Elasticity:

1. Intermolecular forces:-
The force( Attractive or repulsive) which is responsible to hold together the atoms
or molecules of a matter is called intermolecular forces. The inter molecular
force(F) is the function of intermolecular distance(r). A graph between F & r is
shown below

Note: Intermolecular force is zero at equilibrium separation.

2. Deforming force:-
The external force which changes or tends to change the configuration
(shape and size ) of the body is known as the deforming force. After the deforming force is
removed the body either recovers its original shape or retains its deformed shape.

3. Restoring force
The force which is responsible to bring or tends to bring the body to its original
state after the removal of deforming force is called restoring force.
4.Elasticity:
The property of a body due to which the body regains or tends to regain it’s
original configuration after removing deforming force is known as elasticity.
5.Plasticity :
The property of a body due to which it doesn’t gain it’s original shape and size
after removing the deforming force is called plasticity
6.Rigidity :
The property of a solid body to resist deformation is known as rigidity.
If a body doesn‟t undergo any deformation under the action of
deforming force ,the body is called rigid body .e.g. Blocks, rocks etc.
Note: Nobody is perfectly elastic , plastic or rigid .
7.Stress :
The restoring force per unit cross section area of the body is called the
stress. Within the elastic limit stress is equal and opposite to the applied
force( Deforming force) per unit area.
Deforming force 𝑭
Stress = =
Area. 𝑨
Restoring force
Also ( = )
A rea.
It is scalar quantity. It's S.I unit is N/𝒎𝟐
Types of stress :
Stress

Longitudinal Stress Bulk stress Tangential stress

(Normal stress ) (Volume stress ) (Shearing stress )

Tensile Stress

Compressive Stress
i) Longitudinal stress (or Normal stress ):
The stress in which force is perpendicular to cross section area of a body and responsible to
change the length of the body is longitudinal stress or normal stress.
𝑭
Normal stress = where A is cross-section area.
𝑨
It is of two types
a) Tensile stress ( the stress which increases the length) and
b) Compressive stress ( the stress which decreases the length )

ii)Bulk stress ( or volume stress ):

The stress in which force is perpendicular to every point on the surface area and responsible to
change volume of a body ( without any change in it‟s geometrical shape ) is called bulk stress.
𝑭
Bulk stress = where A is surface area.
𝑨
iii) Tangential ( or Shearing stress ):
The stress in which deforming force acts tangentially ( parallel ) to the surface of a body
produce a change in shape of the body without any change in volume is called Tangential
stress.
𝑭
Tangential stress =
𝑨
8. Strain :
The ratio of change in any dimension to the original dimension is
called strain.
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
Strain =
𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
Strain being the ratio of two like quantities has no unit and dimension.
Types of strain :

Strain

Longitudinal Bulk strain Tangential strain

strain (shearing strain )
(Volumetric strain )
(tensile strain )
Types of strain:
i) Longitudinal strain ( or tensile strain ):
If the deforming force produce a change in length alone, the strain produced in
the body is called longitudinal strain .
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉(∆𝒍)
Longitudinal strain =
𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 (𝒍)

ii) Bulk ( or Volumetric strain ):

If the deforming force produce a change in volume , the strain produced in the
body is called volumetric strain .
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆(∆𝑽)
volumetric strain =
𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 (𝑽)
iii) Tangential strain ( or shearing strain ):
If the deforming force produce a change in shape of a body without changing in
volume, the strain produced is called tangential strain.
It is defined as the angle in radian through which a plane perpendicular to fixed
surface of the cubical body gets turned under the effect of tangential force.
∆𝒍
Shearing strain = 𝜽 ≈ 𝑻𝒂𝒏𝜽 = (𝜽 𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏)
𝒍

Note:
Stress and strain are two quantities used to describe
the nature of applied force and the resulting
deformation respectively.
9. Elastic limit :
The maximum stress ( deforming force ) with in which an elastic body regains it‟s original
form ( shape and size ) after the removal of deforming force is called elastic limit .
11. Hook‟s Law :
It states that “The extension produced in the wire is directly proportional to the applied force
with in the elastic limit”
F∝𝒆
F= - k 𝒆 where F= force, 𝒆 = ∆𝒍 = extension and k = prop. Const.
Experimental verification of Hook‟s Law :
Consider a metallic spring of length „l‟ suspended from a rigid
support along with pan and pointer at it‟s lower end.
The pan is loaded in steps with known weights and corresponding
pointer readings are noted .The difference between each
reading with first reading gives the extension produced in
the spring by different loads .
If graph is plotted between load and corresponding extension we obtained the straight line passing
through origin i.e.
F∝𝒆
F= k 𝒆 → (𝟏)
Thus Hook‟s law can be verified .
12.Types of moduli of Elasticity:
Young‟s modified Hook‟s law and stated as “Within elastic limit , the stress developed on the
body under the action of deforming force is directly proportional to the strain produced on it”
Stress ∝ 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
Stress = E x Strain
Where E is prop. Const. known as modulus of elasticity .It is also called coefficient of elasticity
.
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
∴E= it‟s value depends upon the material of the body.
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
i) Young‟s Modulus of elasticity (Y):
Within the elastic limit , the ratio of longitudinal stress to the longitudinal strain is called
Young‟s modulus of elasticity .
𝑭
𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑨 𝑭𝒍 𝒎𝒈 𝒍
Y= = ∆𝒍 = =
𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑨 ∆𝒍 𝝅 𝒓𝟐 ∆𝒍
𝒍

where r is radius of the wire. It's S.I unit is N/𝒎𝟐

Note : Greater the value of Y ,larger is it‟s elasticity.
ii) Bulk modulus of Elasticity (B or K ) :
Within the elastic limit the ratio of bulk stress to bulk strain or ratio of normal stress to
volumetric strain is called bulk modulus of elasticity.
𝑵𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒌 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
B= =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒌 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏

𝑭
𝑨
B= −∆𝑽
𝑽

-ve sign shows volume is decreasing when force applied

i.e. volume decreases when pressure increases .
−𝑭 𝑽 −𝑷 𝑽 𝑭
or B = = (since P = )
𝑨 ∆𝑽 ∆𝑽 𝑨
It's S.I unit is N/𝒎𝟐
Note : Compressibility (C) : Compressibility of a material is the reciprocal of it‟s bulk modulus
𝟏
of elasticity. C = it‟s unit is 𝒎𝟐 /N
𝑩
iii) Shear modulus of elasticity or Modulus of rigidity ( Ƞ ):
Within the elastic limit the ratio of shearing stress ( or Tangential stress ) to shearing strain is
called shear modulus of elasticity.
𝑻𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
Ƞ= =
𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑭
𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝑭 𝑭
Ƞ= 𝑨
= = ∆𝒍
𝜽 𝑨𝜽 𝑨 𝒍
It's S.I unit is N/𝒎𝟐

Note: Young‟s modulus of elasticity and modulus of rigidity exist only for solids .As liquids and
gases can‟t be deformed along one dimension only and also can‟t under go shear strain.
However the bulk modulus of elasticity exists for all the three states of matter.
Note: The solids are more elastic and gases are least elastic. Since for a given stress gasses are
more compressible than that of solids.
Note: Solids and liquids are relatively incompressible , they have small value of C or larger
value of B .These values are almost independent of temp. and pressure .But gases are easily
compressed , small B and large C .Therefore B and C depends upon pressure and temperature.
13.Experimental determination of Young‟s modulus of elasticity:
The apparatus used is shown in fig. Here A and B are two long straight wires of same
.material( same length and radius ) suspended side by side from rigid support .
The wire A is called reference wire which is taut with dead load
at it‟s free end and consist of main scale of vernier calliper .
Wire B is called experimental wire carries vernier scale
which can slide over main scale of the wire A .
Initially a small load ( say 0.5kg ) is put on the pan
of wire B which keeps the wire straight and kink free.
The v.s is noted .Now put different loads on the pan of
wire B gradually and corresponding extension are noted.
Now if graph is plotted between load and extension we
obtain straight line passing through the origin as in fig.
Let Y , A and „l‟ be the Young‟s modulus of elasticity, cross-section area and length of
experimental wire respectively
Now
𝑭𝒍
Y=
𝑨 ∆𝒍
𝒀𝑨
F= ∆𝒍 → (𝟏)
𝒍
This is the equation of straight line passing through the
origin i.e. comparing with y = mx
𝒀𝑨
Slope =
𝒍
𝒃 ∆𝑭
From graph slope = =
𝒂 ∆𝒍
𝒀𝑨 ∆𝑭
∴ =
𝒍 ∆𝒍
∆𝑭 𝒍 ∆𝑭 𝒍
Y= = → (𝟐)
∆𝒍 𝑨 ∆𝒍 𝝅 𝒓𝟐
Knowing the values of slope (from graph ) ,original length (l) and radius (r ) we can calculate
Y.
14. Energy stored in a stretched wire (U) :
( Elastic potential energy stored in a stretched wire )
When a wire is stretched within an elastic limit , work has to be done against internal restoring
force .This amount of work is stored in the wire as it‟s elastic potential energy.
Consider a uniform wire having cross-section area „A‟, length „l‟ and
Young‟s modulus of elasticity „Y‟ which is suspended from a rigid
support as shown in fig. Suppose the wire is stretched by a
deforming force „F‟ to produce extension „e‟
𝑭
𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑨 𝑭𝒍
Now, Y = = 𝒆 = (since 𝒆 = ∆𝒍 = extension)
𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑨𝒆
𝒍
𝒀𝑨 𝒆
F= → (𝟏)
𝒍
Now , the small amount of work done in stretching the wire
through a small displacement „de‟
dw = F de
𝒀𝑨 𝒆
dw = de
𝒍
∴ Total amount of work done to stretched the wire from 0 to e
𝒆 𝒆 𝒀𝑨 𝒆 𝒀𝑨 𝒆 𝒀𝑨 𝒆𝟐 𝒆 𝒀𝑨 𝒀𝑨 𝒆𝟐
W= 𝒅𝒘 = 𝒅𝒆 = 𝒆 𝒅𝒆 = [ ] = [𝒆𝟐 -0 ] =
𝟎 𝟎 𝒍 𝒍 𝟎 𝒍 𝟐 𝟎 𝟐𝒍 𝟐𝒍
This amount of work done is stored in the form of elastic potential energy
𝟏 𝒀𝑨 𝟐 𝟏𝑭 𝟐 𝟏
∴ W=U= 𝒆 = 𝒆 = Fe
𝟐 𝒍 𝟐 𝒆 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
∴ U= Fe= ( stretching force x extension)
𝟐 𝟐

𝑼 𝟏 𝟏𝑭 𝒆 𝟏
Note : Energy density (𝝆𝑼 ) = = F e / Al = = ( stress X strain )
𝑽 𝟐 𝟐𝑨 𝒍 𝟐
15. Poisson‟s ratio (𝝇):
When a wire is stretched then it‟s length increases but at the same time it‟s diameter decreases .
The ratio of the change in length ∆𝒍 to the original length 𝒍 is known as longitudinal strain „𝜶 ′
similarly the ratio in change in diameter ∆𝒅 to original diameter d is known as lateral strain
„𝜷′
It is found that the lateral strain 𝜷 is directly proportional to the longitudinal strain 𝜶 with in
elastic limit.
𝜷∝𝜶
or 𝜷 = 𝝇 𝜶
𝜷
or 𝝇= → (𝟏) where 𝝇 is prop. Const. known as Poisson‟s ratio
𝜶
Poisson‟s ratio is defined as the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal
strain within elastic limit.
∆𝒍 −∆𝒅
𝜶 = and 𝜷 = ; -ve implies if length increases diameter decreases .
𝒍 𝒅
−∆𝒅
𝜷 𝒅 −𝒍 ∆𝒅
𝝇 = = ∆𝒍 =
𝜶 𝒅 ∆𝒍
𝒍
−𝒍 ∆𝒅
𝝇= → (𝟐) It is unit less quantity.
𝒅 ∆𝒍