Michelson Interferometry

Muhammad Hamza Humayun1 and Muhammad Sabieh Anwar1

1
PhysLab, School of Science and Engineering, Lahore University of
Management Sciences.
*
[email protected] and [email protected]

The goal of the current experiment is to familiarize students with the concept of the

interference of light using a Michelson interferometer. It introduces optical components

like beam splitters, translation and rotational stages, and lenses and highlights impor-

tant concepts in wave interference. A Michelson interferometer is used for measuring

the laser wavelength and finding the refractive index of glass.

This work has been funded by the National Centre for GIS and Space
Applications, Pakistan.

PreLab activity

Visit the Michelson Interferometry web page on our course website (https://physlab.org/
lab-ii-phy-300/ and https://www.astrolab.ac/) to review the background material for
the experiment.

1 Introduction

This experiment is part of a series of experiments available in the optics stream (Ibn Sahl
Corner for Optics) and in the astronomy stream (Astrolab). The Michelson interferometer

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is a remarkable instrument with significant applications in both optics and astrophysics. For
instance, in optics, the setup can be used to study interference phenomena and measure the
wavelength of light with precision. In astrophysics, interferometry is used to enhance the reso-
lution of telescopes. The Very Large Telescope Interferometer (VLTI) and the Event Horizon
Telescope (EHT) are examples of large-scale interferometric projects used in astrophysical
research.

Michelson interferometry has historical significance too. Albert A. Michelson designed the in-
terferometer to verify the effect of Earth’s motion on the propagation of light. In 1887, the fa-
mous Michelson-Morley experiment used a similar interferometer to measure Earth’s velocity
relative to the hypothetical “ether,” which was believed to be the medium through which light
traveled [1, 2]. LIGO, a colossal Michelson interferometer, confirmed Einstein’s gravitational
wave prediction in 2015. The 2017 Nobel Prize honored the pioneers behind this groundbreak-
ing project (https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2017/press-release/).

1.1 Interference

The wave superposition principle states that when multiple waves intersect in a given space,
the total amplitude at any point is the combined sum of the individual wave amplitudes.
When two waves have the same frequency and are in phase so that their crests and troughs
coincide, they create constructive interference. Conversely, if two waves have the same fre-
quency but are entirely out of phase—where the crest of one wave aligns with the trough of
another, and vice versa— destructive interference takes place.

Consider two waves represented by E1 ei(ϕ1 −ωt) and E2 ei(ϕ2 −ωt) , where E1 and E2 are real
numbers and denote the magnitudes of their respective fields, ϕ represents the phase, ω is
the angular frequency, and t denotes time. Combining these waves results in the expression:

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 ET = E1 ei(ϕ1 −ωt) + E2 ei(ϕ2 −ωt) . (1)

When ϕ1 − ϕ2 equals 2nπ, with n being a non-negative integer (n = 0, 1, 2, ...), the waves are
in perfect phase alignment, and if E1 = E2 , we observe complete constructive interference.
Conversely, if ϕ1 − ϕ2 equals (2n + 1)π, the two waves are out of phase, and if E1 = E2 , we
observe complete destructive interference. In common practice, one measures the intensity
of the field rather than the field itself. The intensity is directly proportional to the square of
the field. The intensity of the interference pattern produced by two waves is then given by
the expression:

p
I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos(ϕ1 − ϕ2 ). (2)

For the two waves to interfere, it is required for the two waves to be coherent. Coherence can
be in space as well as time. Mathematically, it is measured using a cross-correlation function.
Physically, coherence reflects the degree to which the relative phase of the two waves remains
constant. In this experiment, our focus will be on temporal coherence, specifically examining
the correlation between the wave and a version of itself delayed in time. Essentially, temporal
coherence provides insights into the monochromatic nature of a wave.

I_max
Intensity

Visibility

I_min
Phase

Figure 1: Illustration depicting interferometric visibility.

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The interferometric visibility (often denoted as V ), also known as contrast or modulation
depth, measures the contrast of the interference pattern (Figure 1). It is defined as:

Imax − Imin
V = , (3)
Imax + Imin

where Imax is the maximum intensity (bright fringe) and Imin is the minimum intensity (dark
fringe). When the waves are highly coherent, the interference fringes have high contrast
(large V ).

Q 1. Derive the expression for intensity in Equation 2.

1.2 Michelson Interferometer

Target
Screen

Computer
Controlled
HeNe Laser Servo Motor

Beam Splitter
BS Movable Mirror
M2

Fixed Mirror
M1

Figure 2: Working principle of the Michelson interferometer.

An interferometer exploits the interference of light. The Michelson interferometer uses in-
terference to measure the optical path difference between the two paths [3, 4]. Figure 2
shows the schematic of the Michelson interferometer. The Michelson Interferometer is an
amplitude-splitting interferometer. It splits the beam into two perpendicular paths using a
50 % beam splitter. The beams then reflect from the mirrors placed on each arm and return

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to the beam splitter. The light beams from the two paths are aligned to hit the same spot
on the photodetector or screen where they interfere, forming the interference pattern. Figure
3 shows the interference pattern observed on the screen.

Figure 3: Bright and dark fringes resulting from the interference of the two paths. This is a
typical pattern seen on the screen.

The expression for the interference at the screen is given by:

E02
I∝ [1 − cos(2k(l1 − l2 ))]. (4)
2

Q 2. Derive the expression for intensity in Equation 4.

Q 3. Discuss the phase shift added to the field that is transmitted through the beam
splitter and the field that is reflected by a beam splitter.

2 Procedure

CAUTION: Handle optical components with care, avoiding direct contact with
mirrors, lenses, or other surfaces, as the oils from fingertips can degrade their
performance and compromise data quality. WARNING: Exercise caution when

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activating lasers to prevent potential harm to the eyes. Take necessary precau-
tions to ensure that laser beams remain contained within the experimental area,
avoiding unintended exposure to yourself, colleagues, or others.

2.1 Optical Alignment

Start by setting up the experiment according to the illustration in Figure 2. Perform the
following procedure to align the interferometer.

1. Place the HeNe laser into the laser mount, which is bolted to the optical breadboard.
Align the laser parallel to the breadboard.

2. Now mount the beam splitter (BS) on the breadboard in front of the laser.

3. Place a fixed mirror (M1) in the mirror mount assembly. Align the mirror such that
the reflected beam from BS falls in the middle of it.

4. Now mount the other mirror (M2) on the translation stage, which is being operated
by the computer-controlled servo motor. Align M2 such that the transmitted beam
from BS falls in the middle of it. Remember to keep the length of each arm of the
interferometer approximately the same length.

5. Turn on the laser, and you will see the two small dots on the screen. Using the screws
of the mirrors, overlap the dots. Now the two beams will be aligned.

6. Place the plano-convex lens of focal length 35 mm (L1) in between the laser and BS.

7. On the opposite side of M1, place another plano-convex lens of focal length 25.4 mm
before the target screen to enlarge the image.

8. Carefully adjust M1 and M2 using their screws so that the beams overlap on the target.

9. Perform alignment until you see concentric circular fringes.

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 Figure 4: Laboratory setup for measuring the wavelength of the light source.

2.2 Measuring the wavelength of a laser

Your first task is to measure the wavelength of the laser source (Figure 4). If we move
the movable mirror, we see the fringes entering or exiting the center of the fringe pattern,
depending on the direction in which the mirror moves. The following equation relates the
distance moved by the mirror to the number of fringes passed by [5]:

2∆d
λ= , (5)
N

where, λ is the laser wavelength, N is number of fringes passed by and ∆d is the distance
moved by M2. Use the computer software to move M2 using the servo-controlled motor with
a fixed distance of around 10 um. Count the number of fringes that pass by a fixed point.
Repeat the same procedure at least five times and take the average to minimize the errors.
Use Equation 5 to measure the laser wavelength.

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 Q 4. Derive Equation (5).

Q 5. What is your uncertainty in the wavelength?

2.3 Measuring the refractive index of glass

Your second task is to measure the refractive index of glass. A glass slide is mounted on
the rotational stage and placed between BS and M1. If we rotate the glass slide, we see
the fringes entering or exiting the center of the fringe pattern, depending on the direction in
which the rotation takes place. Rotate the glass slide by a certain number of degrees and
count the number of fringes that pass by a fixed point. The refractive index is [6, 7]:

(2t − N λ)(1 − cosθ)

ng = , (6)
2t(1 − cosθ) − N λ

where, ng is the refractive index of glass, λ is the laser wavelength, t is the thickness of glass
slide, N is number of fringes passed by and θ is the angle rotated in radians. Use equation
(6) to compute the refractive index of glass. Repeat the same procedure at least 5 times and
take the average result to minimize the error. Remember that the relationship (6) between
N and θ is nonlinear.

Q 6. Draw a figure showing the path of the light beam as it passes through the glass slide
at an arbitrary angle θ to the light ray. What is the optical path length difference in this
case?

Q 7. Derive Equation (6).

Q 8. Plot N versus θ as using Equation (6).

Q 9. Calculate the uncertainty in ng arising from the uncertainties in N and θ.

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3 Idea Experiments

1. Find the thermal expansivity of a solid using an interferometer [8].

2. Demonstrate an experiment that simulates gravitational-wave interferometry using

sound waves [9].

3. Determining Young’s Modulus through Michelson Interferometry [10].

4. Implement a Michelson laser interferometer to demonstrate remarkable picometer sen-

sitivity in distance measurement[11].

References

[1] Alan Chodos, APS News. 2007. https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/

200711/physicshistory.cfm.

[2] A. A. Michelson and E. W. Morley, “On the Relative Motion of the Earth and the
Luminiferous Ether”, American Journal of Science 34, 333-345 (1887).

[3] Eugene Hecht, “Optics”, Chapter 9, pg 407-412, Pearson Education, 2002.

[4] Al-Azzawi, “Physical Optics, Principles and Practices”, Chapter 4, CRC press, 2007.

[5] Jeremy Ong, “Investigations of Light with a Michelson Interferometer”, Cornell Univer-
sity, 2010.

[6] J.J. Fendley, “Measurement of refractive index using a Michelson interferometer”, Phys.
Educ. 17, 209-211 (1982).

[7] “The index of refraction of glass”, Precision Interferometer, PASCO Scientific.

[8] Ryan Scholl and Bruce W. Liby, “Using a Michelson Interferometer to Measure Coeffi-
cient of Thermal Expansion of Copper”, The Phys. Teach. 47, 316-318 (2009).

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 [9] Ugolini, Dennis, Hanna Rafferty, Max Winter, Carsten Rockstuhl, and Antje Bergmann,
“LIGO analogy lab—A set of undergraduate lab experiments to demonstrate some prin-
ciples of gravitational wave detection”, American Journal of Physics 87, 44-56 (2019).

[10] Jae June Noh, Soyeon Kim and Jung Bog Kim, “Measurement of Young’s Modulus
Using a Michelson Interferometer”, The Phys. Teach. 61, 618-620 (2023)

[11] Kenneth G. Libbrecht and Eric D. Blac, “A basic Michelson laser interferometer for
the undergraduate teaching laboratory demonstrating picometer sensitivity”, American
Journal of Physics 83, 409-417 (2015).

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4 Appendix A: Moving mirror using a linear actuator

The motor controller we are using to move the mirror is DC Servo Motor Controller, Z825B
with specifications:

1. Travel range = 25 mm

2. Lead Screw Pitch = 1 mm

3. Resolution = 29 nm

We have two software that we can use to drive the DC Servo Actuator:

1. Thorlabs’ Kinesis®

2. Thorlabs’ APT™

4.1 Software Instructions

Both programs are already installed on the computer.

1. Open APT Configuration Utility, and select the following Motor and Stage options:

(a) Motor 83843713

(b) Channel 1

(c) Stage Z825

2. After configuration, close this window and run APT User Utility.

Note: Instead of APT User utility you can run the Kinesis software. The GUI of each
software is shown in Figure 5.

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 (a)

(b)

Figure 5: GUIs of (a) APT User Utility, and (b) Kinesis®.

3. Select the Motor driver Settings tab and enter the following parameters,

(a) In Moves-Velocity Profile:

Max. Vel. = 0.0003 mm/sec
Acc./Dev. = 0.03 mm/sec/sec

(b) Step distance = 0.001 mm. We must advance the mirror M2 through some distance
and simultaneously count the number of fringes that pass through a reference
point. Remember to count the fringes during translation.

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