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 4
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Introduction
Electricity produces magnetism; that much had been established in the early 1820s, and so the converse-
magnetism produces electricity-seemed a reasonable thing to expect. And yet, the best researchers of
the day could only come up with results that were ambiguous and unconvincing. Still, the agenda was
obvious enough: a charge can electrify a nearby object by induction, and a magnet can magnetize a
nearby piece of iron by induction; it was only reasonable to expect that a current should induce a current
in a nearby conductor.
Since a steady current generates a steady magnetic field, should not a steady magnetic field generate a
steady current ? However logical that was, it was wrong. A steady magnetic field does not impart
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energy to free charges, it does no work on them, and yet for a current to exist it must get energy from
somewhere. A changing magnetic field is something very different. It can impart energy to charges and
it can produce currents.
ES

4.1 Magnetic Flux

Magnetic flux () through an area ds in magnetic field B is defined as
 = B · ds (i)
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B
Physically it represents total lines of induction passing through a given area

ds
Equation (i) can be written as A
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 = B ds cos  (ii)
where  is angle between B and area vector. According to equation (ii) flux can change not only due
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to magnetic field and area but also due to orientation of area w.r.t. B.
Dimensional formula of flux is [ML2T–2A–1]
SI unit of magnetic flux is volt-sec. which is also known as weber (Wb).
As 1 volt = 108 emu of potential, the C.G.S. unit of flux, maxwell (Mx) is related to weber through
relation
1 Wb = 1 V × s = 108 emu of potential × s = 108 Mx.

4.2 Electromagnetic Induction

If a magnet passes through a coil in a closed circuit containing a galvanometer, an electric current is
produced in the circuit. The direction of the current so induced in the circuit is reversed when the
magnet recedes away from the coil. The current so produced lasts so long as there is relative motion
between the magnet and the coil. It is shown that whenever the magnetic flux linked with a closed
circuit changes, an induced e.m.f. is produced in the circuit and lasts as long as the flux changes. Such

-4. 1 -
 Electromagnetic Induction

currents are produced due to induced electromotive force and the phenomenon is called electromagnetic
induction. The magnitude and direction of induced electromagnetic force is given by the following
Faraday’s and Lenz’s laws respectively.

S N

Faraday’s First Law : Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a closed circuit changes, an induced
electomotive force is produced which produces an induced current in the circuit which lasts as long as
the change lasts.

Faraday’s Second Law: The induced e.m.f. is equal to negative rate of change of flux through the
circuit.
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d
e=–
dt
The negative sign shows that the induced e.m.f. opposes the changes in the magnetic flux.
ES

Nd
If the coil has N number of turns, then e  – .
dt

Lenz’s Law : The direction of induced electromotive force is such that it opposes the cause that
produces the electromagnetic induction.
an

If the magnetic flux changes from 1 to 2 in time t, the average induced e.m.f. is given by
N( 2 – 1 )
e (avg) – .
ka
t
When the magnetic flux  through a closed circuit of known resistance R changes, the quantity of
induced charge q can be found as below:
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   e N   
As e  – N , i   
 t  R R  t 

N    N  Total change of flux

q = i t = R  t  
 t  R Resistance

4.3 Induction due to Motion of a Straight Rod in the Magnetic Field

Consider a straight conducting rod CD moving with velocity v towards right along a U shaped conductor
in a uniform magnetic field B directed into the page. The motion of the conductor CD results in
changing the area from CDEF to C DEF .
It results in a change of area CDDC  in the magnetic flux producing an increase in the magnetic flux
d as d = B.A

If l is the length of rod CD, which moves with velocity v in time dt, change in area perpendicular to the
field = CDDC = l v dt

-4. 2 -
Electromagnetic Induction

 d = Blvdt
d
The magnitude of induced e.m.f., e = = Blv
dt
If R is the resistance of loop, the induced current is
Bl v
I
R
The direction of the induced current is given by Fleming’s Right hand rule.

[Fleming’s Right Hand Rule: It states that if the thumb and the first two fingers of the right hand are
stretched mutually perpendicular to each other and if the forefinger gives the direction of the magnetic
field and the thumb gives the direction of motion of the conductor, then the central finger gives the
direction of the induced current.]

The current in the above mentioned loop is in the anticlockwise direction. If the loop CDEF is moved
towards right with velocity v, the induced current I will be flowing in the clock wise direction and this
current will produce forces F1 and F2 on arms CF and DE respectively which being equal and opposite
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will cancel.
Force F3 on arm CD = BIl where CD = l

 B l v  B2 l 2 v
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 F3 = Bl  R   R
 
where R is the resistance of closed loop.
B2 l 2 v 2
Power to pull the loop = F3v = .
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R
This work is completely converted to heat due to current flowing in the loop. Therefore heat produced
B2 l 2 v 2
in the loop per sec = I2R = .
R
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Thus, a mechanical energy needed to move the arm CD is converted into electrical energy and then to
thermal energy.
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4.4 E.M.F. Induced due to Rotation in Magnetic Field :

1. Rod rotating in a magnetic field : If a linearly conducting rod of length l moves with a
velocity v perpendicular to a magnetic field B, the induced e.m.f. = E0 = Blv .
If the rod of length l is rotating in a magnetic field with angular velocity ,
Velocity of different parts is different and increases moving from O  A.
Velocity of element at a distance x from O is x.
Induced emf across element of length dx.
| de | = (dx) · (x) · B
= B · (x dx) A
dx
x L
L

  de 
=  B x dx
0
O

 L2 
=  B 

B
 2 

-4. 3 -
 Electromagnetic Induction

1
 |e| = BL2
2
direction of emf is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.

2. Coil rotating in a magnetic field : Consider a rectangular conducting coil of area A and N
turns is rotated in a uniform magnetic field B with angular velocity , as shown in the figure.
As the coil rotates, an induced e.m.f., E is produced due to change of flux. At any instant area
vector of coil makes an angle  with magnetic field, flux linked with coil is

 = NBA cos  where  = t 

  = NBA cos t

d
= –NBA sin t
dt
B
using Faraday’s law
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e = NBA sin t
or e = e0 sin t
The induced e.m.f. has a sinusoidal variation with time and has a maximum value of e0 = NBA.
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Such a coil converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. It provides the basic principle on
which an alternating current (A.C.) generator is based.

3. Change of area inside magnetic field changes : Let a rectangular coil of width L and length
an

x inside the magnetic field, flux linked with coil,

 = BA × × × × ×
x
B
= (BL · x) × × A× × ×
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d dx L v
= BL = (BLv) × × × × ×
dt dt
D C
According to Faraday’s law × × × × ×
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or | e | = LvB
the direction of induced emf is given by Lenz’s law.
4. Flux linked with coil also changes when magnetic field over coil change with time.
4.5 Induced Electric Field
When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, we can understand the induced emf on the basis of
magnetic forces on charges in the conductor. But an induced emf also occurs when there is a changing
flux through a stationary conductor. What is that pushes the charges around the circuit in this type of
situation?

-4. 4 -
Electromagnetic Induction

As an example, let’s consider the situation shown in figure. A conducting circular loop is placed in a
magnetic field which is directed perpendicular to the paper inwards. When the magnetic field changes
with time, suppose it increases with time, the magnetic flux B also changes and according to Faraday’s
d B
law the induced emf e   is produced in the loop. If the total resistance of the loop is R, the
dt
induced current in the loop is given by,
e
i
R
But what force makes the charges move around the loop? It can’t be the magnetic force, because
the charges are not moving in the magnetic field.
Actually there is an induced electric field in the conductor caused by the changing magnetic flux.
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This electric field has following important properties:


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1. It is non conservative in nature. The line integral of E around a closed path is not zero. When
a charge q goes once around the loop, the total work done on it by the electric field is equal to
q times the emf.
  d B
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Hence,  E  dl  e   dt
Note, that this equation is valid only if the path around which we integrate is stationary.

2. Because of symmetry, the electric field E has the same magnitude at every point on the circle
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
and is tangent to it at each point. The direction of E at several points on the loop are shown
in figure.
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3. Being a nonconservative field, the concept of potential has no meaning for such a field.
4. This field is different from the electrostatic field produced by stationary charges (which is
conservative in nature).
 
5. The relation F  qE is still valid for this field.
6. This field can vary with time.
So, a changing magnetic field acts as a source of electric field of a sort that we cannot produce
with any static charge distribution. This may seen strange but its the way nature behaves.
Sample Problem 4.1:
A square loop ACDE of area 20 cm2 and resistance 5 is rotated in a magnetic field B = 2T through
180°
(a) in 0.01 s and
(b) in 0.02 s.
Find the magnitude of e, i and q in both the cases.

-4. 5 -
 Electromagnetic Induction

Sol.: Let us take the area vector S perpendicular to plane of loop inwards. So initially, S  B and when
it is rotated by 180°, S  B. Hence, initial flux passing through the loop,

i = BS cos 0° (2)(20 × 10–4)(1) = 4.0 × 10–3 Wb

Flux passing through the loop when it is rotated by 180°,

f = BS cos 180° = (2) (20 × 10–4)(–1)

= –4.0 × 10–3 Wb

Therefore, change in flux,

B = f – i

= –8.0 × 10–3 Wb

(a) Given t = 0.01 s, R = 5 

 B 8.0  10 3
 | e | =  t  0.01
= 0.8 volt
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| e | 0 .8
i =  = 0.16 A
R 5
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and q = it = 0.16 × 0.01 = 1.6 × 10–3C

(b) t = 0.02 s

 B 8.0  10 3
| e | =  t 
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 0.02
= 0.4 volt

| e | 0 .4
i=  = 0.08 A
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R 5
and q = it = (0.08)(0.02)
= 1.6 × 10–3 C
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Sample Problem 4.2:

A coil of area 2 m2 is placed in magnetic field which varies as B = (2t2 + 2) T with area vector in the
direction of B. What is the magnitude of induced emf at t = 1 sec.

Sol.: Angle between area vector and magnetic field is  = 0

 = BA cos 0

d dB
 ·A
dt dt

dB
 |e| = A· = A(4t)
dt

 | e | = 8t (According to Faraday’s law)

At t = 1 sec, | e | = 8V

-4. 6 -
Electromagnetic Induction

Sample Problem 4.3:

A current i = 3.36 (1 + 2t) × 10–2 A increases at a steady rate in a long straight wire. A small circular
loop of radius 10–3 m has its plane parallel to the wire and is placed at a distance of 1 m from the
wire. The resistance of the loop is 8.4 × 10–4. Find the magnitude and the direction of the induced
current in the loop.

Sol.: The situation is shown in figure . The field due to straight wire at the centre of loop;

0 2 I 2I
B= = 10–7 × 1m
4 d 1

So the flux linked with the loop wire × ×

 = BS = B × r2 = 10–7 × 2I ×  × (10–3)2 × ×
(Area of coil is very small so B over it can
Wire Loop
be taken to be constant)
So emf induced in the loop due to change of current
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d dI
|e| = = 2 × 10–13
dt dt
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dI A
 I = 3.36(1 + 2t) × 10–2 so, = 6.72 × 10–2
dt s

And hence e = 2 × 10–13 × 6.72 × 10–2 = 13.44 × 10–15 V

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And so the induced current in the loop

e 13.44  10 15
i=  = 16 × 10–12 A
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R 8.4  10  4

As due to increase in current in the wire the flux linked with the loop will increase, so in accordance
with Lenz’s law the direction of current induced in the loop will be inverse of that in wire, i.e.,
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anticlockwise.
Sample Problem 4.4:
A square metal wire loop of side 10 cm and resistance 1 is moved with a constant velocity v0 in a
uniform magnetic field of induction B = 2 Wb m–2 . The magnetic field lines are perpendicular to the
plane of the loop directed into the paper. The loop is connected to a net work of resistors each of 3
. The resistances of lead wires OS and PQ are negligible. What should be the speed of the loop so
as to have a steady current of 1 m A in the loop? Give the direction of current in the loop.

× ×v
× ×o S
× × O  
×B ×
× × A C

× × P  
× ×
Q
× ×

-4. 7 -
 Electromagnetic Induction

Sol.: Given network of resistances of 3 is balanced wheat stone bridge, so A and C are at same potential,
no current flows through A C.

1 1 1
If R is effective resistance,   or R = 3 
R 6 6
Resistance of loop = 3 + 1 = 4 
Let speed of loop is v0 × ×v
e.m.f. = e = Blvo = 2 × 0.1 × v0 = 0.2v0 × ×o S
× × O  
Using Ohm’s Law
×B ×
× × A C

e Bl v o 0.2 v 0 × × P  
i   × ×
R R 4 Q
× ×

0 .2 v 0 4  10 –3
i  10 – 3 A  , v0   2  10 – 2 ms – 1 ,
4 0 .2
Direction of induced current in the loop is in clockwise direction.
JE

Sample Problem 4.5:

The space is divided by the line A D into two regions. Region I is field free and the region II has a
uniform magnetic field B directed into the plane of paper. ACDA is a semicircular conducting loop of
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radius r with centre at O, the plane of the loop being in the plane of the paper. The loop is now made
to rotate with a constant angular velocity  about an axis passing through O and  the plane of the
paper. The effective resistance of loop is R.
an

(a) obtain an expression for the magnitude of induced

current in the loop
(b) show the direction of the current when loop is
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entering region II.

(c) plot a graph between the induced e.m.f. and time for
two periods of rotation.
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Sol.: (a) Let at t = 0 loop starts entering in region II and at time t, loop rotates by angle 

 r 2 
 at time t flux linked with loop,  = B  .

 2 
According to Faraday’s law

d B r 2 d
e=  =  ·
dt 2 dt

1 2 Br 2 
 |e| = Br  and I = .
2 2R
(b) According to Lenz’s law, the direction of current induced is to oppose the change in magnetic
flux. So current induced in the wire must create an outward magnetic field. For doing so the
direction of current is anticlock wise.

-4. 8 -
Electromagnetic Induction

(c) When the loop enters the magnetic field, the magnetic flux linked with the loop increases and
1 2
e.m.f. is Br  in one direction. when the loop comes out of the field, the flux decreases and
2
e.m.f. is induced of same magnitude but in opposite sense. The graph between e.m.f. and time
of rotation for two periods is shown is the figure

Sample Problem 4.6:

A long straight wire carries a current i0. At distances a and b from it there are two other wires,
parallel to the former one, which are interconnected by a resistance R. A connector slides without
friction along the wires with a constant velocity v. Assuming the resistances of the wires, the connector,
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the sliding contacts and the self inductance of the frame to be negligible, find
(a) the magnitude and the direction of current induced in the connectors
(b) the force required to maintain the connector’s velocity constant.
ES

Sol.: (a) Magnetic field due to straight current carrying conductor at distance r is given by
 0 i0
B 
2 r
Voltage induced across dr length of sliding wire, de = Bv dr (using e = L | v × B |)
an

Where v is speed of sliding wire.

For induced emf across sliding wire.
b  0 i0 v
0 i0
e b dr
 de    v dr  
ka
0 a 2 2 a r
 0 i0 v b
e log e  
2 a
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Using Ohm’s law +

e  0 i0 v F
b
i  log e  
R 2 R a R v b

(b) Magnetic force acting on sliding wire

r
F  d F  i B dr  – a
i0
b b  i
0 i0
v
=  log e   . 0 0 dr
a 2 R  a  2 r
2
b b   b 
 0 i0 v log e    0 i0 log e   
a
  a
   0 i0 log e   v
   a 
 2 R 2  2  R
 
 
To maintain velocity, force F in magnitude but opposte in the direction of velocity should be
applied.

-4. 9 -
 Electromagnetic Induction

Sample Problem 4.7:

A metal rod of mass m can rotate about a horizontal
axis O, sliding along a circular conductor of radius
a. The arrangement is located in a horizontal and
uniform magnetic field of induction B directed  to E
the ring plane. The axis and the ring are connected
to an e.m.f. source to form a circuit of resistance t
R. Deduce the relation according to which the 
source e.m.f. must vary to make the rod rotate O mg X
dx
with a constant angular velocity . Neglect ×B
the friction, circuit inductance and ring resistance.

Sol.: Induced e.m.f. across the ends of the rod

a 1
Ba2
e =  de   B  x dx
0
=
2
Force on the rod if a current I flow through It:
F=IaB
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If the angular velocity is constant so that torque about O must vanish. Hence
a 1
mg sin  t = I a2 B
2 2
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 Current required through the rod

mg sin t
I= aB
This must be equal to the current due to total e.m.f. in the circuit
1
an

E  B a 2
2 mg sin  t
I= 
R aB
1
 E= (2 m g R sin  t + B²  a²)
ka

2Ba

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS : 4 – I
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1. A conducting wire xy of length l and mass m is sliding without friction on vertical conduction rails ab
and cd as shown in figure. A uniform magnetic field exists perpendicular to the plane of the rails, xy
moves with a constant velocity of

mgR mgR mgR mgR

(a) (b) 2 (c) 2 2 (d)
Bl Bl B l B 2l
Sol. [c]
 Bvl 
mg = iBl or mg  Bl  
 R 
mgR
v
B 2l 2

-4. 1 0 -
Electromagnetic Induction

2. A thin ring of radius 10 cm carries a uniformly distributed charge. The ring rotates at a constant speed
of 1200 rpm about its axis perpendicular to the plane. The charge on the ring if B = 3.14 × 10–9 T at the
centre is
(a) 2.5 × 10–5 C (b) 10–5 C (c) 5 × 10–5 C (d) 12.5 × 10–5 C
Sol. [a]
Magnetic field at the centre of the ring
 I  Nq
B 0  0 [I = Nq, N is frequency]
2r 2r
B  2r 3.14  109  2  10  102  60
q 
0 N 4  3.14  107  1200
3. Some magnetic flux is changed from a coil of resistance 10. As a result, an induced current is
developed in it which varies with time as shown in figure. The magnitude of the change in flux through
the coil in weber is
(a) 2 (b) 4
(c) 6 (d) 8
Sol. [a]
d = (Area under i-t graph) × resistance
JE

1
d  (4)(0.1)(10)
2
4. A metal disc of radius a rotates with a constant angular velocity  about its axis. The potential difference
between the centre and the rim of the disc is (m = mass of electron, e = charge on electron)
ES

m2 a 2 1 m2 a 2 e2 a 2 e2 a 2

(a) (b) (c) (d)
e 2 e 2m m
Sol. [b]
If E be the electric field at a distance r from the centre.
an

m2 r
eE  m2 r  E 
e
a
ka

Now, V   E dr
0
a
m2 r m2 a 2
V  dr 
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0
e 2e
5. A rod of length l rotates with a uniform velocity  about its perpendicular bisector. A uniform magnetic
field B exists parallel to the axis of rotation. The potential difference between the two ends of the rod
is
1
(a) zero (b) Bl2 (c) Bl2 (d) 2Bl2
2
Sol. [a]
Consider an elementary part dx at a distance x from the axis YY´.
l
2
Now,    Bv(dx)
l

l 2
2
  B(x) (dx)
l

2

-4. 1 1 -
 Electromagnetic Induction

  x
6. The magnetic field in a region is given by B  B0 1   kˆ. A square loop of edge d is placed with its
 a 
edge along the x- and y-axis. The loop is moved with a constant velocity v  v0iˆ . The emf induced in
the loop is

v0 B0 d 2 v0 B0 d 3
(a) zero (b) v 0 B 0 d (c) (d)
a a2
Sol. [c]
d
Induced emf, e 
dt
d dB
e  ( BA)  A
dt dt
d B x
e A  B0  0 
dt  a 

B0 dx B0 d 2 v0
e  d2 
JE

a dt a
 
7. A conductor AB of length l moves in xy plane with velocity v  v0 (iˆ  ˆj ). A magnetic field B  B0 (iˆ  ˆj )
exists in the region. The induced emf is
ES
(a) zero (b) 2B0 lv0 (c) B0 lv 0 (d) 2 B0lv 0
Sol. [a]
  
Induced emf, e  (v  B)  dl
 
Here v  B  0
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8. A conducting rod AB of length l = 1m is moving at a velocity v = 4 m/s making an angle 30º with its
length. A uniform magnetic field B = 2T exists in a direction perpendicular to the plane of motion. Then
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(a) vA – vB = 8V (b) vA – vB = 4V (c) vB – vA = 8V (d) vB – vA = 4V

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Sol. [b]
e = Bvsin  l
1
e  2  4 1  4V
2
Applying right hand thumb rule; end A will be at higher potential.
9. A wire of mass m slides under gravity on two smooth parallel rails l distance apart at an angle  to the
horizontal. At the bottom, rails are joined by a resistance R. There is a uniform magnetic field perpendicular
to the plane of the rails. The terminal velocity of the rod is

mgR cos  mgR sin  mgR tan  mgR cot 

(a) 2 2 (b) 2 2 (c) 2 2 (d)
B l B l B l B 2l 2

-4. 1 2 -
Electromagnetic Induction

Sol. [b]
The rod will attain terminal velocity when magnetic force is equal to mgsin .
Now, Fm = mgsin 
ilB = mg sin 

( BvT l )
lB  mg sin 
R
10. A and B are two metallic rings placed at opposite sides of an infinitely long straight conducting wire as
shown. If the current in the wire is slowly increased, the direction of the induced current will be

(a) clockwise in A and anticlockwise in B

(b) anticlockwise in A and clockwise in B
(c) clockwise in both A and B
JE

(d) anticlockwise in both A and B

Sol. [a]
Since current is increasing in the middle wire; the direction of induced currents in A and B should
oppose the magnetic field produced in A and B.
ES

4.6 Inductance
1. Self Inductance : A magnetic flux is linked with a coil when a constant current is passed
an

through it. However, when the current is increased or reduced in the coil, it results in a change of
magnetic flux due to which an e.m.f. is induced in the coil and is called self induced e.m.f. due to
the phenomenon of self induction.
ka

The phenomenon of production of opposing induced emf in a coil as a result of varying current in
the coil itself is called self induction.
lp

If a current I is flowing in a coil, a magnetic flux  is linked to the coil which is directly proportional
to the current
 I or  = LI
Where L is a constant of proportionality and is called the self inductance of the coil or simply
inductance of the coil
d dI
 e.m.f., induced in the coil, e  –  –L .
dt dt
The self inductance of a coil is the e.m.f. induced in it when the rate of change of current is unity.
The unit of inductance is Henry. One Henry is defined as the inductance of a coil in which an
e.m.f. of 1 volt is produced when the current in the coil is changing at the rate of one ampere per
second. If a solenoid has n number of turns per meter and l is its length with total number of turns
N = nl and area of cross section A, its inductance L is

-4. 1 3 -
 Electromagnetic Induction

  0 N 2 IA  0 N 2 A
L= = = .
I lI l

2. Mutual Inductance : If an inductor is placed close to another inductor, an increase or

decrease of the current in the first inductor produces a magnetic flux linked with this coil
which produces an induced e.m.f. in the second coil and is called as mutual induction. The
phenomenon of production of induced e.m.f. in one coil due to the varying current in the
neighbouring coil is called mutual induction. If a current IP is flowing at any time in a primary
coil P, then the magnetic flux linked with the secondary coil S is s which is directly
proportional to IP .
s  IP, s = MIP IP
Where M is a constant called the mutual inductance of two coils.
S v
– d s P
Induced e.m.f. in the secondary coil = e 
dt
JE

dI P
e  –M .
dt
The mutual inductance M of two coils or circuits having self inductance L1 and L2 is given by
ES

M = K L1L 2 (1)
where K is constant called “co-efficient of coupling”. If coils are wounded over each other, the
coupling is said to be tight otherwise loose. For tight coupling K = 1 so M = L1L 2 while for
other coupling
an

0 < K < 1, so M < L1L 2 .

Furthermore, from expression (1) it is clear that if L = 0, M will be zero. Which means system
ka

can’t have mutual inductance without having self inductances, however converse may not be
true, i.e., mutual inductance of coils is zero when there is no coupling.
Coils in series and Parallel:
lp

(i) Coils in series:- Using Kirchoff’s second law in the loop

dI dI
E – L1 – L2 =0 L1 L2
dt dt
dI e1 e2
 E – (L1 + L2) =0 i
dt
dI
or E–L =0 E
dt
where L is equivalent self inductance of the circuit, and
L = L1 + L2
(ii) Coils in parallel:- Using Kirchoff’s second law in the loop I
L1
d I1
E – L1 =0
dt I1 II
L2
d I1 I2
or E = L1
dt I I
E

-4. 1 4 -
Electromagnetic Induction

d I2
also E = L2 (using Kirchoff’s second law in loop II)
dt

 1 1 
 E    = d (I + I )
L
 1 L2  dt 1 2

E dI
or 
L dt
1 1 1
where L is equivalent inductance and   .
L L1 L2
Incase of series grouping of two inductors, the mutual inductance is also taken into account with
K = 1 then,
L = L1 + L2 ± 2M
L1 L2 L1

L2
JE

L = L1 + L2 + 2M L = L1 + L2 – 2M L = L1 + L2 – 2M

4.7 Energy Stored in an Inductor

ES

The energy of a capacitor is stored in the electric field between its plates. Similarly an inductor has the
capability of storing energy in its magnetic field.
A changing current in an inductor causes an emf between its terminals
an

The work done per unit time is power.

dW di
P= = –ei = –Li
dt dt
ka

dW dU
From dW = –dU or =–
dt dt

dU di
lp

we have,  Li
dt dt
or dU = Li di
The total energy U supplied while the current increases from zero to a final value i is
i
1 2

U = L i di  2 L i
0

1 2
U= Li
2
This is the expression for the energy stored in the magnetic field of an inductor when a current i flows
through it. The source of this energy is the external source of emf that supplies the current.

4.8 L – C Oscillations
If an inductor of inductance L is connected to a capacitor of capacitance C as shown in the circuit
there is a current I flowing through the circuit at any time during the discharge of the capacitor.

-4. 1 5 -
 Electromagnetic Induction

Q
The potential difference across the capacitor at that time = , where Q is charge on the capacitor
C
at any time at t = 0.
Using Kirchoff’s law in the loop
– L
Q dI Q dI C
 L  L +
=0 
C dt C dt
I
2
dQ Q d Q
As I = – ,  –L
dt C dt 2

d2 Q Q
2
 0
dt LC

d2 Q
2
 2 Q  0 ,
dt
JE

Solution of this differential equation gives variation of Q sinusoidly as Q = Q0 cos t. (assuming that
capacitor has charge Q0 at t = 0)
1
Here,   .
ES
LC
dQ
Now, I=  = Q0 sin t
dt
or I = Q0 sin(t)
an
= I0sin(t) where, I0 = wQ0
Energy stored in capacitor at any time t is
2
1 q2 Q
U1 = ·  0 cos2 t
ka

2 C 2C
2
Q0
or U1 = (1 + cos 2t)
4C
lp

Which shows that energy in capacitor also changes sinusoidly with angular frequency 2.
Energy stored in inductor at any time t.
1 2
U2 = LI
2
1
= LI 2sin2t
2 0
2
LI 0
= (1 – cos 2t)
4
2
LI 0
= [(1 + cos(2t – /2))]
4
U2 also changes sinusoidly with angular frequency 2 but legs by /2 with U1.

-4. 1 6 -
Electromagnetic Induction

4.9 Growth and Decay of Current in L – R circuit

Consider an inductor of inductance L connected in series with a resistor R which is connected in series
to a battery of e.m.f. E in series through a two way key A, B, S as shown in the circuit diagram. When
the switch S is connected to A, the current is the circuit grows from zero value. When the current
starts growing through the inductance, a back e.m.f. is induced in the coil due to self induction which
opposes the rate of growth of current in the circuit. Similarly, when the switch S is connected to B by
disconnecting the battery, the current begins to fall. The current, however, does not fall to zero
instantaneously due to the e.m.f. induced in the coil due to self induction which opposes and reduces
the rate of decay of current in the circuit.

1. Growth of Current : If S is connected to A during the growth of current, let I be instantaneous

dI
current at any time in the circuit. A back e.m.f. equal to L will develop in the circuit so that
dt
dI
effective e.m.f in the circuit is E – L which is equal to potential
dt
JE

drop of IR across resistor.

dI
 E–L  IR
dt
ES

dI dt
or E – RI  L

Integrating this equation between the limits when the current is zero at time t = 0 to the
instantaneous current I at time t,
an

I t – Rt
dI dt E L
 0
E – RI
 
0
L
, I  [1 – e
R
]
ka

E
If I0 is maximum current, so that I0 =
R
lp

 – Rt 
I = I0 when exp   = 0 or t = 
 L 
Thus current I approaches a value I0 asymptotically and grows exponentially to a value equal to
E/R.

The curve for growth of current in L–R circuit is shown is the figure.
L
when t= , E
R = Io
R
–R L
   0.63Io
1 – e L R
I = I0  
  I
 1  e – 1
= I0 1 – e  = I0  e   t
   
2.718 –1 
= I0   = 0.63 I0
 2.718 

-4. 1 7 -
 Electromagnetic Induction

The current reaches a value which is equal to 63% of the maximum value I0 after a time of
L
  second from the beginning.
R

L
 Time constant of the circuit =   .
R
The time constant  of a circuit is the time during which the current rises from zero to 63% of its
maximum value.
–t
 
 I  I 0 1 – e  
 

2. Decay of Current : If switch S is connected to B, the battery is disconnected. The current

does not fall instantaneously from I0 to zero but decays slowly due to the current induced in the
coil in the direction opposite to that of the falling current. The induced e.m.f. in the inductance
dI
will be equal to – L corresponding to the instantaneous current I in resistor R at that time
dt
JE

dI
 –L  RI
dt

dI R
ES

Rate of decay of current =  –  I

dt L

dI R
or    dt
I L
an

When t = 0, The current, I0 is maximum and the current at time t is I.

I t
dI R
   –  dt
ka

I L
I0 0

Rt t
 
 I = I0 e L = I0 e 
lp

L
Where   is the time constant of the circuit.
R
–R L
L  I0 I0
When t  , I  I0 e L R    0.37 I 0
R e 2.718
The time constant  is defined as the time interval during which the current decays to 37% of
the maximum current during the decay. The rate of decay of the current shows an exponential
decay behaviour as shown in the figure.

-4. 1 8 -
Electromagnetic Induction

The energy stored in an inductor of inductance L, when the current I is passing through it, is
1 2
equal to L I which is in the magnetic form. Such an LC circuit produces harmonic oscillation
2
in an electrical circuit in which the energy changes from the electrical to magnetic and vice
versa. Such oscillations can be sustained in an electrical circuit and can continue for a long time
with the same amplitude if there is negligible resistance in the circuit.
Sample Problem 4.8:
In the figure shown, i1 = 10 e–2t A, i2 = 4 A and Vc (potential difference across capacitor) = 3 e–2t V.
Determine

C = 2F +VC
–

R1= 2  O i2 R2= 3 
a c
i1 iL
JE

VL L = 4H
–
ES

d
(a) iL and VL (b) Vac, Vab and Vcd.

Sol.: (a) For capacitor q = CV = 2 × 3 × e–2t = 6e–2tC current through capacitor, ic = – 12 e–2tA using
an

Kirchoff’s first law at junction o

b
i1 + i2 = ic + iL
 iL = 4 – 2e–2t +
ka

–
diL
| VL | = L iC
dt
a o c
= 4 × 4 e–2t = 16 e–2t V
lp

i1 i2
iL
(b) Using Kirchoff’s second law in branch aoc
Va – 2 × 10 e–2t + 3 × 4 = Vc
Va – Vc = Vac = (20 e–2t – 12)V
Now, using Kirchoff’s second law in branch aob d

Va – 20 × e–2t + 3e–2t = VL
 Va – Vb = Vab = 17 e–2t V
Now, using Kirchoff’s second law in branch cod
Vc – 3 × 4 – 4 × 4 e–2t = Vd
 Vc – Vd = Vcd = (12 + 16 e–2t)V
Sample Problem 4.9:
A straight solenoid has 50 turns per cm in primary and 200 turns in the secondary. The area of cross
section of the solenoid is 4 cm2. Calculate the mutual inductance.

-4. 1 9 -
 Electromagnetic Induction

Sol.: Magnetic field inside any point of solenoid

B = 0n1i1
where n1 no of turns in primary
and i1 is current in primary
Flux through secondary having turns n2 is
n22 = n2(BA) = 0n1n2i1A

n2  2
 M = = 0n1n2S
i1

4  10 7  50  200  4  10 4
=
10  2
= 5 × 10–4 H.
Sample Problem 4.10:
What inductance would be needed to store 1.0 kWh of energy in a coil carrying a 200 A current.
(1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 J)
JE

1 2
Sol.: V= Li
2
ES

2V 2  3.6  106
 L= 2 = = 180 H
i ( 200) 2
Sample Problem 4.11:
an

A coil of resistance 20  and inductance 0.5 henry is switched to dc 200 volt supply. Calculate the
rate of increase of current:
(a) at the instant of closing the switch and
ka

(b) after one time constant.

(c) Find the steady state current in the circuit.

Sol.: (a) Current at any time is given by

lp

 Rt 
1  e  L 
i = i0  
 

Rt
di  V R   L  V
   · e  i0  
dt  R L   R

dI E 200
at t = 0,   = 400 A/S
dt L 0 .5
(b) at t = 
di
= 400 e–1 = 148 A/S
dt
(c) Since steady current is at t =  and steady current i0 = 400 A

-4. 2 0 -
Electromagnetic Induction

Sample Problem 4.12:

An iron core is inserted into a solenoid 0.5 m long with 400 turns per unit length. The area of cross
section of the solenoid is 0.001 m2.
(a) Find the relative permeability of the core when a current of 5A flowing through the solenoid
winding creates the magnetic flux through the cross section of the solenoid equal to
1.6 × 10–3 Wb
(b) find the inductance of the solenoid.
Sol.: Magnetic induction at the axis of solenoid is B = (0rnI), where n are number of turns/unit length.
 1.6  10 –3
(a) B   –3 2
1.6 Wb m – 2
A 10 m
As B = µ0 µr n I
 1.6 = µ × 10–7 × 4 × 400 × 5
1.6  10 7
r   637 .
JE
4  5  400
(b) Total no. of turns = n × l = 400 × 0.5 = 200.

Linked flux through solenoid = N= 200 × 1.6 × 10–3 = 0.32 Wb

ES

Nφ 0.32
L =   0.064 H = 64 mH.
I 5
0 N 2 A
Alternatively, L =  0 n 2l A
l
an

= 637 × 4  × 10–7 × (400)2 × 0.5 × 10–3

= 64 m H.
Sample Problem 4.13:
ka

A metal rod OA of mass m and length l is kept rotating with a constant angular speed  in a vertical
plane about a horizontal axis passing through the end O. The free end A is arranged to slide without
friction along a fixed conducting circular ring placed in the same plane as that of rotation. A uniform
and constant magnetic field induction B is applied perpendicular and into in plane of rotation as
lp

shown in figure. An inductor and an external resistance R are connected through a switch S between
the point O and a point C on the ring to form an electrical circuit. Neglect the resistance of the ring
and the rod. Initially, the switch is open. Y
(a) What is the induced e.m.f. across the terminals × × × × × × × × × ×
of the switch? × × × × × × A× × × B
(b) If the switch s is closed at time t = 0, obtain an S × × × × × × × ×
× × × ×  × ×P × ×
expression for × × × O × × × × × X
(i) the current as a function of time. R × × × × × × × × ×
(ii) torque required to maintain the constant × × × × × × × × ×
× × × × × × × × ×
angular speed, given that the rod OA was C
L
along the positive X-axis at t = 0.

Sol.: (a) The flux enclosed by area of sector OA P at the given instant of time
1  1 2
B = B  . r r    B r 
2  2

-4. 2 1 -
 Electromagnetic Induction

 The induced e.m.f. developed between two ends O and A of the rod, according to Faraday’s
law

d B d 1  1 d 1
e    B r 2    B r 2   B r² 
dt dt  2  2 dt 2

The negative sign indicates the direction of e.m.f. which would be from A towards O so as to
resist the motion in anticlockwise direction.

1
(b) (i) Here we can replace the rod by a battery of e.m.f.  B r²  with positive terminal
2
pointing towards O. Now switch, resistance and inductance are connected in series as
shown in figure. At t = 0, the switch is closed.
Let a current I flows through the circuit. When the current increases in the circuit, a self
 dI 
induced e.m.f.  L is developed in the inductance.
 dt 

By Kirchoff’s law, we have

JE

+ E–
dI
E – IR – L =0
dt
R I
ES

dI dI dt
or L = E – IR or  L
dt E  IR L

IdI dtt
or   
an

0 E  IR 0 L

or E [1 – e–R t/L]
I
R
ka

B r 2
 I (1 – e–R t/L)
2R
lp

(ii) The force acting on rod due to induced current I is given by

B r 2
F = I (L × B)  F = (1 – e–R t/L) rB
2R

B2 r 3
or F (1 – e–R t/L)
2R

By symmetry, this force may be regarded as acting on the middle point of rod OA. The
torque produced is given by

2 4
r B r 
  F .   (1 – e–Rt/L)
2
  4 R

The torque acts in clockwise direction. To maintain a constant angular speed , an external
torque  is needed to be applied in anticlockwise direction with same time dependence.

-4. 2 2 -
Electromagnetic Induction

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS: 4 – II

I
1. In the circuit shown, the resistance R = 0.2 . At a certain instant vA – vB = 0.5 V, I = 0.5 A,  8 A/s.
t
The inductance of the coil is

(a) 0.01 H (b) 0.02 H (c) 0.03 H (d) 0.05 H

Sol. [d]

di
vA – vB = vL + vR = L  iR
dt
0.5 = L × 8 + 0.2 × 0.5
2. A small coil of radius r is placed at the centre of a large coil of radius R, where R >> r. The two coils
are coplanar. The mutual inductance between the coils is proportional to
(a) r/R (b) r2 /R (c) r2/R 2 (d) r/R2
JE
Sol. [b]
Magnetic flux linked with smaller coil

0 i
  B. A  .r 2
ES

2 R

 0 r 2
Mutual inductance, M  
i 2R
an

r2
 M
R
3. The switch in the circuit is closed for t < 0 and is opened at t = 0. When currents through L1 and L2 are
ka

first equal, their common value is

lp

E E ( L1  L2 ) EL1 E ( L1  L2 )
(a) (b) RL1 (c) R( L1  L2 ) (d) R L2
R
Sol. [c]
When currents become equal, flux will also be equal

E
( L1 )  i( L1  L2 )
R

EL1
i
R ( L1  L2 )

-4. 2 3 -
 Electromagnetic Induction

4. In the circuit shown in figure, the switch is shifted to position 2 from position 1 at t = 0 having been in
position 1 for a long time. The current will be

E 4E 5E 5E
(a) (b) (c) (d)
R 5R 4R 9R
Sol. [d]

E
Before shifting, if i1 be the current in the circuit, then i1  . The flux associated with the inductors
R
will be same just before and after shifting.
JE

Hence, i1 × 5L = i2 × 9L
5 i1
i2 
9 L
ES

5E
i2 
9R
5. An emf 15 V is applied in a circuit containing 5 H inductance and 10  resistance. The ratio of the
currents at time t =  and t = 1 second is
an

e1/2 e2
(a) (b) (c) 1 – e–1 (d) e –1
e1/2  1 e2  1
Sol. [b]
ka

L 5 1
  
R 10 2
At t = , I = I0
lp

At t = 1
 t 10 
   1
I   I 0 1  e    I 0 1  e 5 
I I0 I0e2
Ratio,   
I I 0 [1  e 2 ] I 0 (e2  1)
6. A current of 2A is increasing at a rate of 4 A/s through a coil of inductance 2H. The energy stored in
the inductor per unit time is
(a) 2 J/s (b) 1 J/s (c) 16 J/s (d) 4 J/s
Sol. [c]

di
V L  2  4  8V
dt
Energy per unit time = power
P = Vi = 8 × 2 = 16 J/s

-4. 2 4 -
Electromagnetic Induction

7. When current in a coil changes from 2A to 4A in 0.05 seconds, an emf of 8V is induced in the coil. Self
inductance of the coil is
(a) 0.1 H (b) 0.2 H (c) 0.4 H (d) 0.8 H
Sol. [b]

di
EL
dt
dt 8  0.05
LE 
di 2
8. Two coils have a mutual inductance of 0.005 H. The current changes in the first coil according to
equation I = I0 sin t where I0 = 10 A and  = 100  rad/sec. The maximum value of emf in second coil
is
(a) 2 (b) 5 (c)  (d) 4
Sol. [b]
di d
EL  L ( I 0 sin t )
dt dt
JE

E = LI0cos t
Emax = LI0
9. A 5 cm long solenoid having 10 ohm resistance and 5 mH inductance is joined to a 10 V battery. At
ES

steady state, current through solenoid is

(a) 5 A (b) 2 A (c) 3 A (d) 1 A
Sol. [d]
At steady state, inductance becomes ineffective.
an

V
I
R
10. A coil of inductance 300 mH and resistance 2 is connected to a source of voltage 2V. The current
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reaches half of its steady state value in

(a) 0.05 sec (b) 0.3 sec (c) 0.1 sec (d) 0.2 sec
Sol. [c]
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E0 2
I0    1A
R 2
 R 
Now, I  I 1  e L t 
0

 2
1 t
I 0  I 0 1  e 0.3 
2
2
1 t 2t
 e 0.3   log e e  log e 1  log e 2
2 0.3

2t
log e e  0  0.693
0.3

0.693  0.3
 t  0.1
2

-4. 2 5 -
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ADD NOTES HERE :-)

JE
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ADD NOTES HERE :-)

JE
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ADD NOTES HERE :-)

JE
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an
ka
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ADD NOTES HERE :-)

JE
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an
ka
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ADD NOTES HERE :-)

JE
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an
ka
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ADD NOTES HERE :-)

JE
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ADD NOTES HERE :-)

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ADD NOTES HERE :-)

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