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Socio-​Economic Environment and Human Psychology
 
Socio-​Economic Environment
and Human Psychology
Social, Ecological, and
Cultural Perspectives

Edited by

AY Ş E K. ÜSKÜL

and

Shigehiro OISHI

1
1
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.

© Oxford University Press 2018

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction
rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Üskül, Ayşe K., editor. | Oishi, Shigehiro, editor.
Title: Socio-economic environment and human psychology : social, ecological, and
cultural perspectives / edited by Ayşe K. Üskül, Shigehiro Oishi.
Description: New York : Oxford University Press, 2018. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017046499 | ISBN 9780190492908 (hardback : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Economics—Sociological aspects. | Economics—Psychological
aspects. | BISAC: PSYCHOLOGY / Social Psychology. | BUSINESS & ECONOMICS /
Economics / Microeconomics. | SOCIAL SCIENCE / Anthropology / Cultural.
Classification: LCC HM548 .S6176 2018 | DDC 306.3—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017046499

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America
 To my family members, including my father, my mother, my sister,
my husband and our 7-​year old daughter Mira Ayda whose level of
productivity in producing books I don’t even aspire to reach. You all have
been the greatest inspiration to me.
Ayşe K. Üskül

To my undergraduate advisor, the late Professor Tamotsu Fujinaga,

whose generosity and wisdom I will never forget.
Shigehiro Oishi
CONTENTS

Contributor List ix
Introduction xi
Ayşe K. Üskül and Shigehiro Oishi

SECTION 1 | Ecology and Economic Activity

­CHAPTER 1 Ecocultural Perspective on Human Behavior 3
John W. Berry
­CHAPTER 2 The Role of Economic Culture in Social
Interdependence: Consequences for Social Exclusion
Experiences 33
Ayşe K. Üskül and Harriet Over
­CHAPTER 3 How Rice Farming Shaped Culture in Southern
China 53
Thomas Talhelm and Shigehiro Oishi
­CHAPTER 4 Rationally Irrational? The Ecologies and Economics
of Honor 77
Dov Cohen, Ivan Hernandez, Karl Gruschow,
Andrzej Nowak, Michele J. Gelfand,
and Wojciech Borkowski

SECTION 2 | Socio-Economic Status and Inequality

­CHAPTER 5 Decision-​Making Up Against the Wall: A Framework
for Understanding the Behavioral Dimension of Low
Socio-Economic Status 105
Jennifer Sheehy-​Skeffington
 ­CHAPTER 6 Socio-Economic Inequality in Health: Individual-​and
Area-​Level Measures of Socio-Economic Position 129
Nicos Middleton, Panayiota Ellina, George Zannoupas,
Demetris Lamnisos, and Christiana Kouta
­CHAPTER 7 Socio-Economic Cultures: How Education Shapes
the Self 171
Rebecca Carey and Lucy Zhang Bencharit
­CHAPTER 8 Context Shapes Human Development: Studies
from Turkey 199
Çiğdem Kağitçibaşi and Zeynep Cemalcilar

SECTION 3 | Economic Conditions

­CHAPTER 9 Economics of Subjective Well-​Being: Evaluating
the Evidence for the Easterlin Paradox 225
Anke C. Plagnol and Lucia Macchia
­CHAPTER 10 Economic Shifts and Cultural Changes in Individualism:
A Cross-​Temporal Perspective 247
Yuji Ogihara
­CHAPTER 11 Dynamics of Culture Change and Cultural Stability
among the Shuar of Ecuador 271
H. Clark Barrett

SECTION 4 | Ecological and Economic Threat

­CHAPTER 12 Economic Conditions Cue Evolutionary Challenges:
When a Recession is More Than Just a Recession 299
Jeff Gassen and Sarah E. Hill
­CHAPTER 13 Disasters, Insurance, and Preferences 327
Yasuyuki Sawada

Author Biographies 353

Index 363

viii | Contents
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CONTRIBUTOR LIST

H. Clark Barrett Dov Cohen

Department of Anthropology Department of Psychology
University of California, Los University of Illinois at
Angeles Urbana-​Champaign
Los Angeles, CA, USA Champaign, IL, USA
John W. Berry Panayiota Ellina
Department of Psychology Department of Nursing
Queen’s University Cyprus University of Technology
Kingston, Ontario, Canada Limassol, Cyprus
Wojciech Borkowski Jeff Gassen
School of Social Sciences and Department of Psychology
Humanities Texas Christian University
University of Warsaw Fort Worth, TX, USA
Warsaw, Poland
Michele J. Gelfand
Rebecca Carey Department of Psychology
Department of Psychology University of Maryland
Stanford University College Park, MD, USA
Stanford, CA, USA
Karl Gruschow
Zeynep Cemalcılar Department of Psychology
Department of Psychology University of Illinois at
Koç University Urbana-​Champaign
Istanbul, Turkey Champaign, IL, USA
Ivan Hernandez Shigehiro Oishi
Department of Psychology Department of Psychology
DePaul University University of Virginia
Chicago, IL, USA Charlottesville, VA, USA
Sarah E. Hill Harriet Over
Department of Psychology Department of Psychology
Texas Christian University University of York
Fort Worth, TX, USA York, England, UK
Çiğdem Kağitçibaşi Anke C. Plagnol
Department of Psychology Department of Psychology
Koç University City, University of London
Istanbul, Turkey London, England, UK
Christiana Kouta Yasuyuki Sawada
Department of Nursing Faculty of Economics
Cyprus University of Technology University of Tokyo
Limassol, Cyprus Tokyo, Japan
Demetris Lamnisos Jennifer Sheehy-​Skeffington
Department of Health Science Department of Psychology
European University Cyprus London School of Economics
Nicosia, Cyprus London, England, UK
Lucia Macchia Thomas Talhelm
Department of Psychology Booth School of Business
City, University of London University of Chicago
London, England, UK Chicago, IL, USA
Nicos Middleton Ayşe K. Üskül
Department of Nursing School of Psychology
Cyprus University of Technology University of Kent
Limassol, Cyprus Kent, England, USA
Andrzej Nowak George Zannoupas
Department of Psychology Department of Nursing
University of Warsaw Cyprus University of Technology
Warsaw, Poland Limassol, Cyprus
Yuji Ogihara Lucy Zhang Bencharit
Department of Cognitive Department of Psychology
Psychology Stanford University
Kyoto University Stanford, CA, USA
Kyoto, Japan

x | Contributor List
INTRODUCTION
Ayşe K. Üskül and Shigehiro Oishi

S ocioecological psychology is a relatively new subfield of psychology

that investigates humans’ cognitive, emotional, and behavioral adapta-
tion to physical, interpersonal, economic, and political environments. By
adopting an objectivist perspective to psychological science and focus-
ing on how objective social and physical environments affect one’s think-
ing, feeling, and behaviors, as well as how people’s thinking, feeling, and
behaviors give rise to social and built environments, it differs from many
other subfields of psychology that typically focus on how an individual’s
perception and construal of the environment affect one’s thinking, feeling,
and behavior (e.g., Dweck, 2006; Wilson, 2011). This way, it moves away
from the study of the subjective, intrapsychic phenomenology to elucidate
how individuals and different types of ecologies define each other (for
reviews, see Oishi, 2010, 2014; Oishi & Graham, 2010). By focusing on
the ecology-​psychology interface, socioecological psychology acknowl-
edges the importance of the commonly neglected fact that people most
often think, feel emotions, and act in reaction to, and in the presence of,
other people and in certain physical, climatic, political, economic, demo-
graphic, and cultural conditions.
In this book, we focus on one of these environments, namely the socio-
economic environment, which impacts every aspect of individuals’ entire
life cycle. By doing so we highlight the importance of situating the indi-
vidual directly in the everyday realities afforded by economic conditions
and settings that provide the material basis of psychological outcomes and
contribute to bridging the psychological with the external circumstances.
This approach is important as it highlights the important role that psychol-
ogy can play in understanding the human experience as embedded in dif-
ferent (economic) ecologies and puts psychology in closer communication
with other social sciences, such as sociology and economics, that have a
tradition of attending to objective social structural factors.
In this edited volume, we underline the value of attending to socioec-
ological approaches in understanding the relationship between the socio-
economic environment and human psychology by including state-​of-​the
art research that focuses on the role played by (a) type of ecology and
associated economic activity/​structure (e.g., farming, herding), (b) socio-
economic status and inequality (e.g., poverty, educational attainment),
(c) economic conditions (e.g., wealth, urbanization), and (d) ecological
and economic threat (e.g., disasters, resource scarcity) in the shaping of
different psychological processes including subjective well-​being, con-
struction of the self, endorsement of honor, cognitive styles, responses to
social exclusion, food intake, decision-​making, health behaviors, and aca-
demic outcomes, among others. We grouped contributions under sections
that tap into these topics. However, as it will be apparent, there are cross-​
cutting themes that the readers will come across in different sections.
Our decision to prepare an edited volume to focus on the role of differ-
ent aspects of the socio-economic environment in human psychological
processes was motivated by the following theoretical and empirical develop-
ments. First, in our view, the amount of accumulated research designed to
examine the impact of the socio-economic environment on different psycho-
logical processes justifies an edited volume. Research in this area has already
produced large evidence on a rich set of connections between economic life
and human psychology, linking, for example, on the one hand economic con-
ditions such as wealth, socio-economic status and inequality, and economic
change with subjective well-​being, autonomy-​relatedness, and identity, and,
on the other hand, economic activities or structures, such as (wheat vs. rice)
farming and herding or market economy versus conditions of stable hierar-
chy, with perceptual and social interdependence, prosociality, coordination,
and motivation. The absence of a similar volume in the literature that brings
to the reader a collection of different disciplinary approaches to this topic was
one of our main motivations to prepare an edited volume that would show-
case the rich and diverse set of perspectives researchers take to understand the
link between the economic environment and psychological processes.
Second, researchers in social science disciplines other than psychol-
ogy that examine the impact of objective and social structural conditions

xii | Introduction
on human reality (e.g., sociology, economics) have limited awareness of
the contributions that psychology has made to the study of the association
between economic life and human psychological functioning (and vice
versa). This book showcases cutting-​edge research from psychology on
this topic and helps introduce it to readers in other social science disci-
plines. Although showcasing psychological research in this area was one
of our motivations, our ultimate aim was to bring together perspectives
from different social science disciplines. Thus the coverage of this book is
not limited to psychology but also includes contributions from researchers
in economics, anthropology, epidemiology, and evolutionary science who
take a socioecological approach to investigating the link between socio-
economic environment and psychological processes. As will be clear,
most chapters also draw links between different disciplines such as social
psychology, evolutionary science, and economics, reflecting the interdis-
ciplinary nature of the questions asked in this area of inquiry. Reflecting
the different (inter)disciplinary approaches presented across the contribu-
tions, this volume also showcases the different methods researchers uti-
lize including archival, experimental (lab-​based and field), correlational,
observational, and agent-​based modeling. We hope that the multidiscipli-
nary (and multimethod) nature of this volume will provide a gateway to
increasing interdisciplinary communication on the topic in the future and
encourage learning from each discipline’s methodological and theoretical
strengths to help advance the knowledge in a concerted fashion.
Third, research that takes a socioecological approach is becoming
increasingly diverse in terms of the location and type of the groups stud-
ied in different disciplines. We aimed to bring together contributions that
highlights this diversity. Accordingly, the research covered in this volume
originates from different parts of the world covering different geographical
regions (e.g., Turkey, China, Japan, the United States, Ecuador, the United
Kingdom, Cyprus) and kinds of human groups including wheat, rice, tea
farmers and herders, rural tribes and metropolitan settlers, working-​class
versus middle-​class individuals, low socio-economic groups, and individ-
uals who face recession or disasters.
Furthermore, most chapters adopt a comparative socioecological
approach that presents evidence for similarities between and variation
across the studied economic conditions and activities. By looking beyond
single groups and adopting a comparative lens, chapters provide an oppor-
tunity to refine, anchor, reinforce, or modify existing arguments and
assumptions about human psychology and contribute to the diversity of
knowledge in psychological sciences, helping our discipline move away

Introduction | xiii
from being a study of the WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized,
Rich, and Democratic) societies (Henrich, Heine, & Norenzayan, 2010).
Fourth, there are now several groups of researchers in different parts
of the world based in different social science departments investigating
related research questions that tap into the relationship between socio-
economic environment and human psychology. For the most part, these
groups are not connected and are rarely aware of the commonalities and
differences in the approaches they take and the conclusions they draw
from their research discoveries. We hoped to prepare a volume that would
be instrumental in creating a coherent body of knowledge and stimulate
collaborative efforts to investigate novel questions at the interface of eco-
nomic conditions and activities and human psychological processes.
Finally, as seen by the Lehman shock, the Eurozone crisis, the yet
unknown but feared economic effects of Brexit and other recent booms
and busts, economic conditions are constantly changing in many societies.
In the middle of economic uncertainties and fast changes, it is timely to
focus on the impact of various economic conditions on human psychology
that should be of interest to scholars in and outside of psychology and eco-
nomics, as well as policy makers and the general public.

Overview of the Volume

We start this edited volume with contributions from leading researchers

in social and (cross)cultural psychology who have significantly advanced
our understanding of the association between different forms of economic
activities individuals pursue for living and different aspects of human
mind and behavior. The first section of the volume, titled “Ecology and
Economic Activity” features four chapters that highlight the important
role played by ecology, which shapes the type of economic activity in
which members of a community engage and the subsequent dominant eco-
nomic structures in how individuals perceive and act upon their physical
and social world. This section starts with a review chapter by John Berry,
one of the leading figures who introduced the ecocultural approach to
the study of human behavior in the 1960s. In this approach, he empha-
sizes the role of both ecological and cultural contexts in understanding
the development and display of human behavior and highlights the con-
cepts of interaction (reciprocal relationships among elements in the sys-
tem) and adaptation (change that takes place that may/​may not increase
mutual compatibility) in making sense of human behavior in context. In

xiv | Introduction
this chapter, Berry reviews research that focuses on the dynamic inter-
play between ecology and human behavior emphasizing consequences
for perception, cognition, and social relations. His review of studies (old
and new) sheds light into the evolution of ideas that have been examined
using the ecocultural approach and highlights the interdisciplinary nature
of thinking that cuts across different subfields of anthropology, cognitive
science, and psychology.
In the following chapter, Ayşe K. Üskül, a social/​cultural psychologist,
and Harriet Over, a developmental psychologist, focus on daily require-
ments induced by pursuing farming or herding for living and the associ-
ated consequences for social relationships. Specifically, they discuss how
different economies can give rise to different habits and social practices
and how these habits and social practices then translate into how indi-
viduals relate to others and define their self-​concepts. They review stud-
ies conducted with members of tea farming and herding communities in
the eastern Black Sea region of Turkey designed to examine the role of
social interdependencies individuals build with others in how they respond
to social exclusion. This chapter features research conducted with both
adults and children with a goal to identify how deep-​rooted the differ-
ences between these economic communities might be. In addition to high-
lighting the role of the economic activity and associated level of social
interdependencies in social relationships, this chapter also contributes to a
more refined understanding of social exclusion experiences by focusing on
the source of social exclusion (by strangers versus close others) and how
children respond to social exclusion incidents that they witness and how
they morally evaluate those involved in exclusion.
In the next chapter, social and cultural psychologists Thomas Talhelm
and Shigehiro Oishi focus on even a finer distinction between different
types of economic activities and compare wheat farming with rice farm-
ing in terms of the likely consequences for coordination and cooperation
among individuals that come from communities that earn their livelihood
from pursuing these economic activities. Their observations reported in
this chapter originate mainly from studies conducted in China based on
which they put forward a theory that links southern China’s history of
rice farming to its modern-​day culture. They first give a detailed account
of how rice farming differs from other forms of farming in terms of labor
requirements and need for coordination and how the distinct characteris-
tics of rice farming are expected to shape social relationships and thought
styles among individuals from rice farming areas differently compared
with those from what farming areas. They then present research evidence

Introduction | xv
that demonstrates differences between rice versus wheat farming areas in
terms of importance of the self, friend/​stranger distinction, and relational
mobility. Finally, they discuss the effects of modernization on changes in
rice-​farming and the potential shifts these changes might bring about in
human psychology.
In the final chapter of the first section of this volume, Dov Cohen and
his colleagues discuss a relatively recently introduced distinction between
three motivational systems, honor cultures, face cultures, and dignity cul-
tures, and then focus on the ecological (e.g., rough, mountainous terrain)
and economic (e.g., presence of portable, stealable wealth) structures that
give rise to the emergence of honor cultures. Next, they introduce the dis-
tinct characteristics related to honor cultures including short-​term irra-
tionality, which might prove to be a “rational” strategy in the long run.
They then test this rationality argument in terms of costs and benefits
using agent-​based modeling. Specifically, this chapter draws upon recent
work conducted using three agent-​based models that examine when an
honor stance proves advantageous and that explore the population dynam-
ics of strategies in the environment. They demonstrate that the long-​term
effects of short-​term irrationalities observed in honor cultures may in fact
be rational in that they help maximize desired outcomes for the individual
and social group at large.
The second section of the volume, titled “Socio-economic Status and
Inequality,” features four chapters that highlight the role of socio-economic
conditions in decision-​making, health, and the self. This section starts with
a chapter by the social psychologist Jennifer Sheehy-​Skeffington, who
surveys a wide range of evidence for socio-economic status (SES) dispari-
ties in health behavior, economic decisions, and educational outcomes.
She further examines an intriguing question regarding why low-​SES indi-
viduals are more likely than high-​SES individuals to engage in disadvan-
tageous behaviors (e.g., health-​damaging behaviors, suboptimal financial
decisions). She offers a new framework for understanding this important
phenomenon based on the psychology of resource scarcity (e.g., weakened
executive function) and self-​regulation (e.g., less ability to act in line with
long-​term goals). In the end, Sheehy-​Skeffington advocates a shift away
from the deficit model of poverty to the adaptive, life history theory of
poverty.
In the second chapter of this section, the epidemiologist Nicos
Middleton and his colleagues explore the role of socio-economic posi­
tion in health. The authors focus on the relative position of an individual
household and a community in their analyses. At the individual level of

xvi | Introduction
analysis, Middleton and colleagues examine the role of education, income/​
wealth, and occupational status. At the level of community, they use the
census-​ based measure of neighborhood deprivation (e.g., unemploy-
ment rate, overcrowding), as well as new multiple indicators that include
income, air quality, and crime rate. Besides objective indices of neighbor-
hood deprivation, some researchers use the aggregate of survey responses
on concepts such as social capital and collective efficacy. This chapter also
provides a useful guideline for indices of community-​level deprivation.
The third chapter in this section by social and cultural psychologists
Rebecca Carey and Lucy Zhang Bencharit focuses on the role of socio-
economic cultures, defined primarily by level of educational attainment,
in human behavior through their impact on one’s experience of self as
either independent or interdependent. They first outline how level of
educational attainment shapes sociocultural and socio-economic reali-
ties through their impact on interactions and social networks; the norms,
rules, policies, and practices of formal institutions; and ideas about what
is good and normative. They then summarize research illustrating how
high school and college-​educated contexts can breed an interdependent
self and independent self, respectively, and the consequences these con-
texts create for cognitive, emotional, and motivational processes. Finally,
they focus attention on how parental educational attainment influences
children’s educational attainment, further contributing to disparities in
our societies and put forward suggestions that are grounded in research
for how to overcome these disparities. This chapter contributes to our
understanding of how education can have psychological outcomes, going
beyond the traditional focus of social sciences on the importance of edu-
cation for economic outcomes.
The fourth and final chapter in this section by Çiğdem Kağitçibaşi
and Zeynep Cemalcılar, two social developmental psychologists, first
discusses the importance of socio-economic context for human develop-
ment including topics such as parenting and schooling. The authors then
introduce Kağitçibaşi’s theory of family change that takes into account the
dynamic interplay between different aspects of social and economic context
(e.g., urban-​rural habitat, SES, level of affluence) and how this can lead to
the emergence of different types of family models. This approach empha-
sizes that families and the parenting styles they adopt adapt to the require-
ments of socio-economic contexts and transform with contextual changes,
especially with increasing levels of urbanization and socio-economic devel-
opment. To highlight the role of socio-economic status in human devel-
opment, the authors present findings from research conducted in Turkey,

Introduction | xvii
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a cultural context with high levels of social change in recent times, that
demonstrates the detrimental effects of low SES on various social (e.g.,
prosocial behaviors), developmental (e.g., children’s vocabulary), and aca-
demic (e.g., school dropout) outcomes. They also present findings from an
intervention study aiming to counteract some of the negative consequences
of low SES on child development. Their approach not only emphasizes
the importance of socio-economic context on human development but
also takes into account the changing nature of socio-economic factors. It
also situates family as a socializing unit at the core to understand the link
between changing environmental conditions and the self.
The third section of the volume, titled “Economic Conditions,” brings
together three contributions that focus on the role of changes in economic
conditions in subjective well-​being, individualism-​collectivism, and cul-
ture at large. The economists Anke C. Plagnol and Lucia Macchia tackle
a paradoxical finding initially observed by Richard Easterlin, called the
Easterlin paradox: Even though wealthy individuals are happier than
poor individuals, economic growth has not increased citizens’ happiness
in many countries, including the United States. Recently, however, some
researchers have challenged Easterlin’s original observations and shown
that economic growth has increased citizens’ happiness in some countries.
Plagnol and Macchia review the latest empirical evidence and argue that
the Easterlin paradox is still present. Furthermore, the authors explore the
factors that contribute to the Easterlin paradox such as social comparison,
hedonic adaptation, and consumption norms.
The second chapter in this section by the social and cultural psychol-
ogist Yuji Ogihara takes a temporal perspective to understand how eco-
nomic shifts are associated with changes in individualism in the United
States, Japan, and China. The author builds on previous research demon-
strating that wealth and individualism are positively associated both at the
individual and the national level and asks whether this relationship is also
present at the temporal level. He first introduces a theoretical account for
why economic affluence and level of individualism may be associated. He
then presents empirical evidence on economic development in the United
States, Japan, and China and temporal changes in individualism focus-
ing on historical shifts in family structure (divorce rate, household size),
baby naming practices, and individualistic nature of words in books. He
concludes that, over time, as a society becomes more affluent, it becomes
more individualistic. He discusses potential underlying mechanisms for
this association and makes valuable suggestions for future research in this
growing field of inquiry.

xviii | Introduction
 The final chapter in this section by anthropologist H. Clark Barrett
examines culture change and culture stability among the Shuar, an indig-
enous Amazonian society in southeastern Ecuador, a community that is
undergoing rapid changes in technology and infrastructure leading to
shifts in the economic (e.g., resource sharing, acquisition, and distribu-
tion) and social (e.g., marriage and family structures) life. Using a cultural
evolutionary perspective, he asks which aspects of the Shuar economic
and social life are expected to change and which aspects are expected to
remain stable. He also discusses possible processes that shape cultural
change and stasis among the Shuar. Through this specific example, Barrett
engages with broader questions concerning the dynamics of human cul-
tural history, focusing on the bidirectional feedback between environmen-
tal structures and individual behavior.
The fourth and final section of the volume, titled “Ecological and
Economic Threat,” brings together two contributions that focus on differ-
ent kinds of threats: recessions and disasters. Economists, sociologists,
and other social scientists have documented the effects of economic crises
or threats on various human behaviors, ranging from consumer spending
to criminal activities to voting. The links are fairly straightforward—​such
as the finding that people do not spend as much money on nonessential
items during a recession as they do during an economic boom—​and do
not require much psychological analysis. However, recent research emerg-
ing from psychology and economics research showed more distal, nonin-
tuitive links between economic conditions and human behaviors. The last
two chapters provide us an introduction into psychological responses to
ecological and economic threats and how it might be possible to find pro-
tection against the damaging consequences of such threats.
The chapter by Jeff Gassen, an experimental psychologist, and Sarah
Hill, a behavioral ecologist and evolutionary psychologist, reviews
research that has approached psychological responses to one particular
type of economic threat, namely resource scarcity, from an evolution-
ary perspective. First, they focus on the effects of economic conditions
encountered in childhood on critical developmental outcomes (e.g., thrifty
phenotype, eating in the absence of hunger). Next, they review studies that
examine how market forces can shape interpersonal relationships (e.g.,
degree of trust toward and inclusion of others into our in-​groups). Finally,
they discuss findings demonstrating the role of recessions in providing
information about the local mating market and the benefits and costs asso-
ciated with investing in mating and parenting (e.g., men’s attitudes toward
wealth distribution, use of cosmetics, parental investment). Given the

Introduction | xix
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 History.
Church History.
Natural History and Popular Science.
Religious Books.
Magazines.
Penny Readings.
It should be clearly understood that nobody is urged to have
anything like all the books here mentioned, but that the object is to
answer the oft-recurring question—Where shall I find a book suited
for such and such a purpose?
I have added a few suggestions of extracts for penny readings, but
it is not easy to collect enough that do not verge on buffoonery, or
that have no element of vulgarity; and indeed there is so much
variation of tastes according to the tone and training of the audience,
that it is hardly possible to tell what will be suited for hearers of each
degree of culture. Some delight in pathos or adventure, and others
will do nothing but laugh, and become noisy at anything that is not
highly comic. Such books for the purpose as I have seen, between
difficulty about copyright and desire of novelty and drollery, do not
avoid vulgarity. N.B.—It is advisable to inspect thoroughly everything
offered by volunteers for reading, recitation, or singing.
It has, however, been thought better not to enter upon the tracts
and sermons, such as a parish priest or district visitor would give for
private use or specific purpose, as they are devotional, and scarcely
to be spread broad-cast by the Library. Every librarian must cater for
his own clients according to their tastes and needs. No doubt much
is here left out that will be found useful in some places, but the
attempt has been made to offer suggestions, and to collect, from
various quarters, names that may serve to assist in the selection of
books for the various needs of a parish.
 LITTLE ONES.
The books in the following list are what have been read to children
from five or six to eight years old and proved to be interesting to
them. Their eyes and attention soon show whether the book is liked.
And, though it may hardly be believed, it is more difficult to write a
story suited to them than to any other class, since it must be
perfectly easy and simple, and yet have some interest in it, such as
they can understand. Stories that are in fact a study of children with
peculiar ways and odd sayings are of no use. The tale must take the
child’s point of view, yet without obviously writing down to its level,
and any moral must be pointed as tersely and briefly as possible.
Unluckily several of those I have found most successful have gone
out of print—namely, ‘The White Kitten,’ and ‘Out in the Dark,’ in
early packets of the books Mr. Burns used to publish, and ‘Little
Lucy’ and ‘A Tale of a Tail’ (S.P.C.K.). I have looked over multitudes
of tiny books, but only a few have the special charm that will keep a
whole class devouring the reader with their eyes, and be welcomed
even if read over and over again. I have not here mentioned Mrs.
Ewing’s beautiful series of verse-books for children, with their
charming illustrations, because they are really studies of childhood,
and more fit for the drawing-room than the cottage or school. The
same may be said of the very pretty Everyday Fables, the letterpress
of which is quite beyond little children. The best thing for the
youngest class of four, five, or six years old, is the ‘Child’s own
Picture Paper’ (Dean), Aunt Louisa’s books (Warne), and the ‘Child’s
Illustrated Scripture History’ (S.P.C.K.), 4 parts, price 1s. each. Or, if
the class be too large for showing them pictures in a book, detached
ones on an easel are useful. One or two sacred ones, well
explained, are enough, and a few secular ones may follow. Let me
hint that undraped figures, shown to poor children, are undesirable,
and that if there is a mistake in the accessories, by some fatality,
they are sure to admire it. Cassell’s ‘Little Pet’s Posy,’ 1s. 6d., or
‘Little Chimes,’ 1s. 6d., will give amusing bits to read to the tiny
children, but lending is of no use unless they are ill. A complete set
of pictures illustrating the Gospels, or the lessons for nearly every
Sunday in the Christian year, can be arranged from the stores of the
S.P.C.K., the R.T.S., and Cassell’s ‘Child’s Bible and Life of Christ,’
7s. 6d.
1. Children’s Album. (Cassell) 1s. 6d.
2. Baby’s Album. (Cassell)
3. Miss Angelina. (S.P.C.K.) 1d.
A doll, lost by a young lady, and prized by a poor little cripple till
the owner is discovered, and there is a great struggle of honesty on
the one hand, generosity on the other.
4. Tales for Me to read to Myself. (Masters) 2s. 6d.
The little boy who has to take a donkey cart to market for the first
time, and is teased by rude companions, excites unfailing interest.
5. Langley Little Ones. By C. M. Yonge. (Walter Smith) 2s.
This contains several short tales mentioned below: ‘Fanny’s Doll,’
‘Bully Brindle,’ ‘Snowdrop’s Eggs,’ &c.
6. Our Ethel. (S.P.C.K.) 6d.
Should be read to small children apt to be put in charge of smaller
ones.
7. Little Men and Little Women. (Walter Smith) 2d.
 Rather disjointed, but fit for the tinies.
8. Quack, Quack. By C. M. Yonge. (Walter Smith) 3d.
Inculcating the penny savings bank.
9. Patz and Putz, or the Story of Two Bears. (S.P.C.K.) 1s.
Interests a little class.
10. Tumble-down Dick. (S.P.C.K.) 1d.
Birds’-nesting. A wholesome lesson.
11. A Miller, a Mollar, a Ten o’Clock Scholar. By C. M. Yonge. 3d.
On playing truant.
12. Fanny’s Doll. By C. M. Yonge. (Walter Smith) 3d.
For small children.
13. Idle Harry. (Walter Smith) 3d.
14. Leonard the Lion Heart. By C. M. Yonge. (Walter Smith) 9d.
On boasting.
15. The Apple Tree. (Walter Smith) 1d.
A naughty and a good little boy under temptation. I have known of
an impression made by it.
16. Playing with Fire. (Walter Smith) 1d.
A wholesome warning.
17. Little Susy’s Six Birthdays. By Mrs. Prentice. (Nelson) 2s.
Popularity proved. Circumstantial enough to be delightful to little
children.
18. Fanny Sylvester. By Mrs. Cupples. (Nelson) 9d.
A lonely town child transplanted into the country.
19. Bully Brindle. By C. M. Yonge. (Walter Smith) 3d.
 Two small children sent out in the dark to fetch help after an
accident.
 JUNIOR CLASSES.
For Children from Eight to Ten Years old.
The books here given are of a somewhat homely and simple
order, such as are understood and liked by children without much
cultivation or knowledge of the world—average ones, in fact; for the
intelligent and eager ones, or those who have some home culture,
need something of a higher order.
20. Louie White’s Hop-picking. By Amabel Jenner. (Griffith,
Farran & Co.) 6d.
A good picture of Kentish hopping, introducing a brisk little London
maiden, as inferior to her homely cousins in practical usefulness as
she is superior in knowledge.
21. The Lion Battalion. By Mary Hullah. (Hatchards) 2s. 6d.
Several short stories. The first is of a tiny German boy who makes
imaginary soldiers of buttons and abstracts a whole brilliant regiment
from his little friend’s jacket. It is less good than the second, ‘The
Fireman’s Little Maid,’ a friendship between a fireman and a little
neglected girl. Read aloud, it has charmed a third standard class and
a mothers’ meeting.
22. Smuts and Diamonds. By Selina Gaye. (Remington) 5s.
The first tale is on Christian brotherhood; the second, ‘Who did It?’
is of the mysterious painting of the effigy of a pig hung at the pork
butcher’s. It is my resource when I have to keep a mixed troop of
children quiet while waiting. The third, ‘Three Little Sisters,’ is a
warning to little nurses to be faithful.
23. Golden Gorse. By Florence Wilford. (S.P.C.K.) 1s. 6d.
A London child’s first visit to the country, with her help to her more
backward cousins.
24. The Heavy Sixpence. (S.P.C.K.) 3d.
An overcharge, weighing down the conscience.
25. Missy and Master. By Mary Bramston. (S.P.C.K.) 2s.
Missy had been a member of a circus troupe. Master was the pony
she used to ride. Her taming down in an orphan asylum is well told.
26. The Christmas Mummers. By C. M. Yonge. (Walter Smith) 3d.
This story preserves the old Hampshire custom of ‘Mumming.’
27. Langley School. By C. M. Yonge. (Walter Smith) 3s.
28. Lads and Lasses of Langley. By C. M. Yonge. (Walter Smith)
2s.
29. Langley Adventures. By C. M. Yonge. (Walter Smith) 2s. 6d.
‘Langley School’ was written many years ago. The others are of
the present day, of examinations, &c.
30. Pickle and his Page Boy. By C. M. Yonge. (Walter Smith) 2s.
A boy and a Skye terrier who try to be faithful.
31. Godmother’s Whim. (S.P.C.K.) 4d.
A treasure concealed in a ball of worsted.
32. Michael the Chorister. (Walter Smith) 6d.
One of the first tales of little choristers, and with a great simplicity
and beauty.
33. A Bright Farthing. By S. M. Sitwell. (S.P.C.K.) 1s.
A good child’s story of the temptation to conceit and self-
exaltation.
34. Grannie’s Wardrobe. (S.P.C.K.) 9d.
A case of curiosity and untruth, well told.
35. The Railroad Children. By C. M. Yonge. (Walter Smith) 6d.
May be a help with unbaptised children.
36. The Secret of a Ball of Wool. (S.P.C.K.) 2d.
Is the same idea as the ‘Godmother’s Whim,’ but is told by a
Russian nurse and is more amusing.
37. Harriet and her Sister. By C. M. Yonge. (Walter Smith) 3d.
A warning against concealing an accident; but the child left alone
all day in charge of a baby is a thing of the past.
38. Snowdrop’s Eggs. By C. M. Yonge. (Walter Smith) 3d.
Against pilfering.
39. The Third Standard. By C. M. Yonge. (Walter Smith) 3d.
The consequences of children copying each other’s marks in
school.
40. Wolf. By C. M. Yonge. (Walter Smith) 3d.
Adventures of a set of Christmas carollers.
41. The Wood Cart and other Tales. By F. M. Peard. (Walter
Smith) 2s.
Excellent tales of peasant life in France which delight English
children.
42. The Old Garden Door. (Walter Smith) 2d.
A little girl who gets into a scrape by aiding in surreptitious
transactions between a hawker and some boarding-school young
ladies. The children left at home to the care of a young elder are
things of the past, but the child nature is true in all times.
43. Uncle Henry’s Present. (Walter Smith) 2d.
A droll lesson on curiosity.
44. The White Satin Shoes. (Walter Smith) 2d.
Equally telling on vanity.
45. Cheap Jack. By C. M. Yonge. (Walter Smith) 3d.
Adventures of some beads ill obtained.
46. Mary and Florence. By A. Fraser Tytler. (Hatchards) 3s. 6d.
This is an unfailing favourite, a children’s classic of fifty years’
standing.
47. The Star in the Dustheap. By the Hon. Mrs. Greene. (Warne)
3s. 6d.
Very touching.
48. Froggy’s Little Brother. By Brenda. (Shaw) 6d. or 3s. 6d.
A touching tale of street Arabs. Interest in it seems to be uncertain
among children—one class has liked it, another virtually hissed it by
inattention.
49. Little Meg’s Children. By Hesba Stretton. (R.T.S.) 1s. 6d.
More powerful than ‘Froggie.’ Also of London children in a garret,
where the faithful little elder sister struggles to take care of the little
ones till her father’s return from a voyage. This is as fit for mothers
as for children. There are multitudes more of these street Arab tales,
most of them written from fancy. It is possible to have too many of
them, so only the names of these two best are given here.
50. The City Violet. By C. Winchester. (Seeley) 5s.
There are violent improbabilities here, but children like the book,
and listen to it eagerly. The lesson of Christian love is taught by an
old bedridden woman to various classes of children, among whom
are some of the circus children, who have such a fascination for
young readers.
51. Little Lives and a Great Love. By Florence Wilford.
(Masters) 2s. 6d.
Four tales designed to illustrate the text, ‘The love of Christ
constraineth us,’ in a scale gradually ascending. Of the four, only the
first is historical.
52. Helpful Sam. (Griffith, Farran, & Co.) 6d.
A very real and quaint young chimney sweep.
53. The Beautiful Face. By Mrs. Mitchell. (Masters) 4s. 6d.
A veritable child’s romance, not attempting to be historical, but
graceful, tender, and bright enough to delight children.
54. Dandy. (S.P.C.K.) 6d.
A pleasant story of a lost dog.
55. Ben Sylvester’s Word. By C. M. Yonge. (Walter Smith) 3d. or
1s.
The value of truth in a witness. The murder in this has secured its
popularity.
56. Little May and her friend Conscience. By Mrs. Cupples.
(Nelson) 9d.
A debate with conscience.
57. Tim’s Basket. (Nelson) 6d.
Might cheer a crippled child.
58. Story of a Needle. By A.L.O.E. (Nelson) 1s. 6d.
Autobiographical.
59. The Two Watches. By the Author of ‘Copsley Annals.’ (Nelson)
1s.
 Didactic but lively.
60. Baby’s Prayerbook. By Mrs. Sitwell. (S.P.C.K.) 8d.
A tiny girl unconsciously leading her elder brother to a right
course.
61. Wings and Stings. By A.L.O.E. (Nelson) 1s.
Once this was read to a class who delighted in it. Another year it
fell flat, owing, perhaps, to the children having less imagination.
62. It’s his Way. By the Author of ‘Copsley Annals.’ (Nelson) 1s.
Very good for reading aloud.
63. Northope Cave. By Mrs. Sitwell. (S.P.C.K.)
Seaside adventures, a brave little self-devoted fisher-boy among
babies.
 SENIOR CLASSES.
For Children from Ten Years old to Twelve: Fourth Standard and
upwards.
Most children are advanced enough at this age to prefer what is a
little out of their own field; though here there will always be the
differing tastes for adventure or character, and imaginative or matter-
of-fact literature. What will fall flat with some will be appreciated by
others; and, in general, what has been read to them is best liked.
Explanations can be given, right intonations are explanatory in
themselves, and foreign or unusual names are better understood.
64. Under the Lilacs. By Louisa Alcott. (Sampson Low) 2s.
A stray boy and poodle, escaped from a circus, arrive in the
middle of a doll’s feast held by a widow’s little girls. The house
becomes their home, and the scenes are delightful, especially when
the poor dog is lost and comes back minus his tail.
65. On Angels’ Wings. By the Hon. Mrs. Greene. (Nelson) 5s.
Pathetic and tender. A deformed and sickly child in a German town
has to part with her father on his summons to the war. Little Violet’s
patience, the drolleries of her little friends, the kindness of the old
policeman, and the thoughtlessness of her young nurse go to
children’s hearts.
66. The Abbey by the Sea. By Mrs. Molesworth. (S.P.C.K.) 1s.
A furniture designer of evidently much cultivation with his little
daughter by the sea-side. Perhaps too ideal, but refining.
67. The Golden Thread. By Dr. Norman McLeod. (Isbister) 2s. 6d.
This will also be found among the allegories, but it is, even as a
mere story or romance, so charming to young listeners that it is here
introduced.
68. Feats on the Fiord. By Harriet Martineau. (Routledge) 1s.
and 1s. 6d. (With 40 illustrations, 2s.)
Too lively and amusing to be out of date. Norwegian life is made
perhaps rather too rose-coloured, but the adventures have a merit
and interest apart from actual truth to nature.
69. The Ghost of Greythorn Manor. (Nelson) 6s.
May be useful where children or servants fear a haunted house.
70. Little Rosa. By Mrs. Prentice. (Nelson) 6d.
Fittest for the poor children to whom Father is a word of fear.
71. The Magpie’s Nest. (Nelson) 6d.
72. The Children on the Plains. (Nelson) 1s. 6d.
Adventures on the Prairies with Red Indians; a good deal of
religious talk.
73. Daughter of the Regiment. (Sunday School Union) 2s.
Children captured by Red Indians.
74. Leila, or the Island. By M. Fraser Tytler. (Hatchards) 3s. 6d.
Leila has always been an unfailing favourite. The second and third
parts of her story are unequal to the first volume, which is
improbable enough, but such pretty and pleasant reading, and so
sound-hearted, that it is quite a child’s classic.
75. Mr. Burke’s Nieces. (Cassell) 2s.
 Confusion of identity between two children brought home from
India, one of whom the Irish barrister believes to be his niece. It turns
upon jealousy.
76. Little Hinges. (Cassell) 2s. 6d.
A child’s disobedience in apparently a small matter leads to great
family misfortunes. A sound lesson against ‘doing right in our own
eyes.’
77. The Thorn Fortress. By M. Bramston. (S.P.C.K.) 1s.
This will be classed among historical tales, as it belongs to the
period of the Thirty Years’ War, but the interest is sufficient to win
children quite ignorant of the history of the period. The inhabitants of
a village in the track of the armies have a refuge in the forest,
impregnably fenced with thorn bushes. The adventures of a little
maiden, who falls into the hands of the marauders, and wins their
heart by her innocent sweetness, are enjoyed by all readers and
hearers.
78. Max Krömer. By Hesba Stretton. (R.T.S.) 1s. 6d.
The Siege of Strasburg from a child’s point of view.
79. Lost in Egypt. By Miss M. L. Whately. (R.T.S.) 4s.
The adventures of the little daughter of an English engineer,
suddenly left an orphan in a remote place, and abandoned by the
servants. She is adopted by a peasant woman, and afterwards has
experience of several Egyptian houses before she is recovered by
her English grandmother. Here and there it is lengthy, and some
conversations might be spared, but it has been listened to and read
with great interest.
80. The Blue Ribbons. By Anna Harriet Drury. (Kerby) 3s. 6d.
Founded on the anecdote of Marie Antoinette acting fairy to the
child she met in the wood.
81. Hans Brinker, or the Silver Skates. By Mary M. Dodge.
(Sampson Low) 1s.
 Delightful scenes of Dutch winter life.
82. The Oak Staircase. By M. and C. Lee. (Griffith, Farran, & Co.)
3s. 6d.
This is the best for reading aloud of the three historical tales by
these ladies. It begins with a child wedding in the days of Charles II.
The little bride (a Countess) is sent to school at Taunton, where the
mistress, a Huguenot, is enthusiastic in Monmouth’s cause, and the
poor girls are among ‘the maids of Taunton.’ The young husband
intercedes, but goes into banishment with the Jacobites, and his wife
has in after times to procure his pardon, after which they begin their
married life. The book has been found very attractive to children.
83. The White Chapel. By Esmé Stuart. (S.P.C.K.) 2s.
A dreamy child’s adventure, very prettily told, connecting the little
white curtained bed with the white chantry chapel in a cathedral.
84. The Carved Cartoon. By Austin Clare. (S.P.C.K.) 4s.
This has been much enjoyed when read aloud to somewhat
intelligent Sunday-school children in the country, and Londoners
always like it. The title is unfortunate, for a cartoon cannot be carved,
and what is meant is a copy of a cartoon made by Grinling Gibbons,
whose adventures in the Plague and Fire of London are made very
interesting.
85. Ivo and Verena. (Masters) 2s.
A beautiful little Fouqué-like tale of early Christianity in the North.
86. Peggy and other Tales. By Florence Montgomery. (Cassell)
2s.
This may be useful where temperance tales are required, though
we rather wonder at the father who chose such a subject to amuse
his little children.
87. The Ambition of Kate Hicks. (S.P.C.K.) 4d.
Useful for girls going out to service.
88. The Grey House on the Hill. By the Hon. Mrs. Greene.
(Nelson) 2s. 6d.
A lonely page-boy falsely accused.
89. I must keep the Chimes going. By Miss Elliot. (Seeley) 1s.
6d.
A very beautiful story of a girl in a hard place, but with a cheerful
spirit.
90. Friarswood Post Office. By C. M. Yonge. (Walter Smith) 2s.
6d.
A history of a workhouse lad, founded on fact.
91. The Pink Silk Handkerchief. (Walter Smith) 2d.
A useful tale of deceit and vanity.
92. The Girls of Flaxby. By C. R. Coleridge. (Walter Smith) 2s.
Pupil-teachers shown in a manner useful to them and still more so
to those who have to deal with them.
93. Lads and Lasses of Langley. By C. M. Yonge. 2s. (See No.
28.)
Stories of village life, chiefly for the elder children; curiosity and a
few other follies shown up.
94. Polly Spanker’s Green Feather. By Mrs. Walford. (S.P.C.K.)
4d.
Droll disaster with finery.
95. Sowing and Sewing. By C. M. Yonge. (W. Smith) 1s. 6d.
An endeavour practically to illustrate the Parable of the Sower.
96. Stories of Youth and Childhood. (Walter Smith) 2s.
These first appeared in the ‘Magazine for the Young,’ and are very
good. Phœbe, who is sent to the hospital, is our special favourite.
97. Copsley Annals. By Miss Elliot. (Seeley) 1s. 6d.
These are unusually interesting. The supposed ghost, which turns
out to be a clock whirring, excites breathless interest. The last story
is better fitted for mothers than children.
98. The House of the Little Wizard. (Hatchards) 3s. 6d.
99. Goldhanger Woods. By M. and C. Lee. (National Society) 2s.
This calls itself a child’s romance, and has some exciting
adventures.
100. My Great Aunt’s Cat. (S.P.C.K.) 2d.
A droll and wholesome warning against false excuses.
101. Uncle Ivan. By M. Bramston. (National Society) 2s. 6d.
Two sisters have to guard the papers of their uncle, a political
exile, against spies. Very amusing for rather advanced readers such
as pupil teachers.
102. Wild Thyme. (S.P.C.K.) 4d.
103. Susan Pascoe’s Temptation. (S.P.C.K.) 4d.
The first of these is very touching, the second its continuation and
a good lesson.
104. Self Conquest. By Florence Wilford. (S.P.C.K.) 1s.
Another rescue from a circus.
105. Marty and the Mite Boxes. (Shaw) 3s. 6d.
An American story of contributions to a church, and the exertions
of a rough little set of choir boys.
106. Little Jeanneton’s Work. By C. A. Jones. (Wells Gardner,
Darton, & Co.) 3s. 6d.
A little shepherdess whom the young lady of the château nearly
spoils by making her Arcadian. Very prettily illustrated.
107. A Peep behind the Scenes. By Mrs. Walton. (R.T.S.) 3s. 6d.
A great favourite.
108. Nimpo’s Troubles. (Griffith, Farran, & Co.) 3s. 6d.
This is an American story of a self-willed child, which children like
very much. She chooses during her mother’s absence from home to
board with people of her own selection, and gets into very comical
predicaments.
109. A Little Step-daughter. By the Author of the ‘Atelier du Lys.’
(National Society) 3s. 6d.
A child stolen by smugglers in the wild districts of Southern France
in the time of Louis XV., taken care of by a woman who feeds silk-
worms. Very interesting.
110. Alone in Crowds. By Annette Lyster. (S.P.C.K.) 3s.
A youth bred up by his father on a desert island from early infancy.
When rescued and brought home he is utterly astray and perplexed
in England.
111. The Giant Killer. By A.L.O.E. (Nelson) 3s.
This is rather stilted, but has been much enjoyed by elder children.
It is much better than the second part ‘The Roby Family.’ As a rule,
this lady’s books are very religious, without Church teaching, and a
little too stiff in language, but useful.
112. Bear and Forbear. (Cassell) 2s.
An excellent tale of an Edinburgh newspaper boy.
113. Rhoda’s Reward. By Mrs. Marshall. (Cassell) 1s.
A young girl who overcomes a strong temptation.
114. For Half-a-Crown. By Esmé Stuart. (National Society) 3s.
This is the price of a poor Italian baby bought out of the slums of
Portsmouth, and bred up to be a very spirited and interesting little
person.
115. Three Stories for Working Girls. (S.P.C.K.) 1s.
This, like ‘Kate Temple’s Mate,’ is chiefly fitted for the rough girls of
factories.