E-VEHICLE BATTERY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM USING

MACHINE LEARNING

A PROJECT REPORT

PROJECT II

Submitted By

AHIESH SUJO I S 19EC002

ARAVINDHAN P R 19EC007
BALAABHILEESH T S R 19EC015
GOWRISANKAR R 19EC032

In partial fulfilment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

in

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SNS COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY, COIMBATORE-35

(AN AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)

May 2023

i
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report titled “E-VEHICLE BATTERY

MANAGEMENT SYSTEM USING MACHINE LEARNING” is the
bonafide work of Mr.AHIESH SUJO I S, Mr.ARAVINDHAN P R,
Mr.BALAABHILEESH T S R, Mr.GOWRISANKAR R who carried
out the Project work under my supervision. Certified further, that to the
best of my knowledge the work reported here does not form part of any
other project report or dissertation on the basis of which a degree or award
was conferred on a earlier occasion on this or any other candidate.

PROJECT GUIDE DEAN/ECE

Mrs. E.CHRISTINA DALLY Dr. N.J.R.MUNIRAJ
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR PROFESSOR & DEAN
Department of Electronics and Department of Electronics and
Communication Engineering Communication Engineering
SNS College of Technology SNS College of Technology
Coimbatore-641035 Coimbatore-641035

Submitted for the Viva–Voce examination held at SNS COLLEGEOF

TECHNOLOGY held on………………………

Internal Examiner External Examiner

ii
 ABSTRACT

The electric vehicle usage has been increased drastically due to development in
automobile industry. Since electric vehicles have an electric motor and a battery instead
of a combustion engine and a fuel tank, the architecture becomes simple and controllable
at the component level. Modifications to locate the battery pack safe zone in an EV
require extensive adoptions to integrate the battery safely.
A Battery Management System (BMS), which manages the electronics of a rechargeable
battery, whether a cell or a battery pack, thus becomes a crucial factor in ensuring electric
vehicle safety. It safeguards both the user and the battery by ensuring that the cell
operates within its safe operating parameters. BMS monitors the State Of Health (SOH)
of the battery, collects data, controls environmental factors that affect the cell, and
balances them to ensure the same voltage across cells. It may include additional features
and functions such as fuel gauge integration, smart bus communication protocols,
General Purpose Input Output (GPIO) options, cell balancing, wireless charging,
embedded battery chargers, and protection circuitry, all aimed at providing information
about the battery’s power status. This information can help the device conserve power
intelligently.

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all we extend our heart-felt gratitude to the Management of SNS

College of Technology for providing us with all sorts of supports in completion of this
Project Phase-II

We record our indebtedness to our Principal Dr.S.ChenthurPandian, for his

constant support and sustained encouragement for the successful completion of
project.

We are highly grateful to Dr.N.J.R.Muniraj Professor & Dean and

Dr.J.Geetha Ramani HoD I/C Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering for their valuable suggestions, guidance throughout the course of this
project and his positive approach in all possible ways from the beginning.

We are profoundly grateful to our Project Coordinator Dr. S Pradeep, Assistant

Professor, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, for his
encouragement and cooperation in carrying out the project successfully.

We take immense pleasure in expressing our humble not of gratitude to our

project guide, Mrs.E.Christina Dally, Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics
and Communication Engineering for her remarkable guidance and useful suggestions,
which helped us in completing the project in time.

We also extend our thanks to other faculty members, parents and our friends
for their moral support in helping us to successfully complete this project phase-II.

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

ABSTRACT iii

LIST OF FIGUREURES vii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS x

LIST OF TABLES xi

INTRODUCTION 1

1 1.1 Overview 1

1.2 E-Vehicle Battery 3

2 LITERATURE SURVEY 4

3 SYSTEM ANALYSIS 9

3.1 Existing System 9

3.2 Proposed System 10

3.2.1 Block Diagram 11

3.2.2 Advantages of the proposed system 11

4 HARDWARE COMPONENTS 12
4.1 Relay 12
4.2 Relay Pin Configuration
13

4.2.1 Features of 5-pin 5v Relay 14

v
 4.3 LCD 15

4.4 Functions Used 15

4.4.1 Liquid Crystal object name 15

4.4.2 LCD Begin 16

4.4.3 LCD Set Cursor 16

4.4.4 LCD Create Char 16

4.5 16x2 LCD Module Pin Out Diagram 17

4.6 On or Off Switch 19

4.7 Battery 20

4.8 Software Description 21

4.8.1 Arduino IDE 21

4.8.1 Machine Learning 22

5 PROJECT DESCRIPTION 24

5.1 Overview 24

5.1.1 Single Cell Application 24

5.2 Series Connection 24

5.3 Tapping into a Series String 26

5.4 Parallel Connection 26

5.5 Series and Parallel Connection 28

vi
6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK 29

6.1 Conclusion 29

6.2 Future Work 29

APPENDIX I – SOURCE CODE 30

APPENDIX II - OUTPUT 35

REFERENCES 36

vii
 LIST OF FIGUREURES

FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE NO

1.1 ELECTRIC VEHICLE 1
1.2 WORKING OF THE ELECTRIC VEHICLE 2
1.3 LITHIUM-ION-BATTERY 3
2.1 E-CAR FABRICATION PROCEDURE 4
2.2 BLOCK OF ELECTRIC BICYCLE 5
2.3 SCHEMATIC OF A PARALLEL HYBRID 6
POWERTRAIN
2.4 SCHEMATIC OF A SERIES PARALLEL SPLIT 6
HYBRID POWERTRAIN

2.5 SERIES HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE 7

2.6 FLOW CHART OF METHODOLOGY ADOPTED TO 8

DEVELOP ERDC

3.1 SERIES BATTERY CONNECTION 9

3.2 PARALLEL CONNECTION 10

3.3 BATTERY DRAIN PARALLEL CONNECTION 10

4.1 RELAY 12

4.2 RELAY COMPONENTS 13

4.3 LCD DISPLAY 15

4.4 LCD MODULE 18

4.5 SWITCH 20

4.6 ARDUINO IDE 23

viii
5.1 ADDING CELL IN SERIES 25

5.2 SERIES CONNECTION WITH LOW BATTERY 26

5.3 PARALLEL CONNECTION 27

5.4 PARALLEL CONNECTION WITH LOW BATTERY 28

5.5 SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTION 28

6.1 PROJECT MODEL 36

ix
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

1. HEV - Hybrid Electric Vehicles

2. EV - Electric Vehicle

3. PHEV - Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle

4. AEV - All-Electric Vehicles

5. BMS - Battery Management System

6. SOH - State of Health

7. GPIO - General Purpose Input Output

8. E-REV - Extended-Range Electric Vehicles

x
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO TITLE PAGE NO

3.1 Pin Configuration 13

3.2 Types of Battery 21

xi
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 OVERVIEW

An electric vehicle (EV) is a type of vehicle that is powered by electricity, rather

than gasoline or diesel fuel. EVs have an electric motor that is powered by a battery pack,
which stores electricity that is generated by the vehicle's on board charger or regenerative
braking system. EVs have become increasingly popular in recent years due to their
potential to reduce dependence on fossil fuels, lower emissions, and save on fuel costs.
They are typically more efficient and have lower operating costs compared to traditional
internal combustion engine vehicles.

There are several types of EVs available on the market, including all-electric
vehicles (AEVs), which are powered solely by electricity, and hybrid electric vehicles
(HEVs), which have both an electric motor and a gasoline engine. Plug-in hybrid electric
vehicles (PHEVs) are a type of HEV that can be charged by plugging them into an
external power source, while extended-range electric vehicles (E-REVs) have a small
gasoline engine that is used to generate electricity for the electric motor.

Figure 1.1 Electrical Vehicles

1
 EVs have many benefits, including lower operating costs, reduced reliance on
fossil fuels, and lower emissions. However, they also have some limitations, such as
limited driving range and the need for infrastructure to support charging. Despite these
challenges, the adoption of EVs is expected to continue to grow in the coming years as
technology improves and infrastructure expands.

Different types of batteries are used to power electric vehicles, and deciding
which battery is best depends on its energy storage efficiency, production costs,
constructive characteristics, safety, and lifespan. Lithium-ion batteries are the most
utilized technology in electric cars. EVs run on high voltage lithium-Ion battery packs.
Lithium-ion batteries have higher energy density (100-265wh/kg) compared to other
battery chemistries. They pose a risk of fire under unusual circumstances. It is crucial to
operate electric vehicles in pre-defined safety limits to ensure the safety of the user as
well as the vehicle.

Figure 1.2 Working of the Electric Vehicle

2
1.2 E-VEHICLE BATTERY

Lithium-ion batteries are currently used in most portable consumer electronics

such as cell phones and laptops because of their high energy per unit mass relative to
other electrical energy storage systems. They also have a high power-to-weight ratio,
high energy efficiency, good high-temperature performance, and low self-discharge.
Most components of lithium-ion batteries can be recycled, but the cost of material
recovery remains a challenge for the industry. The U.S. Department of Energy is also
supporting the Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Prize to develop and demonstrate
profitable solutions for collecting, sorting, storing, and transporting spent and discarded
lithium-ion batteries for eventual recycling and materials recovery.

Figure 1.3 Lithium-Ion Battery

Most of today's all-electric vehicles and PHEVs use lithium-ion batteries, though
the exact chemistry often varies from that of consumer electronics batteries. Research and
development are on going to reduce their relatively high cost, extend their useful life, and
address safety concerns in regard to overheating.

An electric vehicle has two distinct needs when it comes to dispatching electrons:
moving the car and everything else. Propulsion is handled by the big, expensive, latest-
and-greatest high-voltage battery, because you need lightning in a bottle if you want to do
the quarter-mile in 9.4 seconds. For charging, the more voltage, the better. But powering
up the stereo does not require 800 volts. Nor would you want that coursing through every
circuit in the car, for a variety of reasons. Safety, for one. In this project, we used three
batteries, which overall gives 12v as output.

3
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

In 1999,AVL Company proposed a hybrid system that used a 50 cc carburetted

lean-burn two-stroke engine with a 0.75 kW electric motor mounted on the engine
crankshaft mainly to provide increased torque during acceleration.

[1] Su-Hau et al (2004) focused on the highly efficient energy usage of the battery
energy and proposed an integrated management system for electric motor.

Figure 2.1 E-Car Fabrication Procedure

In view of the need for effective usage of the battery energy of the electric
motorcycle, we propose an integrated management system, which not only accomplishes
the objective of robust velocity tracking but also efficiently utilizes the stored energy of
the battery. This integrated management system is divided into three major subsystems,
including the power-saving controller, energy supervisor and protection subsystem. The
concept of intelligent decision is applied such that the redundant energy loss can be
avoided. At the end, simulation and experimental results is given to demonstrate the
feasibility and validity of the proposed integrated management system.

4
[2] David and Sheng-Chung (2004) proposed new parallel-type hybrid-electric-power
system

Figure 2.2 Block Diagram of Electric Bicycle

This parallel-type hybrid-electric-power system comprises an engine’s energy

distribution and a torque-integrated mechanism (specifically including an engine, a
motor/alternator, a CVT device, and PCM as well as a 3-helical gear set).

[3] Wenguang et al (2005) presented an approach to control powertrain of series hybrid

electric vehicles.

5
 Figure 2.3 Schematic of a parallel hybrid powertrain.

Figure 2.4 Schematic of a series-parallel split hybrid powertrain.

A formulation of the system equations and controller design procedure were

proposed by them. They also proposed a new switching algorithm for the power
converter for motor torque and motor flux control.

6
[4] Daniel (2007) designed, developed and implemented a series hybrid electric vehicle.

Figure 2.5 Series hybrid electric vehicle

Though he proposed the architecture as hybrid electric vehicle architecture, he

showed that the vehicle runs well in the electric mode and left the hybrid conversion as
future expansion.

7
[5] Lukic et al (2007) tried to develop a driving cycle of the auto rickshaw in a typical
large Indian city, in their case, Delhi.

Figure 2.6 Flow chart of methodology adopted to develop ERDC

First, they considered the existing driving cycles used in India are considered as
candidates. Since these data were not applicable, GPS data collected at various times of
the day were applied to the analysis. They derived the new driving cycle from the
gathered information via GPS data as well as surveys of auto rickshaw drivers in India,
which helped to get the entire picture for the driving cycle.

8
 CHAPTER 3
SYSTEM ANALYSIS

3.1 EXISTING SYSTEM

 In the Current System Battery packs with two or more cells connected in series
are used for portable equipment that requires greater voltages. For example, a
battery pack with four 3.6V Li-ion cells connected in series, or 4S, produces
14.4V nominal. In contrast, a four-alkaline battery with 1.5V/cell will produce
6V, and a six-cell lead acid string with 2V/cell will provide 12V.
 Adding cells in a string increases the voltage; the capacity remains the same.

Figure 3.1Series Battery Connection

The following are some of the system's drawbacks:

 Series charging may not work well in areas of extreme heat, especially if the
batteries are passively cooled.
 This will affect the battery’s overall life cycle negatively.
 Series charging generally tends to reduce a battery’s life quicker, so repeated
usage of this technology may not be good for the battery’s health.
 As a consequence, users may have to replace the battery pack sooner.

9
3.2 PROPOSED SYSTEM

The series-connected cells in the proposed system are changed to parallel

connections when the charging mode is selected. This causes the battery to charge in
parallel mode, one battery at a time.

If higher currents are needed and larger cells are not available or do not fit the
design constraint, one or more cells can be connected in parallel. Most battery chemistries
allow parallel configurations with little side effect. The nominal voltage of the illustrated
pack remains at 3.60V, but the capacity (Ah) and runtime are increased fourfold.

Figure 3.2 Parallel Connection

In a parallel circuit, a cell that develops high resistance or opens is less crucial
than in a series circuit, yet a malfunctioning cell will lower the total load capacity. It's
comparable to an engine that only uses three of its four cylinders to fire.

Figure 3.3 Battery Drain

10
 On the other hand, an electrical short is more dangerous since the defective cell
draws power from the healthy cells, creating a risk of fire. The majority of alleged
electrical shorts show modest symptoms, such as enhanced self-discharge.

3.2.1 Block Diagram

Block Diagram of Battery Monitoring System

3.2.2 Advantages of the Proposed System

The advantages of the proposed systems are listed below:

 It takes less time to fully charge the battery.

 Lowering of the Battery's temperature rise.
 It increases the Battery Life.
 It also reduces the electrical short in the Battery

11
 CHAPTER 4

HARDWARE COMPONENTS

4.1 RELAY
A relay is an electrically operated switch. It consists of a set of input terminals for
a single or multiple control signals, and a set of operating contact terminals. The switch
may have any number of contacts in multiple contact forms, such as make contacts, break
contacts, or combinations thereof.

Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by an independent low-

power signal, or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. Relays were first
used in long-distance telegraph circuits as signal repeaters: they refresh the signal coming
in from one circuit by transmitting it on another circuit. Relays were used extensively in
telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations.

The traditional form of a relay uses an electromagnet to close or open the

contacts, but other operating principles have been invented, such as in solid-state
relays which use semiconductor properties for control without relying on moving parts.
Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils
are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power
systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called protective relays.

Latching relays require only a single pulse of control power to operate the switch
persistently. Another pulse applied to a second set of control terminals, or a pulse with
opposite polarity, resets the switch, while repeated pulses of the same kind have no
effects.

Figure 4.1 Relay

12
4.2 RELAY PIN CONFIGURATION

Pin No Pin Name Description

1 Coil End 1 Used to trigger(On/Off) the Relay, Normally one

end is connected to 5V and the other end to ground

2 Coil End 2 Used to trigger(On/Off) the Relay, Normally one

end is connected to 5V and the other end to ground

3 Common (COM) Common is connected to one End of the Load that

is to be controlled

4 Normally Close (NC) The other end of the load is either connected to
NO or NC. If connected to NC the load remains
connected before trigger

5 Normally Open (NO) The other end of the load is either connected to
NO or NC. If connected to NO the load remains
disconnected before trigger

Table 3.1 Pin Configuration

Figure 4.2 Relay Components

13
 4.2.1 Features of 5-Pin 5V Relay

 Trigger Voltage (Voltage across coil) : 5V DC

 Trigger Current (Nominal current) : 70mA
 Maximum AC load current: 10A @ 250/125V AC
 Maximum DC load current: 10A @ 30/28V DC
 Compact 5-pin configuration with plastic moulding
 Operating time: 10msec Release time: 5msec
 Maximum switching: 300 operating/minute (mechanically)

Relays are most commonly used switching device in electronics. Let us learn how
to use one in our circuits based on the requirement of our project. Before we proceed with
the circuit to drive the relay we have to consider two important parameter of the relay.
Once is the Trigger Voltage, this is the voltage required to turn on the relay that is to
change the contact from Common->NC to Common->NO. Our relay here has 5V trigger
voltage, but you can also find relays of values 3V, 6V and even 12V so select one based
on the available voltage in your project. The other parameter is your Load Voltage &
Current, this is the amount of voltage or current that the NC,NO or Common terminal of
the relay could withstand, in our case for DC it is maximum of 30V and 10A. Make sure
the load you are using falls into this range.

4.3 LCD:

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) is a type of flat panel display which uses liquid
crystals in its primary form of operation .LCD draws its definition from its name itself. It
is combination of two states of matter, the solid and the liquid. LCD uses a liquid crystal
to produce a visible image. LCD's technologies allow displays to be much thinner when
compared to cathode ray tube (CRT) technology.

14
 Figure 4.3 LCD Display

 In an LCD television, the pixels are switched on or off electronically using liquid
crystals to rotate polarized light.
 LCDs are used in a wide range of applications, including LCD televisions,
computer monitors, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and indoor and
outdoor signage.
 LCDs (Liquid Crystal Displays) are used in embedded system applications for
displaying various parameters and status of the system.
 LCD 16x2 is a 16-pin device that has 2 rows that can accommodate 16 characters
each.
 LCD 16x2 can be used in 4-bit mode or 8-bit mode.
 It is also possible to create custom characters.
 It has 8 data lines and 3 control lines that can be used for control purposes.
 For more information about LCD 16x2 and how to use it, refer the topic LCD
16x2 module in the sensors and modules section.

4.4 FUNCTIONS USED:

4.4.1 Liquid Crystal object name(rs,rw,en,d0,d1,d2,d3,d4,d5,d6,d7)

 Liquid Crystal object name(rs,rw,en,d4,d5,d6,d7)

 This function defines an object named object name of the class Liquid
Crystal.

15
  rs, rw and en are the pin numbers of the Arduino board that are connected
to rs, rw and en of LCD.
 d0, d1, d2, d3, d4, d5, d6 and d7 are the pin numbers of the Arduino board
that are connected to data pins D1, D2, D3, D4, D5, D6 and D7 of LCD.
 Example, Liquid Crystal lcd(13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3). This makes
use of LCD in 8-bit mode.
 Example, Liquid Crystal lcd(13, 12, 11, 6, 5, 4, 3). This makes use of LCD
in 4-bit mode.

4.4.2 LCD.begin(col,rows)

 This function is used to define the number of rows and columns the LCD
has and to initialize the LCD.
 Needs to be called before calling other functions, once the object is
defined using the function in point 1.
 Example, for 16x2 LCD we write lcd.begin(16,2). lcd is the name of the
object of the class Liquid Crystal. 16 is the number of columns and 2 is the
number of rows.

4.4.3 LCD.setCursor(col,row)

 This function positions the cursor of the LCD to a location specified by

the row and column parameters.
 Col is the column number at which the cursor should be at (0 for column
1, 4 for column 5 and so on).
 Row is the row number at which the cursor should be at (0 for row 1, 1 for
row 2).
 Example, for setting the cursor at the 5th column in the 2nd row,
lcd.setcursor(4,1). Lcd is the name of the object of the class liquid crystal.

4.4.4 LCD.createChar(num,data)

 This function is used to create a new custom character for use on the LCD.

16
  Num is the CGRAM location (0 to 7) at which the custom character is to
be stored.
 Data is array of eight bytes which represent the custom character.
 Custom character can be of 5x8 pixels only.
 Each custom character is specified by an array of eight bytes, one for each
row. The five least significant bits of each byte determine the pixels in that
row.

4.5 16×2 LCD Module Pin Out Diagram:

The JHD162A lcd module has 16 pins and can be operated in 4-bit mode or 8-bit
mode. Here we are using the LCD module in 4-bit mode. Before going in to the details of
the project, let’s have a look at the JHD162A LCD module. The schematic of a JHD162A
LCD pin diagram is given below.

Figure 4.4 LCD Module

The name and functions of each pin of the 16×2 LCD module is given below.

Pin1(Vss):

Ground pin of the LCD module.

Pin2(Vcc):

Power to LCD module (+5V supply is given to this pin)

17
Pin3(VEE):

Contrast adjustment pin. This is done by connecting the ends of a 10K

potentiometer to +5V and ground and then connecting the slider pin to the VEE pin. The
voltage at the VEE pin defines the contrast. The normal setting is between 0.4 and 0.9V.

Pin4(RS):

Register select pin. The JHD162A has two registers namely command
register and data register. Logic HIGH at RS pin selects data register and logic LOW at
RS pin selects command register. If we make the RS pin HIGH and feed an input to the
data lines (DB0 to DB7), this input will be treated as data to display on LCD screen.

If we make the RS pin LOW and feed an input to the data lines, then this will be
treated as a command ( a command to be written to LCD controller – like positioning
cursor or clear screen or scroll).

Pin5(R/W):

Read/Write modes. This pin is used for selecting between read and write modes.
Logic HIGH at this pin activates read mode and logic LOW at this pin activates write
mode.

Pin6(E):

This pin is meant for enabling the LCD module. A HIGH to LOW signal at this
pin will enable the module.

Pin7(DB0) to Pin14(DB7):

These are data pins. The commands and data are fed to the LCD module though
these pins.

18
Pin15(LED+):

Anode of the back light LED. When operated on 5V, a 560 ohm resistor should
be connected in series to this pin. In arduino based projects the back light LED can be
powered from the 3.3V source on the arduino board.

Pin16(LED-):

Cathode of the back light LED.

4.6 ON/OFF SWITCH

In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can disconnect

or connect the conducting path in an electrical circuit, interrupting the electric current or
diverting it from one conductor to another. The most common type of switch is an
electromechanical device consisting of one or more sets of movable electrical
contacts connected to external circuits. When a pair of contacts is touching current can
pass between them, while when the contacts are separated no current can flow.

Switches are made in many different configurations; they may have multiple sets
of contacts controlled by the same knob or actuator, and the contacts may operate
simultaneously, sequentially, or alternately. A switch may be operated manually, for
example, a light switch or a keyboard button, or may function as a sensing element to
sense the position of a machine part, liquid level, pressure, or temperature, such as
a thermostat. Many specialized forms exist, such as the toggle switch, rotary
switch, mercury switch, pushbutton switch, reversing switch, relay, and circuit breaker. A
common use is control of lighting, where multiple switches may be wired into one circuit
to allow convenient control of light fixtures. Switches in high-powered circuits must have
special construction to prevent destructive arcing when they are opened.

19
 Figure 4.5 Switch

Electrical circuits only work when the electricity is free to move through in a
continuous loop. Once that loop is broken, the electricity is cut off. This is where
the switch comes in. An on/off toggle circuit breaks the current when it's in the "off"
position. The power-off symbol (circle) on a button or toggle, indicates that using the
control will disconnect power to the device. ... IEC 60417-5010, the power on-off symbol
(line within a circle), is used on buttons that switch a device between on and
fully off states.

4.7 BATTERY:

Batteries achieve the desired operating voltage by connecting several cells in

series; each cell adds its voltage potential to derive at the total terminal voltage. Parallel
connection attains higher capacity by adding up the total ampere-hour (Ah).

Some packs may consist of a combination of series and parallel connections.

Laptop batteries commonly have four 3.6V Li-ion cells in series to achieve a nominal
voltage 14.4V and two in parallel to boost the capacity from 2,400mAh to 4,800mAh.
Such a configuration is called 4s2p, meaning four cells in series and two in parallel.
Insulating foil between the cells prevents the conductive metallic skin from causing an
electrical short.

Most battery chemistries lend themselves to series and parallel connection. It is

important to use the same battery type with equal voltage and capacity (Ah) and never to
mix different makes and sizes. A weaker cell would cause an imbalance. This is
especially critical in a series configuration because a battery is only as strong as the
weakest link in the chain. An analogy is a chain in which the links represent the cells of a
battery connected in series.

20
 Table 4.1 Battery Types

4.8 SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

4.8.1 Arduino Ide

Arduino Integrated Development Environment (IDE) is a software

application that allows users to write, upload, and debug code for microcontroller
boards that are based on the Arduino platform.

The Arduino IDE is a user-friendly program that is designed to make it

easy for users to write, upload, and debug code for their Arduino boards. It
includes a text editor for writing code, a compiler for converting the code into a
form that the microcontroller can understand, and a debugger for identifying and
fixing errors in the code. The Arduino IDE also includes a library of pre-written
code snippets and functions that can be used to perform common tasks, such as
controlling motors, reading sensors, and displaying data on an LCD screen.

In addition to a text editor for writing code, a message area, a text

terminal, a toolbar with buttons for frequently used operations, and a number of
menus, the Arduino Integrated Development Environment, sometimes known as
the Arduino Software (IDE), is also available. In order to upload programmes and
communicate with them, it connects to the Arduino hardware.

21
 Figure 4.6 Arduino IDE

Sketches are computer programmes created using the Arduino Software (IDE).
These drawings are created in a text editor and saved as files with the .ino extension. The
editor offers functions for text replacement and text searching. When saving and
exporting, the message section provides feedback and shows errors. The console shows
text generated by the Arduino Software (IDE), including error messages in their entirety
and other data. The configured board and serial port are visible in the window's bottom
right corner. You may create, save, and save drawings, validate and upload programmes,
view the serial monitor, and more using the toolbar buttons.

Serial plotter is another component of the Arduino IDE, which allows you to
generate a real-time graph of your serial data. The serial plotter makes it much easier for
you to analyse your data through a visual display. You’re able to create graphs, negative
value graphs, and conduct waveform analysis.

4.8.2 Machine Learning

Machine learning is a subfield of artificial intelligence that involves the use of

algorithms and statistical models to enable computer systems to automatically improve
their performance on a specific task through experience. Essentially, machine learning is
a way for computers to learn from data and improve their performance without being
explicitly programmed to do so.

22
 Machine learning algorithms can be classified into several categories, including
supervised learning, unsupervised learning, semi-supervised learning, and reinforcement
learning. In supervised learning, the algorithm is trained on labelled data, where the
correct outputs are already known. In unsupervised learning, the algorithm is trained on
unlabelled data, and it must find patterns and relationships on its own. Semi-supervised
learning is a combination of both supervised and unsupervised learning, while
reinforcement learning involves training a system through trial and error to maximize a
specific reward or outcome.

Some of the most common applications of machine learning include image

recognition, natural language processing, fraud detection, recommendation systems, and
autonomous vehicles. Machine learning has the potential to revolutionize many
industries, and its use is becoming increasingly widespread as more organizations seek to
leverage its benefits.

23
 CHAPTER 5

PROJECT DESCRIPTION
5.1 OVERVIEW

5.1.1 Single Cell Applications

The single-cell configuration is the simplest battery pack; the cell does not
need matching and the protection circuit on a small Li-ion cell can be kept simple.
Typical examples are mobile phones and tablets with one 3.60V Li-ion cell. Other
uses of a single cell are wall clocks, which typically use a 1.5V alkaline cell,
wristwatches and memory backup, most of which are very low power
applications.

The nominal cell voltage for a nickel-based battery is 1.2V, alkaline is

1.5V; silver-oxide is 1.6V and lead acid is 2.0V. Primary lithium batteries range
between 3.0V and 3.9V. Li-ion is 3.6V; Li-phosphate is 3.2V and Li-titanate is
2.4V.

Li-manganese and other lithium-based systems often use cell voltages of

3.7V and higher. This has less to do with chemistry than promoting a higher watt-
hour (Wh), which is made possible with a higher voltage. The argument goes that
a low internal cell resistance keeps the voltage high under load. For operational
purposes these cells go as 3.6V candidates.

5.2 SERIES CONNECTION

Portable equipment needing higher voltages use battery packs with two or more
cells connected in series Battery pack with four 3.6V Li-ion cells in series, also known as
4S, to produce 14.4V nominal. In comparison, a six-cell lead acid string with 2V/cell will
generate 12V, and four alkaline with 1.5V/cell will give 6V.

Figure 5.1 Adding cells in a string

24
Adding cells in a string increases the voltage; the capacity remains the same.

If you need an odd voltage of, say, 9.50 volts, connect five lead acid, eight NiMH
or NiCd, or three Li-ion in series. The end battery voltage does not need to be exact as
long as it is higher than what the device specifies. A 12V supply might work in lieu of
9.50V. Most battery-operated devices can tolerate some over-voltage; the end-of-
discharge voltage must be respected, however.

High voltage batteries keep the conductor size small. Cordless power tools run on
12V and 18V batteries; high-end models use 24V and 36V. Most e-bikes come with 36V
Li-ion, some are 48V. The car industry wanted to increase the starter battery from 12V
(14V) to 36V, better known as 42V, by placing 18 lead acid cells in series. Logistics of
changing the electrical components and arcing problems on mechanical switches derailed
the move.

Some mild hybrid cars run on 48V Li-ion and use DC-DC conversion to 12V for
the electrical system. Starting the engine is often done by a separate 12V lead acid
battery. Early hybrid cars ran on a 148V battery; electric vehicles are typically 450–
500V. Such a battery needs more than 100 Li-ion cells connected in series.

High-voltage batteries require careful cell matching, especially when drawing

heavy loads or when operating at cold temperatures. With multiple cells connected in a
string, the possibility of one cell failing is real and this would cause a failure. To prevent
this from happening, a solid-state switch in some large packs bypasses the failing cell to
allow continued current flow, albeit at a lower string voltage.

Cell matching is a challenge when replacing a faulty cell in an aging pack. A new
cell has a higher capacity than the others, causing an imbalance.

High-voltage batteries in electric vehicles, in which a full replacement would be

prohibitive, divide the pack into modules, each consisting of a specific number of cells. If
one cell fails, only the affected module is replaced. A slight imbalance might occur if the
new module is fitted with new cells.

25
 Figure 5.2 Series Connection with low battery

5.3 Tapping into a Series String

There is a common practice to tap into the series string of a lead acid array to
obtain a lower voltage. Heavy duty equipment running on a 24V battery bank may need a
12V supply for an auxiliary operation and this voltage is conveniently available at the
half-way point.

Tapping is not recommended because it creates a cell imbalance as one side of the
battery bank is loaded more than the other. Unless the disparity can be corrected by a
special charger, the side effect is a shorter battery life. Here is why:

When charging an imbalanced lead acid battery bank with a regular charger, the
undercharged section tends to develop sulfation as the cells never receive a full charge.
The high voltage section of the battery that does not receive the extra load tends to get
overcharged and this leads to corrosion and loss of water due to gassing. Please note that
the charger charging the entire string looks at the average voltage and terminates the
charge accordingly.

Tapping is also common on Li-ion and nickel-based batteries and the results are
similar to lead acid: reduced life. Newer devices use a DC-DC converter to deliver the
correct voltage. Electric and hybrid vehicles, alternatively, use a separate low-voltage
battery for the auxiliary system.

5.4 Parallel Connection:

If higher currents are needed and larger cells are not available or do not fit the
design constraint, one or more cells can be connected in parallel. Most battery chemistries

26
allow parallel configurations with little side effect. The nominal voltage of the illustrated
pack remains at 3.60V, but the capacity (Ah) and runtime are increased fourfold.

Figure 5.3 Parallel Connection

A cell that develops high resistance or opens is less critical in a parallel circuit
than in a series configuration, but a failing cell will reduce the total load capability. It’s
like an engine only firing on three cylinders instead of on all four. An electrical short, on
the other hand, is more serious as the faulty cell drains energy from the other cells,
causing a fire hazard. Most so-called electrical shorts are mild and manifest themselves as
elevated self-discharge.

A total short can occur through reverse polarization or dendrite growth. Large
packs often include a fuse that disconnects the failing cell from the parallel circuit if it
were to short.

Figure 5.4 Parallel Connection with low Battery

27
5.5 Series and parallel Connection

The series/parallel configuration shown in Figure 6 enables design flexibility and

achieves the desired voltage and current ratings with a standard cell size. The total power
is the sum of voltage times current; a 3.6V (nominal) cell multiplied by 3,400mAh
produces 12.24Wh. Four 18650 Energy Cells of 3,400mAh each can be connected in
series and parallel as shown to get 7.2V nominal and a total of 48.96Wh. A combination
with 8 cells would produce 97.92Wh, the allowable limit for carry on an aircraft or
shipped without Class 9 hazardous material.

Figure 5.5 Series and Parallel Battery Connection

This configuration provides maximum design flexibility. Paralleling the cells

helps in voltage management.

Li-ion lends itself well to series/parallel configurations but the cells need
monitoring to stay within voltage and current limits. Integrated circuits (ICs) for various
cell combinations are available to supervise up to 13 Li-ion cells. Larger packs need
custom circuits, and this applies to e-bike batteries, hybrid cars and the Tesla Model 85
that devours over 7000 18650 cells to make up the 90kWh pack.

28
 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

6.1 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, battery system management is a critical aspect of optimizing the

performance and lifespan of a battery system. By monitoring, controlling, and protecting
the battery, it is possible to improve its efficiency, extend its lifespan, and reduce the risk
of failure. By using this battery management system we can able to convert the battery
connection from series to parallel. Proper battery system management is essential for a
wide range of applications, including electric vehicles, renewable energy systems, and
portable electronics.

6.2 FUTURE WORK

The E-Vehicle battery management system provides a better lifespan of battery by

changing its mode. We have plans to improvise out project in the near future.

The future scope of the project is listed below:

 As batteries become more complex and sophisticated, there is a need for more
advanced algorithms to monitor and control their performance. We could involve
the development of machine learning algorithms that can adapt to changing
battery conditions and optimize performance accordingly.

 Battery management systems are often used in conjunction with renewable energy
sources, such as solar panels and wind turbines. In Future work we could focus on
developing strategies to better integrate battery management systems with these
types of systems to optimize their performance and maximize their efficiency.

29
 APPENDIX I

SOURCE CODE

ARDUINO IDE

int relay1=2;

int relay2=3;

int relay3=4;

int relay4=5;

int relay5=6;

int relay6=7;

#include <LiquidCrystal.h>

const int rs = 8, en = 9, d4 = 10, d5 = 11, d6 = 12, d7 = 13;

LiquidCrystal lcd(rs, en, d4, d5, d6, d7);

void setup() {

Serial.begin(9600);

pinMode(relay1,OUTPUT);

pinMode(relay2,OUTPUT);

pinMode(relay3,OUTPUT);

pinMode(relay4,OUTPUT);

pinMode(relay5,OUTPUT);

30
 pinMode(relay6,OUTPUT);

digitalWrite(relay1,HIGH);

digitalWrite(relay2,HIGH);

digitalWrite(relay3,HIGH);

digitalWrite(relay4,HIGH);

digitalWrite(relay5,HIGH);

digitalWrite(relay6,HIGH);

lcd.begin(16, 2);

lcd.setCursor(0, 0);

lcd.print(" Bttery Management ");

lcd.setCursor(0, 1);

lcd.print(" system ");

delay(3000);

void loop() {

int a=analogRead(A0);

int b=analogRead(A1);

int c=analogRead(A2);

int d=analogRead(A3);

31
///Serial.println(d);

if(d<1000)

lcd.setCursor(0, 0);

lcd.print(" Bttery Charging ");

lcd.setCursor(0, 1);

lcd.print(" Mode ");

digitalWrite(relay4,HIGH);

digitalWrite(relay5,HIGH);

digitalWrite(relay6,HIGH);

digitalWrite(relay1,HIGH);

digitalWrite(relay2,HIGH);

digitalWrite(relay3,HIGH);

lcd.setCursor(0, 0);

lcd.print("B1: B2: ");

lcd.setCursor(0, 1);

lcd.print("B3: ");

lcd.setCursor(3, 0);

lcd.print(a);

32
 lcd.setCursor(12, 0);

lcd.print(b);

lcd.setCursor(3, 1);

lcd.print(c);

delay(3000);

else

lcd.setCursor(0, 0);

lcd.print(" Battery ");

lcd.setCursor(0, 1);

lcd.print(" Normal Mode ");

digitalWrite(relay6,LOW);

digitalWrite(relay5,LOW);

digitalWrite(relay4,LOW);

delay(300);

digitalWrite(relay3,LOW);

digitalWrite(relay2,LOW);

digitalWrite(relay1,LOW);

33
 Serial.print(a);

Serial.print(':');

Serial.print(b);

Serial.print(':');

Serial.print(c);

Serial.println(':');

delay(2000);

34
 APPENDIX II

OUTPUT

Final Output of E vehicle Battery Monitoring System

Output of Machine Learning

35
REFERENCES

1. Energy Management System of Lithium-Ion Batteries . Mahammad A.

Hannan,Md. Murshadul Hoque, Aini Hussain; Yushaizad Yusof, Pin Jern K 21
December 2022,IEEE.

2. Battery Management System in Electric Vehicles May 2020International Journal

of Engineering and Technical Research A. Hariprasad I. Priyanka.

3. Su-Hau et al (2020) focused on the highly efficient energy usage of the battery
energy and proposed an integrated management system for electric motor.

4. MacKenzie, James J., and Michael P. Walsh. Driving forces: motor vehicle trends
and their implications for global warming, energy strategies and transportation
planning. Washington, World Resources Institute, 2019.

5. Modern batteries: an introduction to electrochemical power sources. Colin A.

Vincent and others. London, Baltimore, E. Arnold, 2019.

6. St. Germann, M. Wurtenberger and A. Daiss, "Monitoring of the Friction

Coefficient between Tyre and Road Surface", Proceedings of the 3 IEEE
conference of Control Applications, Vol. 1, 2017, pp. 613-618.

7. H. Sado, S.-I. Sakai and Y. Hori, "Road Condition Estimation for Traction
Control in Electric Vehicle", Industrial Electronics, 1999. ISIE '99. Proceedings
of the IEEE International Symposium, Vol. 2, 2016, pp. 973-978.

8. J.-S. Lin & L.-C. Fu, "Model Analysis and Controller Design of Electric
Motorcycles", Proceedings of American Control Conference, San Diego, June
2014.

9. J. W. Pavlat & R. W. Diller, "An Energy Management System to Improve Electric

Vehicle Range and Performance", IEEE AES System Magazine, June 2011.

10. M.-Y. Lin, Residual Capacity Estimation of Electric Vehicle Batteries, Master
Thesis, National Taiwan Univ., Taipei, Taiwan, 2010.

36
11. Nesbitt, Kevin, Daniel Sperling, and Mark DeLuchi. Initial assessment of
roadway-powered electric vehicles. In Global warming: transportation and energy
considerations, 2010. Washington, Transportation Research Board, National
Research Council, 2010.

12. H.J. Bergveld, Battery Management Systems Design by Modeling, 2001, ISBN
9074445-51-9.

13. D. Bell, “A battery management system,” Master’s thesis, School Eng., Univ.
Queensland, St. Lucia, Australia, 2000.

14. Sandeep Dhameja, Electric Vehicle Battery Systems, 2002, ISBN 0-7506-9916-7.

15. K. Shimitzu, N. Shirai, and M. Nihei, “On-board battery management system

with SOC indicator,” in Proc. Int. Electric Vehicle Symp., vol. 2, 1996, pp. 99–
104.

37
 LIST OF PUBLICATION

[1] Mrs. Christina Dally. E, Ahiesh Sujo. I S, Balaabhileesh. T S R, Aravindhan. P R,

Gowrisankar. R , E-VEHICLE BATTERY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM USING IoT,
IJSREM || ISSN: 2582-3930.

38