RESEARCH METHODS

INTERPRETATION AND
REPORT WRITING

07-Sep-23 1
 INTERPRETATION
⚫ After collecting and analyzing the data, the
researcher has to accomplish the task of drawing
inferences followed by report writing.

⚫ Definition: interpretation this is the process of

passing data through the researchers mind in
order to extract meaning from the data or force the
data to speak.

⚫ It has to be done carefully otherwise misleading

conclusions may be drawn and the whole purpose
of doing research may become ineffective.

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 INTERPRETATION
❖ It is the point where the researcher
departs from the data and moves to
reveal what the data is saying.

❖ Its only through interpretation that the

researcher exposes relations and
processes that underlie his/her findings.

❖ It refers to the task of drawing inferences

from the collected data/facts after a study.

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 SIGNIFICANCE OF INTERPRETATION CONTD.

1. It is through interpretation that the researcher

can well understand the abstract principle that
works beneath his/her findings.

2. Interpretation leads to the establishment of

explanatory concepts that can serve as a guide
for future studies. It opens new avenues of
intellectual adventure and stimulates the quest
for more knowledge.

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SIGNIFICANCE OF INTERPRETATION CONTD.

3. The researcher can better appreciate only

through interpretation why the findings are what
they are and can make others to understand
real significance of his/her research findings.

4. The interpretation of findings of exploratory

research studies often result into hypotheses for
experimental research and as such
interpretation is involved in the transition from
exploratory to experimental research.

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 TECHNIQUE OF INTERPRETATION

⚫ Interpretation requires great skill and dexterity on the

part of researcher. It is an art learnt through practice
and experience. The technique involves the
following:-

1. Researcher must give reasonable explanations of

the relations which have been found.

❖ he/she must interpret the lines of relationships in terms of

the underlying processes.

❖ The researcher must try to find out the thread of uniformity

that lies under the surface layer of his/her diversified
research findings.

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TECHNIQUE OF INTERPRETATION

2. Extraneous info, if collected during the

study, must also be considered while
interpreting the final results of the
research study, for it may prove to be a
key factor in understanding the problem
under consideration.

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TECHNIQUE OF INTERPRETATION contd.

3. It is advisable, before embarking upon

final interpretation to consult some one
having insight into the study and who is
frank and honest and will not hesitate
to point out omissions and errors in
logical arguments.
❖ Such a consultation will result in correct
interpretation and, thus will enhance the
utility of research results.

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TECHNIQUE OF INTERPRETATION contd.

4. Researcher must accomplish the task of

interpretation only after considering all
relevant factors affecting the problem to
avoid false generalizations.
❖ Therefore the researcher should be in no
hurry while interpreting results, for quite
often the conclusions, which appear to be
all right at the beginning may not at all be
accurate.

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PRECAUTIONS IN INTERPRETATION

⚫ NB; even if the data are properly collected and

analyzed, wrong interpretation would lead to
inaccurate conclusions. Thus the task of
interpretation should be accomplished with patience
in an impartial manner and also correct perspective.

⚫ Attention should be paid to the following points:-

1. The researcher must invariably satisfy himself that
(a) the data are appropriate, trustworthy and
adequate for drawing inferences.
(b) the data reflect good homogeneity.
(c) proper analysis has been done through statistical
methods.

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PRECAUTIONS IN INTERPRETATION contd.

2. The researcher must remain cautious about

the errors that can possibly arise in the
processes in interpreting results.

❖ Errors can arise due to false generalizations

and/or due to wrong interpretation of statistical
measures.

❖ E.g. such as the application of findings beyond the

range of observations, identification of correlation
with causation etc.

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PRECAUTIONS IN INTERPRETATION contd.

3. The researcher must always keep in mind the

task of interpretation is very much intertwined
with analysis and cannot be distinctly separated.

❖ As such the researcher must take the task of

interpretation as a special aspect of analysis and
accordingly must take all those precautions that
one usually observes when going through the
process of analysis.

❖ These precautions pertain to the reliability of data,

computational checks, validation and comparison
of results.

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PRECAUTIONS IN INTERPRETATION contd.

5. The researcher should keep in mind the fact that

interpretation involves identifying and disengaging the
factors that are initially hidden to the eye.

❖ NB: broad generalizations should be avoided as

most research is not amenable to it because
coverage may be restricted to a particular time, a
particular area and particular considerations.. Such
restrictions, if any, must invariably be specified and
the results must be framed within their limits

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PRECAUTIONS IN INTERPRETATION contd.

6. The researcher must remember that

“ideally in the course of research study,
there should be constant interaction
between initial hypotheses, empirical
observations and theoretical conception”.

❖ It is exactly in this area of interpretation

between theoretical orientation and empirical
observation that opportunities for originality
and creativity lie.

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 RESEARCH METHODS

REPORT WRITING

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WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT

❖ Research report is a major component of the research study for

the research task remain incomplete till the report has been
presented and/or written.

❖ Definition: Research Report is a question-answering or

problem-solving document. It informs the reader of the problem
the researcher initially set out to investigate, the method of
investigation used and the researchers findings.

❖ The report should present data fully and adequately, it should

include accurate interpretation of the analysis of such data and
should relate findings back to the objectives, hypotheses or
research questions.

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WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT contd.

❖ A research report must therefore be formal, precise

and economical. The report must also be consistent,
with an orderly flow of ideas from the beginning of the
document to the end.

Significance of Report Writing

❖ The purpose of research is not well served unless the
findings are made known to others. Research results
must invariably enter the general store of knowledge.
Thus report writing is an integral part of the research
process. It is the last step in a research study and
requires a set of skills.

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STEPS IN WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT

1. Logical Analysis of the Subject Matter- it is primarily

concerned with the development of a subject. There are
two ways in which to develop a subject.

(a) logically- the subject is made on the basis of mental

connections and associations between the one thing and
other by means of analysis. Logical treatment often
consist of developing the materials from the simplest
possible to the most complex structures.

(b) chronologically- subject development is based on a

connection of sequence in time or occurrence. The
direction for doing or making something usually follow the
chronological order.

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STEPS IN WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT contd.

2. Preparation for the Final Outline- an outline is the

framework upon which long written works are
constructed. It is an aid to the logical organization of the
report.
3. Preparation of the Rough Draft- in this step the
researcher sits to write down what he /she has done in
the context of his/her research study.

⚫ It involves writing the procedures adopted in collecting

the material for his study along with various limitations
faced during the research process.
⚫ The researcher also writes the technique of analysis
adopted, the broad findings and generalizations and the
various suggestions he wants to offer regarding the
problem.

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STEPS IN WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT contd.

4. Rewriting and Polishing of the Rough

Draft:- it requires more time than the
writing of the rough draft . Careful
revision makes the difference between a
mediocre and a good piece of writing.

❖ The researcher should check the report for

weaknesses in logical development or
presentation.

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STEPS IN WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT contd.

❖ The researcher should also see whether or not the

materials, as it is presented has unity and
cohesion, does the report stand upright and firm
and exhibit a definite pattern, like a marble arch.

❖ In addition, the researcher should give attention to

the fact that in his/her rough draft, he/she has
been consistent or not. The researcher should
check for mechanisms of writing i.e. grammar,
spelling and usage of words.

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STEPS IN WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT contd.

5. Preparation of the Final Bibliography:- It is a list of books in

some way pertinent to the research which has been done. It is
generally appended to the final research report.

❖ It should consist all those books that the researcher

consulted and arranged in alphabetical order and divided
into two parts.

a) names of books and pamphlets- this should adopt the

following order
(i) Author, last name first.
(ii) Title, underlined to indicate italics.
(iii) Place, publisher and date of publication.
(iv) Number of volumes.

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STEPS IN WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT contd.

b) magazines and newspapers- should adopt the following

order:-
(i) author, last name first.
(ii) Title of article, in quotation marks.
(iii) name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics.
(iv) the volume or volume and number.
(v) date of issue.
(vi) the pagination.

6. Writing the Final Report- this constitutes the last step. The
final report should be written in a concise and objective style
and in simple language avoiding vague expressions such as
“it seems”, “there may be”, etc.

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STEPS IN WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT contd.

❖ The researcher must avoid abstract terminology and

technical jargon. Illustrations and examples based on
common experience must be incorporated in the final
draft as they happen to be most effective in
communicating the research findings to others.

❖ NB:
1. A research report should not be dull, must enthuse people
and maintain interest and must show originality.

2. The researcher must keep in mind that every report should be

an attempt to solve some problem and therefore must
contribute to the solution to the problem and must add to the
knowledge of both the researcher and the reader.

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LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT

❖ A well written report comprises a number of distinct sections or

components

1. TITLE- should be short and simple yet informative. Title serves

two purposes:-

(i) gives the reader some initial info about the area of
research that the report has covered, thus it is a pointer to
the content of the report. It should also give an indication of
the major variables of the research, the target population
and if possible the geographical location of the research.

(ii) the title is also used for indexing once the document
becomes official. Other researchers interested in reading
your report may use the title to search for the report in the
library or documentation centre.

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LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT contd.

2. DEDICATION- some authors of research reports

dedicate their work to a person or persons whom
they deem special in their lives e.g. spouses,
children, parents or very dear friends.

3. ABSTRACT- contains the summary of the research

report. It is a reflection of the salient findings of the
research study. It should be placed at the front of the
report preferably after the dedication but on a
separate page.

❖ A good abstract should present the reader with the purpose

of the study, the population studied, the major results and
the conclusion of the study.

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LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT contd.

4. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT- the research process takes a lot of

time, money and energy. During the study, a researcher may
acquire help from other individuals such as professional
colleagues, respondents, research assistants, institutions and
organizations, etc.

❖ It therefore as matter of courtesy to acknowledge the help

received from various individuals, institutions or organizations.

❖ It may be impossible to mention everybody by name thus is should

be kept as short as possible.

5. TABLE OF CONTENTS- this is like a map that guides the

reader in location various sections of the report. It contains the
chapter headings, main headings and sub-headings and the
corresponding page of each in the body of the document.

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LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT contd.

6. LIST OF TABLES- a researcher uses tables to

summarize info in a logical format or sequence. A list
of tables follows the same format as the table of
contents.
❖ The number and title of each table appearing on the body of
the report is listed together with the corresponding page
number. It helps the reader to trace a particular table faster.

7. LIST OF FIGURES- a figure is any pictorial

representation used to clarify specific points in a
discussion. e.g. graphs, charts, diagrams, maps,
and photographs.
❖ This list should clearly give the number and title of the figure
and the pages number on which the figure is located in the
report.

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LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT contd.

8. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS-

these are used in many research reports. e.g.. DR
for Doctor GoK for government of Kenya etc
❖ The researcher should give a list of al abbreviations and
acronyms used and explain in full what each abbreviation
or acronym stands for.

❖ Guidelines to the Use of Abbreviations and

Acronyms.
i. write in full the first time that the phrase is used, thereafter
use the acronym.
ii. do not abbreviate military, religious and political issues.
iii. abbreviate units measurements only when they are used
often in a report .

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LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT contd.

i. use those abbreviations that your audience will understand.

ii. do not abbreviate days of the week or months.
iii. abbreviate time designations only when they are used with
actual time e.g. 4:30p.m.

9. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY- it is a short version or

summary of the research report. It provides the reader
with a concise and accurate picture of the entire
document its an economical way of communicating one's
research report.

❖ It saves time and energy for reader who do not have time to
read the entire report. Thus it should provide the salient
findings from all the major components of the research
report.

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LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT contd.

❖ It should start with a good clear and brief statement of

the problem. Details from the body of the report
should be presented in brief and the summary ends
with conclusions and recommendations.

❖ Use of bullets and bolded subheadings help to make

the summary reader friendly. NB: avoid the use of
technical terms.

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LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT contd.

10. INTRODUCTION- it has several components

which include; background to the problem,
the problem statement, research objectives
and/or questions, hypotheses, limitations,
the purpose and the significance of the
study.

❖ The major role of introduction is to outline the

gap(s) that exist in the area of study and present
rationale of the study.

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LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT contd.

11. LITERATURE REVIEW- this is a critique of findings

from other studies done in related areas. It should
also include an assessment of the methodologies
used in these studies, theoretical or conceptual
frameworks and the relationships or differences
between the researchers study and the studies
reviewed.

❖ It is important because it provides the needed support to the

researcher’s rationale for undertaking research in a certain
area.

❖ Researcher should therefore identify gaps in the earlier

studies to be able to make a strong case for his/her own
research.

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LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT contd.

12. METHODOLOGY- this section gives details

regarding the procedures used in conducting the
study.

❖ Issues discussed in this section include research

design, population, sample, sampling techniques,
description of instruments or tools used to collect data,
the measurement of variables and the techniques to
be used in analyzing data.

❖ If hypotheses are to be tested, the researcher must

state the level of significance to be used in such tests.

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LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT contd.

13. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION- the

main purpose of this section is to
present the results of the data analysis
in a systematic way. For empirical
study, the researcher summarizes the
results and makes generalizations on
the population.

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LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT contd.

❖ Basic principle in presenting the results is to give the

evidence relevant to the research objectives and
questions, if any.

❖ In writing this section the researcher should start with

a brief introduction that describes the general
procedures followed in analyzing the data. State the
objectives or hypothesis of the study

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LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT contd.

❖ Guidelines to Writing the Results and

Discussion Section

❖Present the descriptive results of your analysis

first-descriptive statistics describe the sample in
summary fro which you may include
frequencies and percentages, mean median
and mode, standard deviations correlation etc.
❖
❖These statistics should be presented in tables
because they are user friendly.

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LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT contd.

❖ present the results of the hypotheses test, if

any. Hypotheses test should inform the reader
whether findings can be generalized to he
target population.

❖ It may not be possible to present every result

of the analyses. The researcher therefore
selects the most important findings fro
reporting.

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LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT contd.

❖ Not every table or result generated in the

course of the analysis is presented in the
report. The objectives and hypotheses of the
study should serve as the guideline to the
researcher in selecting the most important
tables to be included and discussed in the
report. Discussion based on the info contained
in a table should be placed either immediately
before or after the table.

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LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT contd.

❖ Graphs, charts and other visual presentations

of the data should be included in the results
and discussion section of the report if they add
value to the content.

❖ It is extremely important for the researcher to

point out whether the findings are supported
by other studies discussed in the Literature
Review section. When finding contradict other
studies, it is also important for the researcher
to point out this giving possible reasons for
contradiction.

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LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT contd.

14. SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDATIONS-
the researcher summarizes the study undertaken,
concludes and makes recommendations based on
the study findings.

❖ The summary reminds the reader about the purpose of the

study, the process used to collect and analyze data and the
major findings of the study.

❖ The conclusion answers the question that sparked the

collection and analysis of data in the first place. It is
important to discuss practical application and implications of
your findings in the real world.

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LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT contd.

❖ The summary and the conclusion should lead logically to

recommendations. Recommendations must be consistent
with the purpose of the study, its objectives, the evidence
presented by the data and the interpretation should be
practical and achievable.

❖ Common Recommendation that Researchers often

Make:-
❖ Area for further research-emphasizing the unanswered
question in the study.
❖ Methodological issues that could be addressed and
refined to improve future research in that area of study.
❖ Actions that could be taken to address the problem
based on the research findings.

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LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT contd.

15. REFERENCES- in writing the research report the

researcher relies on published or unpublished
documents that bear relationship to the researchers
area of study, thus the researcher should credit the
authors of any work or materials quoted from or
referred to by listing them.

16. APPENDICES- this section contains info that the

researcher does not deem necessary to include in the
body of the report that makes the report unnecessarily
long without adding much value to the content of the
document.
❖ Thus the researcher may use such info as reference
material to clarify some statements appearing in the body
of the report.

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LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT contd.

❖ Instruments used in collecting data statistical

tables from data analyses, correspondence
related to the study such as letters of respondents
consent to participate in the study and letter of
approval to conduct resarch are examples of the
type of info that may be included in appendices.

❖ It is advisable to include a copy of the research

permit and the terms of reference, if any.

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 THE END

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