The Nervous System

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What if humans have
no nervous system?
Today, you’ll be able to:

Define the Nervous System

Did you know sleep helps

Main Organs in the Nervous System our brain remember
things and during our
sleep our brain even
How the Nervous System works in the body cleans itself!
 The Nervous System
The nervous system is the master controlling
and communicating system of the body. Every
thought, action, and emotion reflects its activity.
Its signaling device, or means of communicating
with body cells, is electrical impulses, which are
rapid and specific and cause almost immediate
responses.

3 overlapping functions:
1. Sensory Input
2. Integration
3. Motor Output
Naming the
Organs under
the Nervous
System
Naming the
Organs under
the Nervous
System
 Structural Classification

Central Nervous Peripheral

System Nervous System
Made up of nerves that extend from
The CNS acts as the the brain and spinal cord.
Brain control center, interpreting It serves as a communication link
between the CNS and the rest of
sensory information and the body, sending sensory
Spinal Cord issuing responses based on information to the CNS and
past experiences and delivering instructions from the
current situations. CNS to muscles and glands.
 Functional Classification
It is concerned only with PNS structures and is divided into two main subdivisions:

Sensory Motor
(Afferent) (Efferent)
Division Division
carries impulses from the CNS to effector
(composed of nerve fibers) that convey
organs, the muscles and glands. These
impulses to the central nervous system
impulses activate muscles and glands;
from sensory receptors located in
that is, they effect (bring about or cause)
various parts of the body.
a motor response.
 Classification of Motor Division
Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System
also called voluntary nervous system also called involuntary nervous system
allows voluntary control over skeletal controls involuntary functions, such as
muscles, meaning we can consciously the activity of smooth muscles, cardiac
move them. muscles, and glands.
However, not all skeletal muscle actions divided into 2 parts:
are voluntary; some, like reflexes, occur 1. Sympathetic - preparing the body for
automatically without conscious thought. action
These are known as involuntary skeletal 2. Parasympathetic - promotes relaxation
muscle reflexes. and energy conservation
 Nervous Tissue

Supporting Cells
are “lumped together” as
neuroglia literally, “nerve
glue,”
also simply called either glia
or glial cells. Neuroglia
includes many types of cells
that
generally support, insulate,
and protect the delicate
neurons
 Types of CNS Glial Cells

Astrocytes
Star-shaped cells making up
about half of neural tissue.
They anchor neurons to blood
capillaries and help form a
barrier between them,
regulating the flow of
nutrients and preventing
harmful substances from
entering.
Astrocytes also manage the
brain's chemical environment
by “mopping up”
 Types of CNS Glial Cells

Microglia
These spiderlike cells
act as the brain's
immune system by
monitoring neuron health
and clearing debris,
including dead neurons
and bacteria.
 Types of CNS Glial Cells

Ependymal
Cells
Line the cavities of the
brain and spinal cord.

Their cilia help circulate

cerebrospinal fluid,
which cushions and
protects the CNS
 Types of CNS Glial Cells

Oligodendrocytes

Wrap their extensions around

nerve fibers, forming myelin
sheaths, which insulate the
fibers and help in rapid signal
transmission.
 Types of CNS Glial Cells

Schwann Cells
form the myelin
sheaths around nerve
fibers that are found
in the PNS
 Types of CNS Glial Cells

Satellite Cells

act as protective,
cushioning cells.
 Types of CNS Glial Cells

Neurons
Neurons, or nerve
cells, are specialized
for transmitting
messages (nerve
impulses) throughout
the body.
 Cell body of the Neurons
The cell body of a neuron
serves as its metabolic
center, containing a
transparent nucleus with a
prominent nucleolus.

Rich in rough endoplasmic

reticulum, known as Nissl
bodies, and neurofibrils,
which help maintain the
cell's shape.
 Cell body of the Neurons

Dendrites

(dendr = tree)

Dendrites play a critical role in

the communication between
neurons by transmitting these
signals toward the cell body
(soma) of the neuron.
 PROCESS
Neuron processes that convey incoming messages (electrical signals) toward the cell axons
generate and transmit nerve impulses away from the cell body.
Neurons may have hundreds of the branching dendrites (dendr = tree), depending
on the neuron type, but each neuron has only one axon, which arises from a cone like region of the cell body
called the axon hillock

Occasionally, an axon will produce collateral branches along its length, but it typically branches extensively
at its terminal end, creating hundreds to thousands of axon terminals. These terminals contain vesicles filled
with neurotransmitters.
As we say Axons transmit nerve impulses away from the cell body, and when these impulses reach the
terminals, they trigger the release of neurotransmitters into the extracellular space.
Each axon terminal is separated from the next neuron by a small gap known as the synaptic cleft, forming a
functional junction called a synapse. Although neurons are close to one another, they do not physically
touch.
 MYELIN SHEATH
Most long nerve fibers are
covered with a whitish, fatty
material called myelin which has
a waxy appearance.

Myelin
protects and insulates the fibers
and increases the transmission
rate of nerve impulses.
 PNS VS. CNS
In the peripheral nervous system (PNS), Schwann cells wrap
around axons in layers to form the myelin sheath, leaving gaps
called nodes of Ranvier.The external part of the Schwann cell,
called the neurilemma, helps in nerve regeneration after injury.

In the central nervous system (CNS), oligodendrocytes form

myelin sheaths around multiple nerve fibers, but these lack a
neurilemma, which limits the CNS's ability to regenerate
damaged nerve fibers.
 HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
Myelin is important for nerve signals to travel properly. In multiple sclerosis (MS), the
immune system attacks and damages the myelin, turning it into hard tissue called
sclerosis. This damage disrupts nerve signals, causing symptoms like vision and speech
problems, muscle weakness, and disability. Though there is no cure for MS, interferon
injections can help manage the symptoms.

In the nervous system, clusters of neuron cell bodies and nerve fibers are named differently
in the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). In the CNS,
cell bodies are grouped in structures called nuclei, which are protected by the skull or
vertebral column. This protection is vital because neurons typically do not divide after birth,
making their integrity crucial for the nervous system's health.
 Relationship of Schwann cells to axons
in the peripheral nervous system.
A Schwann cell envelops part of an axon in a trough and then rotates around the axon.
Most of the Schwann cell cytoplasm comes to lie just beneath the exposed part of its
plasma membrane. The tight coil of plasma membrane material surrounding the axon is the
myelin sheath.
The Schwann cell cytoplasm and exposed membrane are referred to as the neurilemma.
The cell body carries out most of the metabolic functions of a neuron, so if it is damaged,
the cell dies and is not replaced.
 Ganglia
Small collections of cell bodies.
are found in a few sites outside
the CNS in the PNS.
Tracts
Bundles of nerve fibers (neuron
processes) running through the
Neurons CNS

classified 1. Sensory (afferent) neurons

2. Motor (efferent) neurons
by 3. Interneurons (association) neurons
4. Cutaneous sense organs
Functions:
Neurons
classified 1. multipolar neurons

by the 2. bipolar neurons

numbers of 3. Unipolar neurons

processes:
 Physiology: Nerve Impulses
Neurons have two functional properties:

Irritability Conductivity

the ability to respond to a the ability to transmit the

stimulus and convert it into impulse to other neurons,
a nerve impulse muscles, or glands.
 Action Potential Initiation and Generation
Many different types of stimuli excite neurons to become active and
generate an impulse.
Permeability properties of the cell’s plasma membrane change for a
Press very brief period. Events such as:

these keys
1. Depolarization
2. Graded potential
while on
3. Action potential
4. Nerve impulse
Present
5. Repolarization
The events just described explain propagation of a nerve impulse
mode!along unmyelinated fibers. Fibers that have myelin sheaths conduct
impulses much faster.
This faster type of electrical impulse propagation is called saltatory
(sal′tah-to″re) conduction (saltare = to dance or leap).
Transmission of the Signal at Synapses
a neurotransmitter chemical crosses the synapse to transmit the signal from one

neuron to the next cell as described next in 6 steps:

1. Action Potential Arrival

2. Calcium Ion Influx

3. Neurotransmitter Release

4. Receptor Binding

5. Postsynaptic Response

6. Neurotransmitter Clearance
 Physiology: Reflexes
Reflexes are quick, automatic responses to stimuli that happen in the same way every
time, like a one-way street. There are two classifications of reflexes:

Somatic Reflexes Autonomic Reflexes

Quick, voluntary responses Involuntary responses that
that involve skeletal muscles, control internal functions, like
like pulling your hand away regulating heart rate or
from something hot. digestion.
 a sensory receptor (that detects a stimulus), an

effector organ (like a muscle or gland), and

5 elements sensory and motor neurons connecting them.
of all reflex The synapse or interneurons between sensory
arcs: and motor neurons act as the central integration

center in the CNS.

 How neurons communicate at chemical
synapses:
Reflexes in the nervous system include two-neuron and three-
neuron arcs, with key components: receptors, sensory
neurons, interneurons, motor neurons, and effectors. Some
reflexes operate without brain involvement, while others
require brain processing. Reflex testing is essential for
assessing nervous system health and detecting disorders.
 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

During embryonic development, the central nervous system

(CNS) starts as a neural tube along the dorsal median plane of
the embryo. By the fourth week, the anterior end expands to
form the brain, while the posterior part becomes the spinal
cord. The central canal of the neural tube enlarges in four brain
regions to create ventricles.
ANATOMY OF THE BRAIN
The brain is a complex mass of nervous
tissue, weighing over three pounds, with
a wrinkled, pinkish-gray appearance. It is
divided into four major regions: cerebral
hemispheres, diencephalon, brain
stem, and cerebellum
CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE
largest part of the brain and cover most of the
brain stem. They feature elevated ridges called
gyri and shallow grooves called sulci, with
deeper grooves called fissures marking major
brain regions. The hemispheres are separated by
the longitudinal fissure and divided into lobes
named after the overlying cranial bones. It is
subdivided into three basic regions: Superficial
Gray matter cortex, White matter, Basal nuclei.
CEREBRAL CORTEX
is responsible for speech, memory, emotional
responses, consciousness, sensation
interpretation, and voluntary movement.

Location: Parietal lobe, posterior to the central sulcus

Functions: Processes sensory impulses (pain,
temperature, touch)
Representation: Sensory homunculus(Spatial Map)
BASAL NUCLEI
lusters of gray matter located deep
within the white matter of the cerebral
hemispheres.
They play a key role in regulating
voluntary motor activities by modifying
instructions sent to the skeletal muscles
from the primary motor cortex.
 DIENCEPHALON
is located above the brainstem and is
surrounded by the cerebral hemispheres.
It includes:
1. Thalamus
2. Hypothalamus
3. Epithalamus
 CEREBELLUM
located beneath the occipital lobe
and consists of two hemispheres
with a convoluted surface.
It controls timing and coordination
of skeletal muscle activity,
ensuring smooth, coordinated
movements.
 Protection of the Central Nervous System (CNS)

Press
1. Meninges
these keys
Dura Mater
while onMater
Arachnoid

Present
Pia Mater
2. Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
mode!
3. Blood-Brain Barrier
 KEY HOMEOSTATIC
IMBALANCE
1. Ataxia
2. Meningitis
3. Hydrocephalus
4. Blood Brain Barrier Issues
 AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

The autonomic nervous system is a component of the

peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary
physiologic processes including heart rate, blood pressure,
respiration, digestion, and sexual arousal.
The ANS comprises two main divisions: the sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions. These divisions function
antagonistically to maintain a dynamic balance, responding
adaptively to different physiological demands.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
two main subdivisions:

Sympathetic Parasympathetic
- Sympathetic fibers - Parasympathetic fibers
(adrenergic) release (cholinergic) release
norepinephrine. acetylcholine.
- “Fight-or-Flight” - "Rest-and-Digest"
Contrasting Effects of Parasympathetic
and Sympathetic Division:
1. Digestive System

2. Lungs

3. Heart

4. Urinary System

5. Blood Vessel

6. Adrenal Medulla

7. Metabolism
 ANS DYNAMIC BALANCE

Press
these keys
The sympathetic and parasympathetic systems work in
tandem, continually adjusting functions rather than
while on
operating in an all-or-none manner. Most blood vessels,
Present
for example, are controlled by sympathetic fibers, even
mode! when the body is at rest.
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