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Dement and Kleitman - Study overview

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Dement & Kleitman (1957)

Biological Approach

The main psychological concepts investigated in their

research:

1. Dream Recall
The study significantly contributed to understanding how dream recall
varies between REM and NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement) sleep. It was
found that:

• Higher Recall in REM Sleep: Participants reported dreams much

more frequently when awakened from REM sleep (about 79.6% of
the time) compared to NREM sleep (only about 7%) 34. This
highlights the distinct role of REM sleep in facilitating vivid dreaming.

2. Physiological Correlates of Dreaming

Dement and Kleitman utilized electroencephalograms (EEG) and
electrooculograms (EOG) to measure brain activity and eye movements
during sleep:

• EEG Monitoring: This allowed them to objectively identify different

sleep stages, linking physiological changes to subjective dream
experiences 4.
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 • EOG for Eye Movements: The study noted specific eye movement
patterns during REM sleep that correlated with dream content,
suggesting that these movements are not random but related to the
visual experiences in dreams 3.

3. Temporal Dynamics of Dreaming

The research examined how the timing of awakenings affected dream
recall:

• Duration Estimation: Participants were asked to estimate the duration

of their dreams after being awakened from REM sleep,
demonstrating an ability to accurately estimate dream length, which
was positively correlated with the richness of dream narratives 4.
This suggests that dreaming may occur in real-time rather than
being compressed or distorted.

4. Cognitive Processes During Sleep

The study challenged previous assumptions about the cognitive
processes involved in dreaming:

• Complexity of Dreams: The findings indicated that dreams are not

merely random thoughts but structured experiences that occur
predominantly during REM sleep, thus suggesting a more complex
interaction between different stages of sleep and cognitive
functioning 34.

5. Psychological Functions of Sleep

Dement and Kleitman's work laid the groundwork for further exploration
into the psychological functions of REM sleep, such as:

• Memory Consolidation: Their findings have implications for

understanding how REM sleep may play a role in memory processing
and emotional regulation 3.

• Neural Development: The study also opened avenues for research

into how REM sleep contributes to neural development and overall
psychological health.

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 Psychology Being Investigated

Circadian Rhythms
• Definition: Circadian rhythms are biological processes that follow a
roughly 24-hour cycle. They regulate various physiological and
behavioral functions, including sleep-wake cycles, hormone release,
body temperature, and other bodily functions.

• Characteristics:

◦ These rhythms are influenced by external cues, particularly light

and darkness, which help synchronize the internal biological
clock with the environment.

◦ The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus is the

primary regulator of circadian rhythms, receiving input from
light-sensitive cells in the retina.

• Examples: Common examples include the sleep-wake cycle

(sleeping at night and being awake during the day), fluctuations in
body temperature throughout the day, and hormone levels such as
cortisol.

Ultradian Rhythms
• Definition: Ultradian rhythms are biological cycles that occur more
frequently than once every 24 hours, typically lasting anywhere from
a few minutes to several hours.

• Characteristics:

◦ These rhythms can range from about 90 minutes to several

hours, with various physiological and behavioral functions
oscillating within this timeframe.

◦ Unlike circadian rhythms, ultradian rhythms do not rely primarily

on external cues but can be influenced by internal biological
processes.
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 • Examples:

◦ A well-known example of an ultradian rhythm is the basic rest-

activity cycle, which reflects cycles of alertness and fatigue
throughout the day. This cycle often corresponds to variations in
energy levels and cognitive performance.

◦ In sleep research, ultradian rhythms manifest as cycles of REM

(Rapid Eye Movement) and NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement)
sleep during the night, typically repeating every 90 to 120
minutes.

Summary of Differences

Feature Circadian Rhythms Ultradian Rhythms

Duration Approximately 24 hours Less than 24 hours (minutes to

hours)

Regulation Primarily influenced by More internally regulated; less

light/dark cycles dependent on external cues

Examples Sleep-wake cycle, body Sleep stages (REM/NREM),

temperature fluctuations energy levels throughout the
day

Heading 3

Differences between REM and nREM

Sleep cycle durations and differences in sleep cycles at the beginning of
a night and towards the end.
Sleep cycles are an essential aspect of sleep physiology, encompassing
various stages that the body progresses through during a typical night.
Understanding these cycles, especially the differences between REM
(Rapid Eye Movement) and NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement) sleep, is
crucial for grasping how sleep affects health and well-being.

Sleep Cycles
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 • Definition: A sleep cycle refers to the progression through different
stages of sleep that occurs multiple times during a night. Each cycle
typically lasts between 90 to 120 minutes.

• Structure: Each cycle includes both NREM and REM sleep. An

average adult experiences about 4 to 6 cycles per night.

Stages of Sleep
1. NREM Sleep: Comprises three stages (N1, N2, N3).

• N1 (Stage 1): Light sleep that serves as a transition from

wakefulness. Lasts about 5-10 minutes and is easily disrupted.

• N2 (Stage 2): Deeper sleep where heart rate and body

temperature drop. This stage accounts for about 45-55% of total
sleep time.

• N3 (Stage 3): Also known as slow-wave or deep sleep, crucial for

physical recovery and growth. This stage is hard to wake from
and constitutes about 15-25% of total sleep.
2. REM Sleep: Occurs after NREM stages, characterized by rapid eye
movements, increased brain activity, and vivid dreaming. REM sleep
typically lasts longer with each successive cycle, starting from about
1-5 minutes in the first cycle and extending up to 30-60 minutes in
later cycles.

Differences Between REM and NREM Sleep

• Physiological Characteristics:

◦ NREM Sleep: Characterized by slower brain waves (delta waves

in N3), reduced heart rate, and muscle relaxation. It is essential
for physical restoration and memory consolidation.

◦ REM Sleep: Brain activity resembles that of wakefulness, with

rapid eye movements and muscle atonia (temporary paralysis).
This stage is vital for cognitive functions such as learning and
emotional processing.
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 • Duration and Timing:

◦ NREM sleep predominates in the first half of the night, while REM
sleep increases in duration during the latter half. As the night
progresses, individuals spend more time in REM sleep,
particularly in the final cycles.

Sleep Cycle Durations

• The first complete sleep cycle generally lasts about 70 to 100
minutes, while subsequent cycles extend to approximately 90 to 120
minutes.

• The distribution of NREM and REM sleep changes throughout the

night:

◦ In the early part of the night, individuals experience longer

periods of NREM sleep (especially stages N3), while REM sleep
periods become longer towards morning.

Summary of Key Terms

:
 Term Definition

Sleep Cycle A series of stages (NREM and

REM) that occur multiple times
during a night.

NREM Sleep Non-Rapid Eye Movement sleep;

includes stages N1, N2, and N3;
crucial for physical restoration.

REM Sleep Rapid Eye Movement sleep;

characterized by vivid dreaming
and brain activity similar to
wakefulness.

Stage N1 Light sleep; transition from

wakefulness; lasts 5-10 minutes.

Stage N2 Deeper sleep; accounts for 45-

55% of total sleep time; includes
sleep spindles.

Stage N3 Deep or slow-wave sleep;

essential for recovery; hardest
stage to awaken from.

Cycle Duration First cycle: 70-100 minutes; later

cycles: 90-120 minutes; typically
4-6 cycles per night.

Brain Wave Patterns in NREM Sleep

NREM sleep is divided into three stages, each characterized by specific
brain wave activity:
1. NREM Stage 1:

• Brain Waves: This initial stage features a mix of alpha waves (8-
13 Hz) and theta waves (4-7 Hz). Alpha waves are present as the
individual transitions from wakefulness to sleep, while theta
waves become more prominent as sleep deepens.

• Characteristics: It is a light sleep stage where individuals can be

easily awakened. Muscle activity slows down, and eye
movements are minimal.
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 2. NREM Stage 2:

• Brain Waves: In this stage, theta waves continue to dominate but

are interrupted by bursts of higher frequency brain activity
known as sleep spindles (12-16 Hz) and K-complexes, which are
high amplitude waves that can respond to external stimuli.

• Characteristics: This stage represents a deeper level of sleep

compared to Stage 1, with reduced awareness of the
environment and further slowing of physiological functions.
3. NREM Stage 3:

• Brain Waves: This stage is characterized by the presence of delta

waves, which are low frequency (0.5-4 Hz) and high amplitude.
Delta waves indicate deep sleep, where the body is in its most
restorative state.

• Characteristics: It is difficult to awaken someone from this stage,

and it plays a crucial role in physical recovery and growth.

Brain Wave Patterns in REM Sleep

• Brain Waves: During REM sleep, brain wave activity resembles that of
wakefulness, with mixed frequency patterns that include low-
amplitude, high-frequency waves similar to beta waves (greater than
13 Hz). This similarity leads to REM being referred to as "paradoxical
sleep" because the brain is highly active while the body experiences
muscle atonia (temporary paralysis).

• Characteristics: REM sleep is associated with vivid dreaming,

increased heart rate, and irregular breathing patterns. The eyes
move rapidly under closed eyelids during this stage.

Summary of Differences
:
 Feature NREM Sleep REM Sleep

Brain Waves Alpha and theta waves in Low-amplitude, high-

Stages 1 & 2; delta waves in frequency waves resembling
Stage 3 wakefulness

Stage Gradual transition from light High brain activity;

Characteristics to deep sleep; restorative associated with dreaming
processes occur

Muscle Activity Muscle tone decreases; Muscle atonia; paralysis of

some movement possible voluntary muscles

Awakening Ease Easier to awaken from Typically harder to awaken

Stages 1 & 2; difficult from from without disrupting
Stage 3 dreams

Core Study
Dement and Kleitman's study, conducted in 1957, is a seminal piece of
research in the field of psychology, specifically focusing on sleep and
dreams. This study aimed to explore the relationship between eye
movements during sleep and the content of dreams, as well as to
investigate the characteristics of dreaming in relation to REM (Rapid Eye
Movement) and NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement) sleep.

Aims of the Study

The primary aims of the study were:

• To determine whether dream recall differs between REM and NREM

stages of sleep.

• To examine if there is a positive correlation between the estimated

duration of dreams and the length of REM periods.

• To investigate whether eye movement patterns correspond to the

content of dreams13.

Methodology

Participants
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 The study involved nine participants (seven males and two females),
who were recruited through opportunity sampling. Five participants were
studied in detail over multiple nights, while four additional participants
were used to confirm findings1.

• 5 main participants spent between 6 - 17 nights in the lab.

Approximately 50 - 77 times awakening.

• 4 spent only 1 - 2 nights. 4 - 10 times awakening.

• Participants were identified by their initials.

Procedures
1. Dream Recall Testing: Participants were awakened at various points
during their sleep, both during REM and NREM stages, to assess
their dream recall. They reported their dreams verbally, which were
recorded to minimize researcher bias.
2. Duration Estimation: Participants were woken after either 5 or 15
minutes into REM sleep and asked to estimate how long they
believed they had been dreaming. This was designed to evaluate the
accuracy of their estimations against actual REM durations.
3. Eye Movement Recording: The researchers used an
electrooculogram (EOG) to track eye movements while participants
were asleep. After awakening, participants described their dreams,
allowing researchers to correlate eye movements with dream
content14.

Detailed procedural steps:

Aim 1: Does dream recall differ between eye movement

(REM) and quiescent (NREM) stages of sleep?

Procedure Steps:
• Participant Preparation: Participants arrived at the laboratory just
before their regular bedtime, maintaining their usual dietary habits
but avoiding alcohol and caffeine.
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 • Electrode Setup: Electrodes were attached to the participants'
scalps (for EEG) and around their eyes (for EOG) to monitor brain
activity and eye movements during sleep.

• Controlled Sleep Environment: Participants slept in a dark and quiet

room to minimize disturbances, ensuring a controlled environment
for accurate data collection.

• Awakening Protocol: Throughout the night, participants were

awakened at various times using a doorbell sound, ensuring that the
awakening was consistent across participants. They were not
informed whether they were in REM or NREM sleep when awakened.

• Dream Recall Assessment: Upon awakening, participants were

immediately asked if they had been dreaming. If they reported a
dream, they were prompted to describe its content. Reports were
only counted as valid if participants could recall specific details
about their dreams.

• Recording and Analysis: The researchers recorded the participants'

responses and analyzed the relationship between dream recall and
the stage of sleep from which they were awakened. They also noted
eye movement patterns during REM sleep to correlate with dream
content.

Aim 2: Are eye movement patterns related to dream

content?

Procedure Steps:
1. Eye Movement Monitoring: During REM sleep, eye movements were
recorded using the EOG electrodes. The researchers noted the
direction of eye movements (e.g., vertical, horizontal).
2. Awakening During REM: Participants were specifically awakened
after a sustained period of eye movement (lasting over one minute),
allowing researchers to correlate the type of eye movement with the
reported dream content.
3. Dream Content Reporting: After awakening, participants described
their dreams, which were recorded on a tape recorder to ensure
accurate documentation without researcher bias.
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 4. Data Analysis: Researchers analyzed the relationship between
reported dream content and the corresponding eye movement
patterns noted during REM sleep.

Aim 3: Is there a positive correlation between subjective

estimates of dream duration and the length of REM period
before waking?

Procedure Steps:
1. Timing of Awakenings: Participants were woken either 5 or 15
minutes after entering REM sleep, creating two conditions for
comparison regarding dream duration estimates.
2. Subjective Duration Estimation: After reporting their dreams,
participants were asked to estimate how long they believed they had
been dreaming (5 or 15 minutes).
3. Word Count Analysis: The number of words in each dream narrative
was counted to provide quantitative data on the richness of the
reported dreams.
4. Correlation Analysis: Researchers conducted statistical analyses to
determine if there was a correlation between participants' estimated
dream durations and the actual length of REM periods as recorded
by EEG.

Results
The findings revealed several significant outcomes:

• Dream Recall: Participants awoken from REM sleep recalled dreams

79.6% of the time, compared to only 7% when awakened from NREM
sleep. This stark difference underscored that most vivid dreaming
occurs during REM sleep.

• Duration Estimations: Participants showed high accuracy in

estimating dream durations, with an accuracy rate of 88% for 5-
minute estimates and 78% for 15-minute estimates.
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 • Eye Movement Correlation: The study found that specific patterns
of eye movements corresponded with visual imagery in dreams—
vertical movements related to looking up or down in dreams, while
horizontal movements indicated side-to-side visual engagement124.
Dement and Kleitman employed a systematic approach to measure
dream recall in their 1957 study on sleep and dreaming. Here’s a detailed
breakdown of their methodology:

What were the key differences in dream recall between REM

and NREM sleep
The study by Dement and Kleitman (1957) revealed significant
differences in dream recall between REM (Rapid Eye Movement) and
NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement) sleep. Here are the key findings
regarding these differences:

Dream Recall Rates

• Higher Recall in REM Sleep: Participants demonstrated a high
incidence of dream recall when awakened from REM sleep, with
about 79.6% of awakenings resulting in detailed dream reports. In
contrast, only about 7% of awakenings from NREM sleep led to
dream recall12.

• Specific Findings: Out of 191 awakenings from REM sleep,

participants recalled dreams 152 times, while from 160 awakenings in
NREM sleep, only 11 dreams were recalled. This stark contrast
highlights the predominance of vivid dreaming during REM phases1.

Content of Dreams
• Nature of Dreams in REM vs. NREM: When participants were
awakened from REM sleep, they provided rich descriptions of their
dreams, often including vivid imagery and complex narratives.
Conversely, awakenings from NREM sleep typically resulted in
reports that lacked specific content, often limited to vague feelings
or impressions rather than detailed dream scenarios12.
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 • Time Sensitivity: The timing of awakenings was crucial; if
participants were awakened within 8 minutes after completing a REM
period, they recalled more dreams compared to those woken later
(only 6 out of 132 dreams recalled after 8 minutes)2.

Implications
• The findings suggest that while dreaming occurs during both REM
and NREM sleep, the nature and recall of those dreams differ
significantly. Dreams during REM sleep are more likely to be vivid
and memorable, while those occurring during NREM are less likely to
be recalled and may be more thought-like in nature34.

Conclusions
Dement and Kleitman concluded that:

• Dreams primarily occur during REM sleep, as evidenced by the high

recall rates when participants were awakened from this stage.

• There is a significant correlation between the length of REM periods

and participants' estimations of dream duration, suggesting that
dreams are experienced in real-time rather than instantaneously.

• Eye movements are not random but are associated with dream
content, indicating a direct relationship between what individuals see
in their dreams and their eye movement patterns during sleep13.
Overall, Dement and Kleitman's study not only advanced our
understanding of the relationship between REM sleep and dreaming but
also provided insights into broader psychological concepts related to
cognition, memory, and emotional processing during different stages of
sleep. Their research has had lasting implications in both psychology
and neuroscience, influencing how we view the importance of sleep in
mental health and cognitive function.

Strengths and Limitations

Strengths
• High Reliability: The controlled laboratory setting allowed for
consistent monitoring of participants' sleep stages.
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 • Avoidance of Demand Characteristics: Participants were not
informed about whether they were in REM or NREM sleep at any
time, reducing bias in their responses.

Limitations
• Small Sample Size: The limited number of participants may affect
the generalizability of the findings.

• Potential for Subjective Interpretation: While efforts were made to

record dreams objectively, there remains an element of subjectivity
in how participants described their experiences12.
This study remains influential in psychology as it provides empirical
evidence linking physiological processes during sleep with cognitive
experiences such as dreaming.
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