Unit 2: Molecular and Ionic Compound

Structure and Properties

Bonds Overview
• Atoms engage in bonding to share electrons and achieve a stable, lower-energy
state. This bonding can either be ionic where an atom gives the electron away, or
it can be covalent where they share the electron.

Ionic Bonds
• Ionic bonds are between a nonmetal and metal held together in a lattice structure
by electrostatic attraction. To bond, the cation gives up the electron(s) entirely to
the anion.
• The elements are held together by electrostatic force because the
positively charged cation is attracted to the negatively charged anion.

• Any substance held together by ionic bonds will be strong, usually solid at room
temp, and very high melting and boiling point.
• Melting point for ionic substances can vary depending on the charge. Per
Coulomb's Law, a greater charge leads to greater bond energy (MgO with
a charge of +2/-2 has a stronger bond than NaCl with a charge of +1/-1).
• if the charges are the same, then the size is considered. The smaller the
ions, the greater the bond energy.
• Ionic solids in the lattice structure are poor conductors because the electron is
stuck around the anion. Liquids are good conductors because the electrons are
free to move despite being locked around one atom. Salts are held together by
ionic bonds.
Metallic Bonds
• Rather than the electron being stuck around one atom, like in ionic bonds,
metallic bonds have a "sea of electrons”. The valence electrons freely move
about the bond, making them good conductors, and malleable and ductile.
• Metals can be made into alloys.
• interstitial alloys occur when there are two metals with vastly different
radii combine. Steel has large iron atoms and small carbon atoms.
• substitutional alloys occur when metals of similar radii combine. Brass
has copper and zinc, both similar sizes.

Molecular Covalent Bonding

• In covalent bonds, two nonmetals share electrons in the valence shell of the two
atoms.

• When two or more atoms bond covalently, they create a molecule, which can be
as small as two atoms or even as large as 24, there's no size limit.
• The first covalent bond between two atoms is called a sigma bond. all single
bonds are also sigma bonds. The second bond, a double bond, is called a pi
 bond. The second and third bond in a triple bond is a pi bond. Double and triple
bonds are shorter and stronger than single bonds, but not double or triple the
strength,

Internuclear Distance

• The length of a covalent bond depends on balancing the attractive and repulsive
forces. when two atoms are too close, the potential energy is high, and the nuclei
reset each other. When they are too for, the potential energy is zero because they
cannot attract.

• The dashed line represents zero potential energy, but it can be negative, which
represents lower energy. at label A, atoms are too close to bond. at label D they
are too far. at label C the repulsive and attractive forces are equal and they can
bond.

Network Covalent Bonds

• Network covalent bonds as solids are held together in a lattice of covalent bonds
which makes them very hard, very high melting point and boiling point. Electrons
cannot more about the lattice, making them poor conductors.
 • The most common network solids are carbon (graphite or diamond) and silicon
(quartz) because of the four valence electrons that allows more covalent
bonding.

Conductivity
• The type of bonding can be determined by looking at if it's a good conductor of
electricity. this chart shows conductivity based on phase

Solid Aqueous Liquid Gas

Ionic No Yes Yes No

Molecular No no no No
covalent

Network No n/a No no
covalent
Metallic Yes N/A yes No

Covalent substances never conduct electricity, including pure water. Tap water is not
pure water and is filled al dissolved ions that can conduct.

• Ionic substances cannot conduct as solids because of the electrons stuck in the
lattice structure. As liquids and when aqueous, the electrons can move around
and conduct. The ability to conduct depends on concentration and now many
ions they dissociate into.
• 1 M of NaCl conducts better than 0.1 M of NaCl because there's more ions
present per unit of solution.
• however, 1 M of CaCl2 would conduct better than NaCI because it
dissociates into three ions rather than two ions.

Lewis Dot Structures

Drawing Lewis Dot Structures

• Steps to drawing Lewis Dot Structure

 • Using the periodic table, count the valence electrons in the molecule
• if it has a neg charge, add the amount of electrons equal to the
charge. If it's positive, subtract
• draw skeletal structure of molecule with the most electronegative in the
middle and draw a pair electrons (single bond) between the elements.
• Add electrons to each element until there's a complete outer shell.
• add remaining electrons to central atom.
• if central atom has less than eight electrons, remove pair from
outer atom and make it a bond
• if it's a complete octet, you're finished

Resonance Forms

• The Lewis dot structure of CO3 can be drawn with 2 single bonds and one double
bond on any oxygen. Despite there being a double bond, each bond is a similar
strength and length, in between a double and single bond.
• To calculate the relative strength and length, you can use bond order
calculations.
• a single bond has a bond order of one and a double bond has a bond order
of two. Add up the amount of single and double bonds and divide by now
many resonance forms there are.
• (1+2+1)/3= 1.33

Incomplete Octets

• Some atoms do not need eight valence electrons. Hydrogen and helium only
need two, but helium never bonds. Boron is stable with six electrons. All others
need eight electrons in covalent bonds.
Expanded Octets

• Molecules with d subshells can have more than eight valence, but never more
than twelve. Silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, and chlorine can expand, but never
carbon, oxygen, nitrogen. Noble gases can sometimes bond because of their
empty d-orbital.

Formal Charge

• Even though a molecule has several variations a Lewis dot structures, there is a
more likely structure, called formal charge. To find formal charge, subtract the
total number of valence electrons from the number of assigned electrons
(bonded and lone pairs).
 • To determine which structure is more likely, choose the one with the formal
charge of zero (the left structure on the diagram).

Molecular Geometry

• Molecules will arrange in different shapes to keep electron pairs as far apart as
possible to limit repulsion. To determine the shape, the valence shell electron
pair repulsion model is used (VESPR).
• When there's more than two electrons, the share depends on the number of
bonds and lone pairs on the central atom.
• Double and triple bonds are treated the same in terms of predicting overall
geometry for a molecule
• Lone electron pairs have a more repulsive strength than bonds.
• Types of geometries
• If the central atom has two electron pairs, then it's an sp hybridization with
a linear shape.
• If the central atom has three electron pairs, it has the sp2 hybridization,
and a basic shape of trigonal planar
• The central atom has four electron pairs, it has an sp3 hybridization and a
basic tetrahedral shape.
• The central atom has five electron pairs, it has a trigonal bipyramidal
shape.
• The central atom has six electron pairs, its octahedral.