bar of uniform rectangular or circular
cross-section whose length is very large as compared to its
thickness or width. A beam may be considered to be made up of
large number of thin plane horizontal layers placed one over the
other. Further each plane layer consists of a number of
longitudinal metallic fibers called the longitudinal filaments
placed side by side.
Bending moment:
Bending moment can be defined as the reaction induced
in a structural element when an external force or moment is
applied to the element causing it to bend. Basically, it is a measure
of the bending effect that can occur when an external force is
applied to the structural element.
Expression for bending moment:
Let us consider a rectangular beam which is bent in the
form of a circular arc by applying deforming forces at its ends as
shown.
Due to the elasticity property of the material of the beam, the
restoring force comes into play automatically and constitute a
restoring couple which is equal and opposite to that of the
deforming couple.
Due to bending, the longitudinal filaments lying on the
outer (convex) side are elongated, while those lying on the inner
(concave) side are compressed. However, in the midway of the
beam, the length of the longitudinal filament remains the same
i.e., they are neither stretched nor shortened. Such filaments are
called neutral filaments.
Let us consider a small section PQRS of a bent beam which
makes an angle  with the center of curvature O.
Let AB be the longitudinal filament
at a normal distance z from the
neutral filament MN. Let r be the
radius of curvature of the neutral
filament MN.
Therefore, arc MN = radius*angle
MN = r   (1)
Also, AB = (r + z )   (2)

Now, extension in filament AB= AB-MN

AB = (r + z ) − r
AB = z (3)
 Extension in AB
The longitudinal strain for the filament AB =
Original length
z z
= = (4)
r r
Now, Young’s modulus, Y = Stress
(5)
Longitudinal Strain
Yz
 Stress = (6)
r
Again, we know Force
Stress = (7)
Area
Yz
From (6) and (7), we have F =  Area (8)
r
Therefore, force on the small area of cross-section will be
Yz
F=  a (9)
r
Therefore, moment of force = Force * Perpendicular distance
 Y z a 
=  z (10)
 r 
Therefore, sum of the moments of all the forces (called the
bending moment)
 Y a  2
B.M =    z
 r 
Y
=  a z 2
r
Y
Therefore, Bending Moment = I g (11)
r
The term  a z 2 is called the geometrical moment of inertia,
represented by I g .
The quantity Y I g is the external bending moment required to
produce a curvature of unit radius in the beam (i.e., when r = 1)
and is called the flexural rigidity of the beam, and it measures the
resistance of the beam.
Flexural rigidity
Thus, bending moment of the beam =
r
Depending on the expression of I g , the bending moment for two
different cross-sections can be calculated:
Case 1: For rectangular cross-section, I g = bd 3 12 [ b: breadth of the beam
d: depth of the beam ]
Therefore, BM = Ybd 3 12 r (a)
I
Case 2: For circular cross-section, g =  R 4
4

Therefore, BM = Y  R 4 4 r (b) [ R: Radius of cross-section ]

Cantilever:
It is a thin rod of uniform cross-section clamped (fixed) at one end
and loaded at the other end.
Bending (Depression) of the cantilever when the weight of the
cantilever is ineffective:
Let us take a cantilever of length l
with AB as its neutral axis. The
cantilever is fixed at the end A and
a load W is suspended at the end
B. Due to this load, the end B is
depressed into position B and the
neutral axis AB takes up the
position A B .
Let us consider a section P of the beam at a distance x from the
fixed end A.
Therefore, the external couple acting on the section P due to load
W= Force*Perpendicular Distance = W  (l − x )

As we know, at the position of equilibrium, this external couple will

be balanced by the internal bending moment ( YI g r ), which we
have already calculated, where Y is the value of Young’s modulus
for the material of the beam, I g the geometrical moment of inertia
of its cross-section and r the radius of curvature of the neutral axis
of the section at P.
Thus,
W (l − x ) = YI g r

 r = YI g W (l − x ) (1)
 1 r = W (l − x ) YI g (2)
From the knowledge of differential calculus, the reciprocal of radius
of curvature is given by
1 d2y
= 2 (3)
r dx
1 2
d y dx 2
1 d2y
[Note: The curvature = , reduces to = 2

r 1 + (dy dx )2 
32
r dx

when dy dx is very small.]

Here, y represents the depression and x represents the distance of
the section P from the fixed end A.
Now, equating eq. (2) and (3) we get,
d2y
2
= W (l − x ) YI g (4)
dx
Integrating eq. (4) with respect to x, we get

dy W
=
dx YI g
 (l − x )dx + C 1 (5)


dy W
=
dx YI g
 
l  dx −  xdx + C1

dy W  x2 
 = lx −  + C1 (6)
dx YI g  2
At the fixed end A, we have x=0 and y=0, therefore dy dx → 0
Therefore, C1 = 0, and eq. (6) gives

dy W  x2 
= lx −  (7)
dx YI g  2
Again integrating eq. (7) with respect to x, we get
W  x2 
y= 
YI g 
 lx − dx + C 2
2
(8)

W  x2 x3 
y= l 2 − 6  + C 2 (9)
YI g  
Applying the same boundary condition, i.e., at x=0, y=0
Therefore, C 2 = 0, and eq. (9) gives

W  x2 x3 
y= l 2 − 6  (10)
YI g  
This is the expression of the depression of the beam at a distance x
from the fixed end A.
Now, we are going to find out the expression of the depression at
the loaded end B. Since, the free end B of the beam is at a distance
l from the fixed end A, we have x = l and therefore,
Therefore the depression of the loaded end B is given by
W l 3 l 3  W  2l 3 
y=  2 − 6   y = YI  6 
YI g   g  
Thus,
W l3
y= (11)
3YI g

Depending on the value of I g , there will be two expressions for y.

3
Case 1: For rectangular cross-section, y = 4W l
(12)
Ybd 3
Case 2: For circular cross-section, 4W l 3
y= (13)
3YR 4