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1.1 Mesh Analysis and Node Analysis: Mesh Analysis and Node Analysis are two Apparent power is the total power that is supplied to the circuit. It is the product of F(s) = ∫[0,∞) e^(-st) f(t) dt where s is a complex frequency parameter. The
different methods used to analyze electrical circuits. the voltage and current in the circuit. It is given by the following formula: Laplace transform has several important properties, including linearity, time
shift, frequency shift, differentiation, integration, convolution, and multiplication
by a polynomial. These properties make the Laplace transform a powerful tool
Mesh Analysis is a method used to determine the voltage and current in each mesh Apparent power = Voltage * Current for solving differential equations and analyzing linear systems.
(loop) of a circuit. A mesh is a closed loop in a circuit that does not contain any
other loops. This method is useful when there are several current sources in a
circuit. The basic principle of Mesh Analysis is Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL), which Power triangle: The power triangle is a graphical representation of the real power, 5.2 Laplace Transform of Unit Step, Impulse, Ramp, Exponential, Sine, Cosine
states that the algebraic sum of the voltage drops around any closed path in a reactive power, and apparent power in an A.C circuit. It is a right-angled triangle in Function. Initial value and Final Value Theorem:
circuit must be zero. which the hypotenuse represents the apparent power, the adjacent side represents
the real power, and the opposite side represents the reactive power. The angle
between the real power side and the apparent power side represents the power The Laplace transform of some common functions are as follows:
Node Analysis is a method used to determine the voltage and current at each node factor of the circuit
(junction) in a circuit. A node is a point where two or more circuit elements are
connected. This method is useful when there are several voltage sources in a Unit step function: L{u(t)} = 1/s
circuit. The basic principle of Node Analysis is Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL), which 2.5 Resonance, Bandwidth, Quality Factor and Voltage Magnification in Series and
states that the algebraic sum of the currents entering and leaving any node in a Parallel R-L-C Circuit: Resonance occurs in an R-L-C circuit when the impedance of
circuit must be zero the circuit is at a minimum and the current is at a maximum. The frequency at which
resonance occurs is called the resonant frequency. The bandwidth of a circuit is the
range of frequencies around the resonant frequency where the circuit's response is
1.2 Star/Delta and Delta/Star Transformation: Star/Delta and Delta/Star within a certain range.
transformations are used to simplify electrical circuits. The star/delta
transformation, also known as the Y-Δ transformation, is used to convert a three-
phase system from a star (Y) configuration to a delta (Δ) configuration, or vice The quality factor (Q) is a measure of the selectivity of a resonant circuit, and it is
versa. The delta/star transformation, also known as the Δ-Y transformation, is used equal to the ratio of the resonant frequency to the bandwidth. The voltage
to convert a three-phase system from a delta (Δ) configuration to a star (Y) magnification in a resonant circuit can be calculated using the Q factor and the
configuration, or vice versa. These transformations are useful in analyzing and impedance of the circuit. In a series resonant circuit, the voltage across the circuit is
solving complex electrical circuits. maximum at the resonant frequency, while in a parallel resonant circuit, the voltage
across the circuit is minimum at the resonant frequency

1.3 Superposition Theorem: The superposition theorem is a method used to solve

complex electrical circuits by breaking them down into simpler circuits. It states 3.1 Phasor and Complex Representation of Three Phase Supply: Three-phase
that the total current or voltage in a circuit is the sum of the individual currents or supply is a system of distributing alternating current electrical power where three
voltages caused by each source acting alone. This theorem can be applied to linear phase currents are used to power loads. Phasor and complex representations are
circuits with multiple sources and can simplify the analysis of such circuits. used to analyze three-phase supply systems. In a phasor representation, the three-
phase quantities are represented by phasors, which are vectors that represent the
amplitude and phase of each phase. In a complex representation, the three-phase Impulse function: L{δ(t)} = 1
1.4 Thevenin’s Theorem: Thevenin's theorem states that any linear electrical quantities are represented by complex numbers.
network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a single voltage
Ramp function: L{t*u(t)} = 1/s^2
source and a single series resistor. This equivalent circuit has the same voltage-
current relationship at the terminals as the original circuit. The theorem is often 3.2 Phase Sequence and Polarity: Phase sequence refers to the order in which the
used to simplify the analysis of complex circuits, especially when calculating the three phases are connected in a three-phase system. There are two possible phase
Exponential function: L{e^(-at)} = 1/(s+a)
response of a circuit to different loads. sequences: ABC and ACB. Polarity refers to the direction of the current flow in a
phase, and it is determined by the direction of the magnetic field in the generator.
Sine function: L{sin(ωt)} = ω/(s^2+ω^2)
1.5 Norton’s Theorem: Norton's theorem is similar to Thevenin's theorem, but
instead of replacing a circuit with a voltage source and a series resistor, it replaces it 3.3 Types of Three-Phase Connections, Relationship between Phase and Line
with a current source and a parallel resistor. The equivalent circuit has the same Quantities in Three Phase Star and Delta System with Derivation: There are two Cosine function: L{cos(ωt)} = s/(s^2+ω^2)
current-voltage relationship at the terminals as the original circuit. This theorem is types of three-phase connections: star (Y) and delta (∆). In a star connection, the
often used in circuit analysis and design to simplify complex circuits. three phases are connected at a common point and the load is connected between
each phase and the common point. In a delta connection, the three phases are
connected in a closed loop, and the load is connected between any two phases.
1.6 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem: The maximum power transfer theorem
The initial value theorem states that the value of a function f(t) at t=0 can be
states that the maximum amount of power is transferred from a source to a load
In a three-phase star system, the line voltage is equal to the phase voltage, and the obtained by taking the limit of the Laplace transform F(s) as s approaches infinity.
when the impedance of the load is equal to the complex conjugate of the source
line current is equal to the square root of 3 times the phase current. In a three- Mathematically, it can be expressed as:
impedance. This theorem is useful in circuit design when the goal is to transfer the
maximum amount of power from a source to a load, such as in power amplifiers or phase delta system, the line voltage is equal to the square root of 3 times the phase
power supplies voltage, and the line current is equal to the phase current. lim(s→∞) sF(s) = f(0)

2.1 Generation of Alternating Voltage: Alternating voltage is a voltage that varies 3.4 Concept of Balanced and Unbalanced Load, Neutral Shift in Unbalanced Load:
with time and changes direction periodically. Alternating voltage can be generated In a balanced three-phase system, the loads are equal in all three phases, and the
by rotating a coil of wire in a magnetic field, such as in a generator. currents are equal in magnitude and 120 degrees apart in phase. In an unbalanced
three-phase system, the loads are not equal, and the currents are not equal in
magnitude or 120 degrees apart in phase. In an unbalanced system, the neutral
2.2 Phasor Representation of Sinusoidal Quantities:Phasors are used to represent point may shift from its normal position, depending on the nature of the unbalance.
sinusoidal quantities such as voltage and current in AC circuits. A phasor is a
complex number that has a magnitude and an angle, and it can be used to
represent the amplitude and phase angle of a sinusoidal quantity. 3.5 Three-Phase Power, Active, Reactive and Apparent Power in Star and Delta
System: Three-phase power is the total power delivered to a three-phase load. It is
equal to the product of the line voltage, line current, and power factor. The power
2.3 R, L, C Circuit Elements and Their Voltage and Current Response: R, L, C are factor is the cosine of the phase angle between the voltage and current.
circuit elements that represent resistance, inductance, and capacitance
respectively. In an AC circuit, the voltage and current response of these elements
can be different from their response in a DC circuit due to the frequency-dependent Active power is the power that is actually consumed by the load, and it is measured
properties of the elements. In an AC circuit, the voltage across a resistor is in in watts. Reactive power is the power that is stored and released by the inductors
phase with the current, the voltage across an inductor leads the current by 90 and capacitors in the circuit, and it is measured in VAR (volt-ampere reactive).
degrees, and the voltage across a capacitor lags the current by 90 degrees. Apparent power is the total power delivered to the load, and it is measured in VA
(volt-ampere). The relationship between active, reactive, and apparent power can
be represented by the power triangle
2.4 .R-L, R-C, R-L-C combination of A.C series and parallel circuit:

4.1 Introductionto Transient Analysis: Transient analysis is the study of the

A.C series circuit: An A.C series circuit is a circuit that consists of a resistor, an behavior of electrical circuits during the time period when the circuit is switching
inductor, and a capacitor connected in series with an alternating current source. from one steady-state condition to another. During this period, the circuit may
The impedance of an A.C series circuit is given by the following formula: Z = √(R^2 exhibit transient effects such as oscillations, overshoot, and ringing. The transient
+ (ωL - 1/ωC)^2) where R is the resistance, L is the inductance, C is the response of a circuit is important in many applications, including power electronics,
capacitance, and ω is the angular frequency of the source. communication systems, and control systems.

A.C parallel circuit: An A.C parallel circuit is a circuit that consists of a resistor, an 4.2 Simple R-L Circuit supplied from a DC voltage source: A simple R-L circuit
inductor, and a capacitor connected in parallel with an alternating current source. The final value theorem states that the value of a function f(t) as t approaches
consists of a resistor and an inductor connected in series, and supplied from a DC
infinity can be obtained by taking the limit of the Laplace transform F(s) as s
The impedance of an A.C parallel circuit is given by the following formula: Z = 1 / voltage source. When the circuit is switched on, the inductor resists the change in
√(1/R^2 + (1/ωC - ωL)^2) where R is the resistance, L is the inductance, C is the approaches zero. Mathematically, it can be expressed as:
current, and a voltage is induced across the inductor that opposes the applied
capacitance, and ω is the angular frequency of the source. voltage. This voltage is called the back EMF (electromotive force) and it causes a
transient response in the circuit. lim(s→0) sF(s) = lim(t→∞) f(t)
Impedance and reactance: Impedance is the total opposition to the flow of
alternating current in a circuit. It is a combination of resistance and reactance. The time constant of the R-L circuit is given by the equation τ = L/R, where L is the
Reactance is the opposition to the flow of alternating current due to capacitance or inductance and R is the resistance. The time constant represents the time required
inductance in the circuit. The reactance of a capacitor is given by the following for the current to reach 63.2% of its final value. The transient response of the R-L
formula: Xc = 1 / (ωC) where C is the capacitance and ω is the angular frequency circuit decays exponentially over time, and it can be modeled using first-order
of the source. differential equations.

The reactance of an inductor is given by the following formula: Xl = ωL where L is 4.3 Simple R-C circuit supplied from a DC voltage source: A simple R-C circuit
the inductance and ω is the angular frequency of the source. consists of a resistor and a capacitor connected in series, and supplied from a DC
voltage source. When the circuit is switched on, the capacitor charges up to the
applied voltage through the resistor. The voltage across the capacitor increases
Impedance triangle: The impedance triangle is a graphical representation of the
exponentially with time, until it reaches the same value as the applied voltage.
impedance of an A.C circuit. It is a right-angled triangle in which the hypotenuse
represents the impedance and the other two sides represent the resistance and 5.3 Applications of Laplace Transformations for solving differential equations
reactance of the circuit. The angle between the resistance side and the impedance The time constant of the R-C circuit is given by the equation τ = R*C, where R is the describing simple electrical circuits: The Laplace transform is widely used in
side represents the phase angle of the circuit. resistance and C is the capacitance. The time constant represents the time required electrical circuit analysis for solving differential equations that describe the
for the capacitor to charge up to 63.2% of its final value. The transient response of behavior of simple circuits. For example, the Laplace transform can be used to
the R-C circuit can be modeled using first-order differential equations. solve first-order differential equations that describe the behavior of RC and RL
Power factor, active power, reactive power, and apparent power: Power factor circuits. The differential equations can be transformed into algebraic equations,
is the ratio of the real power to the apparent power in an A.C circuit. It is a measure which can then be solved using standard mathematical techniques.
of how efficiently the circuit uses the available power. The power factor is given by 4.4 Time Constant: The time constant is a parameter that describes the behavior of
the following formula: first-order circuits during transient response. It is given by the equation τ = L/R for R-
L circuits and τ = R*C for R-C circuits. The time constant represents the time required The Laplace transform is also used to solve second-order differential equations
for the circuit to reach 63.2% of its final value during transient response. that describe the behavior of RLC circuits. In this case, the differential equation
Power factor = Real power / Apparent power can be transformed into a quadratic equation in s, which can then be solved to
obtain the transfer function of the circuit. The transfer function describes the
The time constant is an important parameter in circuit design and analysis, as it relationship between the input and output signals of the circuit and can be used
Active power is the power that is actually consumed by the circuit. It is given by the
affects the rate at which the circuit responds to changes in input signals. A smaller to analyze the frequency response and stability of the circuit
following formula:
time constant means that the circuit responds more quickly to changes in input
signals, while a larger time constant means that the circuit responds more slowly.
Active power = Voltage * Current * Cos(θ) where θ is the phase angle between The time constant also determines the bandwidth and the cutoff frequency of the
the voltage and current. circuit

Reactive power is the power that is not consumed by the circuit but is stored in the 5.1 Definition & Properties: The Laplace transform is a mathematical tool used to
inductance and capacitance of the circuit. It is given by the following formula: convert functions of time into functions of complex frequency. It is widely used in
engineering, physics, and mathematics for solving differential equations, system
analysis, and signal processing. The Laplace transform of a function f(t) is denoted by
Reactive power = Voltage * Current * Sin(θ) where θ is the phase angle between F(s) and is defined as:
the voltage and current.

F(s) = ∫[0,∞) e^(-st) f(t) dt where s is a complex frequency parameter. The Laplace
Apparent power is the total power that is supplied to the circuit. It is the product of transform has several important properties, including linearity, time shift, frequency
the voltage and current in the circuit. It is given by the following formula: shift, differentiation, integration, convolution, and multiplication by a polynomial.
6.1 Open circuit impedance and short circuit admittance parameters: The open
circuit impedance parameter is defined as the ratio of the open circuit voltage
across a two-terminal network to the current entering the network when the
output is open-circuited. It is denoted by Zoc.

Zoc = Voc / Ioc where, Voc is the open circuit voltage and Ioc is the current
entering the network when the output is open-circuited.

The short circuit admittance parameter is defined as the ratio of the short circuit
current through a two-terminal network to the voltage across the network when
the input is short-circuited. It is denoted by Ysc.

Ysc = Isc / Vsc where, Isc is the short circuit current and Vsc is the voltage across
the network when the input is short-circuited.

These parameters are useful in analyzing the behavior of a two-terminal network

under different operating conditions.

6. Transmission parameters and their interrelations:2

The transmission parameters are defined as the ratios of the voltage and current
at one end of a two-port network to the voltage and current at the other end.
They are denoted by h12, h21, h11, and h22.

h12 = V1 / I2 || h21 = V2 / I1 || h11 = V1 / I1 || h22 = V2 / I2

where, V1 and I1 are the voltage and current at port 1, and V2 and I2 are the
voltage and current at port 2.

These parameters are interrelated by the following equations:

h11 * h22 - h12 * h21 = 1

h12 = -h21 / (h11 * h22 - 1)

h21 = -h12 / (h11 * h22 - 1)

h11 = h22* (h11 * h22 - h12 * h21) - h12

h22 = h11* (h11 * h22 - h12 * h21) - h21

These equations can be used to convert between the different transmission

parameters and to analyze the behavior of a two-port network under different
operating conditions. The transmission parameters are particularly useful in
designing amplifiers and other electronic circuits