National College of Business and Arts

LIBERAL ARTS AND EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

Taytay, Rizal

CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND LEARNING

PRINCIPLES

NAME:Biteranta, Nathaniel M. COURSE & YEAR: 1st year BSED1-

ENGL

Research Activity 3
Date : Nov. 23, 2024

Directions: Make research on the following topics. Comprehensively

discuss your answers on the following questions.

1) Discuss the following Moral Development Theories

a. Piaget’s Theory of Moral Reasoning
b. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
c. Gilligan’s Stages of Moral Development
2) Cite the factors that affect Social and Emotional Development and
explain how each affect such.

Answer:

1.
A. Jean Piaget is a Swiss psychologist who explored how children developed moral
reasoning. He believed that children do not automatically learn and internalize the
norms and morals of their society but by means of active interaction with the society and
environmental conditions. In his study, he documented that children learn morality best
by dealing with others. He argued that there is an active process where children
conform to society's norms of what is right and wrong.
Piaget viewed justice as the central concept of morality. To unveil how children
conceptualize justice, he told them stories of misbehavior such as playing ball inside the
house and then breaking a lamp. He then solicited their ideas about fair and unfair
punishment (Bergin and Bergin, 2015). Based from the responses, Piaget concluded
two kinds of moral reasoning:

Heteronymous morality (5-9 years), also known as moral realism, is an authority-

oriented morality. Rules are defined by authority and these define what is right and what
is wrong. This type of morality rigidly follows the set of rules in order to avoid
punishment. Hence, rules are seen as fixed and children uphold to them strictly.

Autonomous morality (9-10 years), also known as moral relativism, is a reciprocity-

oriented morality. In this type of morality, children no longer see a strong adherence to
blind obedience as basis for moral judgment. This is now based on reciprocity and
cooperation where rules can be changed if people would agree.
Piaget's theory is generally grounded on his concepts of cognitive development.
Same with others, this theory also has limitations. Some questions the reliability of the
qualitative methods used by Piaget. It is apparent that he only used a small sample and
is difficult to generalize. Moreover, the moral development of children is somehow
underestimated. Example, moral relativism happens at around 9-10 years old. Other
research suggests that there is a possibility that this happens at an earlier age (McLeod,
2015).

B. Laurence Kohlberg developed a stage-based moral development model based from

Piaget's ideas. This moral development theory is divided into three levels with two
stages each. In this, people move through these stages in order, and that cognitive
development is the underpinning of moral understanding.

Kohlberg, like Piaget, used more elaborate stories and the most famous is the
Heinz Dilemma:

In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug
that the doctors might save her... but the druggist was charging 10 times what the drug
cost him to make. He...charged $2000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman's
husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he can only get
together about $1000..: He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to
sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said, "No, I discovered the drug and
I'm going to make money from it". So Heinz gets desperate and considers breaking into
the man's store to steal the drug for his wife (Colby, Kohlberg, Gibbs, and Lieberman,
1983, p.77).
The children were then asked questions such as, "Should Heinz have stolen the drug?
Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife? What if the person dying was a
stranger, would it make any difference? Should the police. arrest the chemist for murder
if the woman died?" (McLeod, 2013). Based from the responses, Kohlberg outlined six
stages of moral development and believed that these stages happen in the same
sequence in all cultures.
Level I: Preconventional Morality: Punishment and Obedience to Authority
Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child sees obedience as a
means to avoid punishment. In this stage, bad behavior is punished and good behavior
is rewarded. If a child is to answer the question, "Should Heinz steal the drug?" the
answer would be NO because he will be punished.

Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. In this stage, fairness is given much premium.
People follow rules when they are on their interest. The main reason for doing right is to
serve your own advantage. Moreover, people will do good to others if they expect them
to reciprocate the favor. On the apex of Heinz Dilemma, the answer would be, "He will
not steal the drugs if the druggist is nicer."

Level II. Conventional Morality: Laws are Supreme

Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. Morality in this stage strongly depends on
what is expected of you. The reason for doing good is for others to appreciate you being
nice. This stage is also called as the good boy/girl orientation. The answer on Heinz
Dilemma in this stage is, "If Heinz is honest, he will be loved by the people."

Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. Doing right in this stage is fulfilling the duties that
you agreed upon. This is also called the "law-and-order" stage for it aims to maintain the
functionality of the society. Laws are binding and relevant to maintain peace and order,
hence people should not question them. The answer to Heinz in this stage is, "Stealing
is against the law. If all people will steal, the society will be in chaos."

Level III. Postconventional Morality: Abstract Principles of Justice and Rights

Stage 5. Social Contract and Individu Rights. Laws in this stage are open for evaluation.
If the laws protect the people, therefore the law is good. In this sense, people should not
follow the rules because it is a mandate, but because there is an agreement between
them to protect each other's welfare. A typical answer to Heinz's problem is, "Laws may
be disregarded when a person's life depends on the act of breaking the law."

Stage 6. Universal Principles. Doing right is based on self-chosen ethical principles and
the reason for doing right is a commitment to universal moral principles of equality,
justice, and dignity. If rules and principles resulted to conflict, choose principles. A
typical response to Heinz's question is, "All factors on the situation must be taken into
consideration, that sometimes, stealing is the right choice."

Kohlberg's Moral Development Theory is an important breakthrough in the aspect of

moral psychology. However, the theory gained some important criticism (Cherry, 2021).
First, moral reasoning is not the same as moral behavior. The theory is more of moral
thinking and it does not usually affect our actual actions.
Second, it was observed that the theory overemphasized justice. In reality, some other
factors will be considered in moral reasoning such as compassion and own feelings.
Lastly, critics have seen some biases in the aspects of culture (focused on western
culture), age (focused on children), and gender (since all the subjects were male).

C. Carol Gilligan is an American contemporary psychologist who have been recognized

for her dedication on the areas of women's moral psychology. Though patterned from
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development, this theory responded to the male-centered
theories of Freud, Erikson, and even Kohlberg. She centered on the moral development
and dilemmas of young girls and emphasized the gender difference psychology where
sexes may think differently when it comes to moral problems.
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development suggested that children undergo the
developmental stages of moral reasoning guided by the principles of justice and
individual rights. Furthermore, Kohlberg emphasized that not everyone can reach the
highest stage but found out that more men reached the stage of moral reasoning
because they are more focused on justice. This was the reason why Gilligan crafted her
theory for she believed that it was biased in favor of men.
Instead of justice, her theory accentuated the "morality of care and responsibility which
stresses on compassion, relationships, and self-sacrifice."

Like Kohlberg, Gilligan's theory comprises three levels and two transitions that are
marked by changes in the sense of self. The first level is preconventional where
selfishness is a primary concern. The transition from selfishness to responsibility to
others leads to the realization that caring for others rather than the self is good.
The second level is the conventional and the goal is self-sacrifice by means of
portraying the conventional view for women as caretakers and protectors. The transition
from goodness to the truth that she is a person, too, gives the realization that she must
take care of herself, too. The final level is the postconventional which reflects the
principle of nonviolence. The basic tenet in this level is to hurt no one including the self
because the self and the others are morally equal.

2. Environmental Risk Factors

The social environment where children are immersed plays an important role in their
personality development. Certain environmental characteristics can contribute to an
increased risk on the child's social and emotional competencies. The environmental
factors are categorized within three aspects: physical surroundings, community
resources, and social relationships (Health Engine in Khan, 2021).
They are manifested on the following:
• Poor physical surroundings comprise living in a poor area where recreation and
playgrounds are rare, if not absent. Children who came from a poor environment are
typically associated with poor health conditions and poor motor skills.*
Lack of health facilities and cleanliness is one of the worst environmental factors.
Cleanliness directly affects the entire well-being of children. Absence of medical
facilities and practitioners is detrimental to our development. If these are experienced by
children, they may likely experience problems on their physical and social development.
Lack of educational facilities strongly affects the social and mental development of
children. Researches unveiled that children who start school late develop poor social
skills than those of the other learners. Moreover, learners who travel long-distance
would also suffer emotional disturbance.
• Lack of community support could mean lack of friends, absence of good teachers, and
deficiency of community moral support. This factor directly affects the social
development of the child.
• Frequent change of community and school is a common scenario when parents are
forced to move due to some work-related concerns. Children who experience this would
likely encounter difficulty in finding social support.
Adjustment is another factor to be considered since not all children can easily cope with
drastic change in their social setting.

Family Risk Factors

Home is a place where children should feel safe and secured. It is more than a concrete
object where the family stays. It is a place where good memories must be created and
stored. However, not all homes share the same characteristics.
There are home environments that could be sources of negative relations and stress
that could increase the risk on the child's social and emotional competencies.
• Work-related stress for parents is a parental factor that can truly affect the entire family
relationship. An
example of work-related stress is when parents work in a long-distance or even
overseas where time for children is sacrificed. Studies show that when a child lacks
parental attention, he/she has the tendency to cultivate low self-esteem and confidence.
• Poor family rituals and routines include time for eating, bonding or quality time,
discipline in terms of sleep, and all related activities. Lack of discipline in all of the
mentioned activities could lead to poor emotional and social development.
•Lack of love and respect in the relationship at home is a sign of negative environment.
The social development, especially the emotional development, would be at risk. This
situation could destroy the personality of a child and may develop envy toward his/her
friends. Example of this is when parents are fighting in front of children that may lead to
divorce. These factors can lead to depression and anxiety among the children.
•Abuse and violence influence children's emotional regulation and self-confidence.
Abused children tend to exhibit unregulated emotions such as anger, fear, and even
shame. Moreover, they are difficult to engage with and sometimes they detach
themselves form peers. This is literally the worst factor in this lesson.

Within-Child Risk Factors

This factor defines the inner being of a child such as emotions, personality,
and behavior.

• Fussy temperament. Temperament is defined as the expression of various emotional

responses to the environment and situation. It is an offshoot of the interplay between
biological and environmental factors. Difficult children with highly active temperament
tend to gain attention by crying and shouting.
In here, we must realize that such temperament may have a long-lasting effect for
children. Examples are antisocial behavior and negative emotions.
Developmental disabilities and exceptionalities is a group of conditions because of
some impairment in physical, learning, and language that affect behavior. Most
developmental disabilities are caused by complex factors such as genetics, parental
behavior during pregnancy, and early complications. At an early age, they may
exemplify
behaviors where low self-esteem and envy are evident. Living with this kind of
disabilities does not mean a person cannot live a normal life. Educational institutions are
offering inclusive education where, for example, blind students can join a class where
they perform activities like other students. In here, teachers must be trained to align all
requirements within their means. As a key factor to this, parents and teachers must
collaborate to ensure their social and emotional development.
Essential Points to Remember

As educators, we play significant roles on our learners'. emotional and social

development. It is true that learners, when they go to school, have already developed
personalities and behaviors. The factors discussed previously can give you a glimpse
on why the learners' emotions and behaviors vary. Later, you may encounter students
who exemplify delinquent behavior and this lesson gives you the idea that these
students need you. Hence, here are some important concepts that will help you
understand your learners:
• Your learners' level of maturity depends on their mental development. Never assume
that your learners will show mature actions when they are in play age.
Moreover, do not use assessment as punishment. Apart from the learners will
experience stress, they may also develop assessment anxiety.
• Always establish classroom rules that mirror the society. It is also relevant that the
learners take part in the making of rules so that they will have a sense of ownership
toward them.
• To build strong social and emotional competencies, make sure to create opportunities
where children collaborate with other children. Cooperation and interdependence are
very important in the aspect of social and emotional development.
• Establish an environment where learners are free to express their feelings where they
also feel safe. This can also develop confidence among the learners where they can
trust themselves to perform school tasks.
• When you have learners with disabilities and exceptionalities, always establish a
collaboration with the family to establish a support system that may enhance the
learners' self-confidence.
• In some isolated cases when a learner is abused, teachers have to be a strong image
to him/her and must express positive emotions that could response to their emotional
needs. They need constant communication and emotional upliftment.