Chapter 2

Structure of atom
Dalton’s atomic theory
According to Daltons atomic theory, all
matter, whether an element, a
compound or a mixture is composed of
small particles called atoms. The
postulates of this theory may be stated
as follows:
(i) All matter is made of very tiny
particles called atoms.
(ii) Atoms are indivisible particles,
which cannot be created or
destroyed in a chemical reaction.
 (iii) Atoms of a given element are
identical in mass and chemical
properties.
(iv) Atoms of different elements have
different masses and chemical
properties.
(iv) Atoms combine in the ratio of
small whole numbers to form
compounds.
(v) The relative number and kinds of
atoms are constant in a given
compound.
Limitations of Dalton atomic theory.
Atoms of the same or different types
have a strong tendency to combine
together to form a new group of atoms.
For example, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen
gases exist in nature as group of two
atoms. This indicates that the smallest
unit capable of independent existence is
not an atom, but a group of atoms.
With the discovery of sub-atomic
particles, e.g.,electrons, neutrons and
protons, the atom can no longer be
considered indivisible.
Cathode ray discharge tube
experiment.
(Discovery of electrons)
For discovery of electron J.J.Thomson used a
cathode ray discharge tube at a very low
pressure of 10-³torr. He applied a potential of
20000 or more than 20000 volt DC. The setup
is given in following diagram.

When he applied 20000 potential he

observed that some rays started from
cathode and ends to anode which
produces fluroscence behind the anode
When he placed a light weight fan
between the cathode and anode, the fan
start rotating. By this observation he
concluded some properties of cathode
rays given below..
Discovery of proton…..
When voltage is applied in the discharge
tube electrons are emitted from cathode
and as they move towards anode they
ionize the gas filled and positively
charged ions are formed which travels
towards cathode and are observed as
anode rays.
 Unlike cathode rays anode rays or not
originated from anode.
Properties of anode rays…..
1.Anode rays travel along straight line paths
and they also cost shadows of object in a
their path.
2.They rotate a light pedal wheel placed in
between the path of anode rays this shows
that anode rays are made up of massive
particles.
3.They are deflected towards the negative
plate of a electric field this shows that these
rays are positively charge.
4.The message particles of anode rays or
initially called positron and further proton.
5.The nature of anode rays are dependent on
the nature of the gas filled.and independent
on the nature of the electrode.
Discovery of neutron..
Sir james chadwick give an experiment
to discover a neutral subatomic
particle called neutron. For this he use
of beryllium foil on which he bombard
the Alpha particles .Due to which a
neutral particle ejected out from
beryllium metal.This neutral particle is
called neutron.
 Charge to mass ratio of electrons.

charge to mass ratio of a particle is

dependent on…
1. Strength of magnetic field.
2. Strength of electric field.
3. Charge on the particle.
4. Mass of the particle also.
The charge to mass ratio of the electron
is calculated as..
e/m=1.758x10¹¹C/Kg.
#for calculating the mass and the charge
of an electron we have to find the
charge of electron. For this millikan gives
experiment to detect the quantity of the
charge on electron.This experiment is
called millikan oil drop experiment.
Millikan oil drop experiment…
The force on any electric charge in an
electric field is equal to the product of
the charge and the electric field. Millikan
was able to measure both the amount of
electric force and magnitude of electric
field on the tiny charge of an isolated oil
droplet and from the data determine the
magnitude of the charge itself.
Milliken’s Oil Drop Experiment Calculation
Fup = Fdown
Fup = Q . E(applied by electric field.)
 Fdown = m.g(applied by gravity).
Q=m.g/E
Q is an electron’s charge, E is the electric
field, m is the droplet’s mass, and g is gravity.
One can see how an electron charge is
measured by Millikan. Millikan found that all

drops had charges that were 1.6x10-

¹⁹C multiples.

Arjun Singh som..

Atomic models.
Thomson’s atomic model-
Thomson held that atoms are uniform spheres
of positively charged matter in which electrons
are embedded. Popularly known as the plum
pudding model, it had to be abandoned on
both theoretical and experimental grounds in
favour of the Rutherford atomic model.
Rutherford’s atomic model:-
(Scattering of alpha particle)
Sir Rutherford with their

students named as Hans

geiger and Earnest Marsdon
performance experiment
called Alpha particle scattering
experiment. For this he
bombard the Alpha particles
on gold foil and observed the
result on the screen painted
with zinc sulphide.
Observation:-
 Most of the Alpha particles passed
through gold atom without any
deviation which shows most of the
atom is empty.
 Few Alpha particles were deviated
through small angles which shows
 there is a positive charge present
in the atom.
 A very few (one of 20000)Alfa
particles were bounced back to it’s
own path which shows that the
positive charge of an atom is
concentrated in small volume of
the nucleus.
#the size of nucleus is very small as
compared to the size of
atom.R=R⁰(A)⅓. R is radius of
atom
Where A is mass no and R⁰=1.1x10-
¹³to1.44x10-¹³.
*Rutherford integrated maxwell's
electromagnetic theory for the
 motion of electron around the
nucleus.

Drawback of
Rutherford's model:-
According to the Maxwell's
electromagnetic theory when a charge of
particles is in accelerated motion it will
emit energy in form of radiation and
therefore it cannot maintain the radius of
its path and it will fall on nucleus hence
atom does not exist, which is impossible
because according to the Dalton ,atom is
neither be created nor be destroyed.

Bohr's atomic model:-

Sir Neil bohr give the correction in
rutherford’s atomic model and introduce a
new model called Bohr's atomic model.
Postulate of Bohr’s atomic model:-
1. According to that model atom contains
equal number of protons and electrons and
therefore atom is neutral.
2. Electrons are revolving around the
nucleus in circular path of constant radius
known as orbit or cell or energy levels. The
energy of these energy levels are given as…
En=-13.6Z²/n²eV
3. The centripital force required for the
circular motion of electron is provided by
the electrostatic force of attraction
between nucleus and electron.
4. Out of infinite possible orbits electron
can only be present in those orbits in which
 its angular momentum is an integral
multiple of h/2π.
mvr=nh/2π
5. An electron when revolving in an orbit
neither loses nor gains energy and their for
these orbits are also called stationary
orbits.
6. When election move from a lower
energy shell to a higher energy shell it
absorbs energy and when it jumps from
higher energy shell to a lower energy shell it
emits energy which is equal to ∆E.
7. The energy emitted or absorbed is equal
to the energy gap between the two energy
shells.

Formula Related to Bohr’s

model:-
Energy gap between two shells:-
Radius of nth Bohr’s orbit.
Velocity of the electron in nth Bohr’s orbit:-

(Time period of revolution of electron)

 Frequency of revolution:
f=1/T or f=z²/n³
Electromagnetic Radiation :-
Those radiations which doesn’t requirs any
medium for travelling is called electromagnetic
radiation.

Maxwell Theory:-Maxwell explained that light

propogate through wave.
Plank quantum theory:- He explained that light
is propogated In the form of energy packets
and moved forward in the form of that packets
called quanta.
The energy of a quanta is given by.
hc=1240ev*nm

Characteristics of quanta or photon

1.Photon travels with speed of light in
vacuum.
 2.The speed ,wavelength of photon changes
in a medium but its frequency, energy
remains.
3.The rest mass of photon is zero.
Photo dissociation:-
Breaking of chemical bonds using light energy is
called photo dissociation.
#bond energy is the energy required to break
one mole of the particular type of bond.
It’s unit is KJ/mol
*One Photon can break only one bond.

Photoelectric effect:-
When light is incident on photosensitive
metal, electrons are ejected out of their
surface, these electrons are called photo

electrons. The current which flow due to the

motion of these electrons in the circuit is
called photo current and its effect is called
photoelectric effect.
 *Minimum energy required to excite an
electron on the surface of metal is called
work function or threshold energy.
*The frequency required for that energy is
called threshold
frequency .
Photo electric equation:
The energy incident on the metal surface is
used up into two parts-
1.To eject the electrons our of the surface of
metal in form of work function.
2.To eject the electron out of the surface of
metal in form of work function.
3.To provide kinetic energy.
E=Work function+K.E
hf=hf⁰+1/2mv²
Some important points regarding photoelectric
effect:-
1.For each incident Photon only one photo
electron is emitted.
2. There is no time leg between striking of
photon and emission of photo electron.
3. Not all ejected photo electrons have kinetic
energy equal to maximum kinetic energy. some
photo electrons may have kinetic energy less
than maximum kinetic energy.
Stopping potential:-
#The reverse potential applied to stop the most
photo electron from reaching to anode from
cathode.
#the rivers voltage do work on the electron to
stop it and from work energy theorem…..
K.E. =eV
max o

Where Vo is called stoping potential.

K.E. max =hf-hf o
Black body radiation:-
A perfect black body is an object which can
absorb all the radiation incident on it.
Spectrum:-
“Collection of radiation of different wavelength
is called spectrum”..
These are of two types..
a.Absorption spectrum
b. Emission spectrum

Hydrogen spectrum:-The electron in

a hydrogen atom when get excited to a higher
energy level ,it stays there for 10-⁸sec and falls
back to ground state during which it emits
radiations of different colours which are
obtained as coloured lines in spectrum.
Rydberg’s Formula –
Calculation for number of spectral lines:

De-Broglie’s concept:-
#It explains the dual nature of matter.
#According to de broglie concept matter can
also behave as a wave.
#wave nature of matter was explained by
deviation German experiment.
#De broglie associated momentum of the
moving particle with the wavelength of
associated wave.
Wavelength of associated wave is directly
proportional to the momentum of the particle.
*De broglie concept is applicable for
microscopic object only.
Association of De- Broglie concept with Bohr’s
Model:-
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty
principle:-

According to this principal , it is

impossible to determine the
position and the momentum of
any electron simultaneously.
∆x.∆p=h/2π
Quantum Number:-
Set of numbers which are required to locate an
electron in an atom are called quantum
Number.
Types of quantum numbers….
1. Principal quantum number (n)
2.Azimuthal quantum number(l)
3. Magnetic quantum number (m)
4. Spin quantum number (s)
Aufbau’s principal:-
#filling of electrons in different orbital is due in
increasing order of their energy that is lowest
energy orbital will be filled first according to
(n+l) rule.
#according to this rule the orbitals having lower
value of n + l will be at lower energy.
#”if two orbitals have same value of n + l then
the orbital having lower value of n will be at
lower energy.”

Pouli’s exclusion principal:-

“according to this principal no two electrons in
an atom can have same value of all the four
Quantum numbers.”

Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity:-

According to Hund’s rule, out of the different
arrangements of the same electronic
configuration ,the arrangement which has
higher multiplicity will be more stable.
Questions on millikan oil drop experiment.