Southern Technical University

Engineering Technical College /Basrah

Department of Thermal Mechanical Engineering

MATHEMATICS II
Lecturer
Hadeel Omar Alkhaled

Chapter 2
Coordinate system
 Coordinate system Chapter 2

Polar Coordinate
The polar coordinate system is a two-dimensional coordinate system in
which each point P on a plane is determined by a distance r from a fixed
point O that is called the pole (or origin) and an angle (in degrees or
radians)from a fixed direction.
The point P is represented by the ordered pair (r, ) and (r, )are called
polar coordinates.
The polar coordinate pair (r, θ) species a point in 2D space as follows:
1. Start at the origin, facing in the direction of the polar axis, and rotate by
angle θ. Positive values of θ are usually interpreted to mean
counterclockwise rotation ,with negative values indicating clockwise

2. Now move forward from the origin a distance of r units.

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Note
In rectangular coordinate system, each point has unique coordinates but in
polar coordinate system a point has infinitely many coordinates.
For example, if we wished to plot the point P with polar coordinates (4 , )
we'd start at the pole ,move out along the polar axis 4 units, then rotate
radians counter-clockwise.

If r < 0, we begin by moving in the opposite direction on the polar axis

from the pole. For example,to plot Q( -3.5, ) we have

If we interpret the angle first, we rotate radians, then move back through
the pole 3.5 units.
Here we are locating a point 3.5 units away from the pole on the terminal
side of , not .

As you may have guessed, < 0 means the rotation away from the polar
axis is clockwise instead of counter-clockwise. Hence, to plot R ( 3.5, )
we have the following.

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 Coordinate system

Points in Polar Coordinates

O = (0, ) for all (This is so because for any the point that is
distance 0 away from the origin along the line L is the origin).

(r, ) = (r, +2 ) for all integers k.

(-r, ) = (r, + ).

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Example:
Plotting Points Using Polar Coordinates

a. ( 3 , )
b. ( 2 , )
c. (3,0)
d. (-2 , )
Solution

Converting from Polar Coordinates to Cartesian Coordinates

If P is a point with polar coordinates ( r , ) the Cartesian coordinates
( x , y) of P is given by:

Note

If r =0 , then , regardless of , the a point P with Cartesian coordinates are

(0,0)

Example
Find the Cartesian coordinates of the points with the following polar
coordinates:
(a) ( 6 , ) (b) ( -4 , - )
Solution:
(a)
x = r cos =6 cos ( ) = 6 =3
y = r sin = 6 sin ( ) = 6 = 3

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 Coordinate system

The rectangular (Cartesian) coordinates of the point (6, ) are (3 ,3)

(b)
x = r cos = -4 cos ( - ) = -4 = -2
y = r sin = -4 sin (- ) = -4(- )=2
The rectangular (Cartesian) coordinates of the point (-4, - ) are (-2 ,2 )

Convert from Cartesian Coordinates to Polar Coordinates

If P is a point with Cartesian coordinates ( x , y) the polar coordinates ( r , )

r2 = r=
tan =
x
= tan-1 ( )

r= = tan-1 ( )

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Example
Find the polar coordinates of the points with the following Cartesian
coordinates:
a) (2,2) b ) (-1,1) c) (1,−1) d)(-2,-2 )
Solution:
a) (x ,y) =(2,2)
r=
r= =2
tan ( ) =

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= tan-1 ( ) =
x>0,y >0 the first quadrant
(r , ) = (2 , )

b) (x ,y) =(-1,1)
r=
r= =
tan ( ) =
= tan-1 ( )=-
x<0,y >0 the second quadrant,

= - =
(r , )=( , )

c) (x ,y) =(1,-1)
r=
r= =
tan ( ) =
= tan-1 ( )=-
x>0 the fourth quadrant , =–

(r , )=( ,– )=( , )

d) (x ,y) = (-2,-2 )
r=

r= = =

tan ( ) =
= tan-1 ( )=
x<0,y < 0 the third quadrant = ( + )=
(r , )=( , )

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 Coordinate system
Test Polar Equations for Symmetry

In polar coordinates, the symmetry tests for polar graphs:

1. Symmetry about the x-axis: the points(r, ) and (r, ) are symmetric
with respect to the polar axis (the x-axis).
2. Symmetry about the y-axis: The points (r, ) and (-r, ) are symmetric
with respect to the line = (the y-axis).
3. Symmetry about the origin: The points (r, ) and (-r, ) are symmetric
with respect to the pole (the origin).

Graph of a polar equation

Polar equation is an equation whose variables are r and θ.

The graph of a polar equation is the set of all points whose polar
coordinates satisfy the equation.

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 Coordinate system
Special Polar Graphs

1- Circles
The graphs of
r = a cos , r = a sin , a 0.
are called circles .

Example
Sketch the graph of the polar equation r = 6 sin .
Solution:
0
r = 6 sin 0 4 6 4

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2-Rose curves:
The graphs of
r = a cos n , r = a sin , a 0.
are called rose curves. If n is even, the rose has 2n petals. If n is odd, the
rose has n petals.

Steps for Sketching Polar Equations- Roses

Step 1
Identify the number of “petals”.
•If n is even, then there are 2n petals.
•If n is odd, then there are n petals.

Step 2
Determine the length of each petal.
•The length of each petal is a units.

Step 3
Determine all angles where an endpoint of a petal lies.
•If the equation is of the form r = a sin , then the endpoints occur for
angles on the interval 0, 2 
•If the equation is of the form r= a cos n , then the endpoints occur for
angles on the interval 0, 2 

 Note that when n is odd, it is only necessary to consider angles on the

interval 0,  . A complete graph is obtained on this interval because the
graph will completely traverse itself on the interval  , 2  .

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 Coordinate system

Step 4: Substitute each angle determined in Step 3 back into the original
equation to obtain the appropriate values of r for each angle. The or-
dered pairs obtained represent the endpoints of the rose petals.
Plot these points on the graph.
Step 5
Determine angles where the graph passes through the pole. These angles
serve as a guide when sketching the width of a petal.
•If the equation is of the form r  asin n , then the graph passes through the
pole when sin n  0 .

•If the equation is of the form r  a cos n , then the graph passes through the
pole when cos n  0 .

Step 6
Draw each petal to complete the graph
Example
Graph the polar equations: r = 2cos3.
Solution:
Step 1
n =3 then then there are 3 petals.

Step 2
The length of each petal is2 units.

Step 3
r = 2cos3.
2= 2cos3.
= cos3
cos-1(1) =3
0 = 3 =0
2= 2cos30).
Rotate petals : = =

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Example
Graph the polar equations: r = 3cos2.
Solution:
(r, -  ) r = 3cos2 (- ) r = 3cos2 ( )
x-axis symmetry: yes
(-r, -  ) - r = 3cos2 (- ) -r= 3cos2 ( ) r = -3cos2 ( )
y-axis symmetry: no
(-r,  ) - r = 3cos2 ( ) - r = 3cos2 () r = -3cos2 ( )
symmetry with respect to the origin :no

Step 1
n =2 then then there are( 2 * n= 2 * 2 =4) 4 petals.

Step 2
The length of each petal is 3 units.

Step 3
r = 3cos2
3= 3cos2
= cos2
cos-1(1) =2
0 = 2 =0
3= 3cos20).
Rotate petals : = =

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 Coordinate system

3-Lemniscates
The graphs of
r2 = a2 sin 2 , r2 = a2 cos 2 , a 0.
are called Lemniscates.

Example
Graph the polar equations: r2 = 4sin2.
Solution:
(r, -  ) r2 = 4sin2 (- ) r2 = - 4sin2 ( )
x-axis symmetry: no
(-r, -  ) (- r)2 = 4sin2 (- ) r2 = - 4sin2( )

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 Coordinate system
y-axis symmetry: no
(-r,  ) (- r)2 = 4sin2 (- ) r2 = 4sin2()
symmetry with respect to the origin :yes

0
0
r=2 0 1.86 2 1.86 0

4-Limacons (Snails)
The graphs of
r = a b cos , r = a b cos
r = a b sin , r = a b sin , a > 0, b > 0
Are called Limacons the ratio determines a Limacons shape

r = a b cos

r = a b sin

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Steps for Sketching Polar Equations (Limacons)

Step 1
a
Identify the general shape using the ratio .
b
a
•If  1 , then the graph is a cardioid.
b
a
•If  1 , then the graph is a limacon with an inner loop that intersects the
b
pole.
a
•If 1   2 , then the graph is a limacon with a dimple .
b
a
.•If  2 , then the graph is a limacon with no inner loop and no
b
dimple.

Step 2
Determine the symmetry.
•If the equation is of the form r  a  b sin  , then the graph must be

symmetric about the line   .
2
•If the equation is of the form r  a  b cos  , then the graph must be
symmetric about the polar axis.

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Step 3

Plot the points corresponding to the quadrant angles   0 ,   ,    ,
2
3
and   .
2

Step 4
If necessary, plot a few more points until symmetry can be used to
complete the graph.

Example
Identify the symmetries of the curve r = 2 + 2 cos and then sketch the
graph.
Solution:
Step 1
the ratio =1 the graph is a cardioid
Step 2
then the graph must be symmetric about the polar axis
Step 3
a+b = 2+2 =4 stretches on x-axis
a=2 stretches on y- axis

0 2
r = 2 + 2 cos 4 2 0 2 4

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Example
Identify the symmetries of the curve r = 1 - 2 cos and then sketch the
graph.
Solution:

(r, -  ) r = 1 - 2 cos (- ) r = 1 - 2 cos

x-axis symmetry: yes
(-r, -  ) - r = 1 - 2 cos (- ) -r= 1 - 2 cos ( ) r = -1 + 2 cos ( )
y-axis symmetry: no
(-r,  ) - r = 1 - 2 cos r = -1 + 2 cos ( )
symmetry with respect to the origin :no

Step 1
the ratio = 0.5 then the graph is a limacon with an inner loop that
intersects the pole.
Step 2
then the graph must be symmetric about the polar axis
Step 3
a+b = 1+2 =3 stretches on x- axis
a=2 stretches on y- axis
a-b=1-2=-1 lower point

r = 1 - 2 cos -1 0 1 2 1+ 3

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 Coordinate system

Areas in Polar Coordinates

1. If f( ) be nonnegative continuous function on [ , ] ,then the are A
anclosed by polar curve r = f( and lines (rays) = and = is
A= d = d

2. Let R be the region enclosed by nonnegative continuous functions

f ( ) and g( ) on [ , ] , and the lines = and = is , then
the area A of the region R is
A= d = d

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Example:
Find the area in the first quadrant that lies within the curve r = 1 + cos .
Solution
the graph of polar equation is cardioid

the area that lies between the rays =0,

A= d = d

= d

= d

= (
= [ + )–( + )) ]
= [ + )–( + )) ] = + 1 + =3 + 1

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Example:
Find the area enclosed by one leaf of the 4-leafed rose r = cos (2 ).
Solution
The leaf pointing east is formed by the
curve r = cos(2 ) between two angles for
which
r = 0.
0 = cos(2 )
Cos-1(0) =
2 = =
=

A= d = d

= d = d

= + sin 4 = –(- )+ sin - sin (- ) =

Example:
Consider the polar curves r = 6 sin and r = 2 + 2 sin .
(a) Find all points of intersection of the two curves.
(b) Graph the two curves and indicate their points of intersection.
(c) Find the area inside the first curve and outside the second.
Solution
(a) Begin by solving the equations simultaneously.
6 sin = 2 + 2 sin
6 sin - 2 sin = 2
4 sin = 2 sin =
= sin-1( ) =
the two polar graphs intersect at (r, ) = (3, ) , (3, ) , (0,0)

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(b)

3, 3,

(c) The area is given by the following integral.

A= d = d

= – (4 +8 + )] d

= –4 -8 - ]d

= –2 -4 d

= –2 -4 ]d = –2 -4 ]d

= -4 ] d = 6 -4 +4

=6 -4 )+4 - [6 -4 )+4 ]=4

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Example:
Find the area Outside r = 1+cos in side r = sin .
Solution

1+cos = sin
1+2 cos θ + cos2 θ = 3 sin2 θ
1+2 cos θ + cos2 θ = 3 (1 - cos2 θ)
4cos2 + 2 cos θ -2 = 0
2cos2 + cos θ -1 = 0
( 2 cos θ -1) (cos θ+ 1) = 0
cos θ = cos-1( ) = θ=
cos θ = cos-1 (-1) = =

A= d

= = [2 + ]=

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Cylindrical Coordinate System

The cylindrical coordinate system basically is a combination of the polar
coordinate system xy - plane with an additional z - coordinates vertically.
In the cylindrical coordinate system, a point P (x, y, z) ; whose Cartesian
Coordinate is (x, y, z) ; is assigned by the ordered triple (r , , z ) ,
where (r , ) is the polar coordinate of (x, y) ; the vertical projection along z
- axis of P onto xy – plane.
Thus, the transformation from the Cartesian coordinates to the
cylindrical coordinates is given by

x = r cos
y = r sin
z=z

Where 0 r< ;0 ;0 2 ;- <z<

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Example:
Convert from cylindrical coordinates (2, 2 , 1) to rectangular coordinates.
Solution
To find its rectangular coordinates, we use the formula

x = r cos x = 2 cos (2 ) = 2 ( ) = -1
y = r sin y = 2 sin (2 ) = 2 ( ) =
The point is , )

Note

To convert from rectangular coordinates to cylindrical coordinates.

r=
= tan-1 (
z= z
Example:
Convert the point (-1 , 1 , ) from Cartesian to cylindrical coordinates.
Solution
r= r= =
-1
tan = = tan ( ) = - =3
z=
Thus (-1 , 1 , ) =( ,3 , )

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 Coordinate system
Spherical Coordinate System

In the spherical coordinate system, a point P (x, y, z), whose Cartesian

coordinates are (x, y, z) ; is described by an ordered triple ( , , ).

 : Angle from positive z - axis to vector .

 Where 0 < ;0 ;0 ;0< < .

Note

To transformation from the Cartesian coordinates to the Spherical coordinates

isgiven by
=
= tan-1( )
= cos-1(

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Example:
Convert the points from rectangular to spherical coordinates.
a) (1,-1, )
b) (0, 1,-1)
c) (-1, 1, )
Solution
a)

= = =2
= tan-1( ) = tan-1( )=
cos-1( ) = cos-1( )= =
the point is( , , ) in rectangular coordinates
b)
= = =2
-1 -1
= tan ( ) = tan ( )=
cos-1( ) = cos-1( )=
the point is( , , ) in rectangular coordinates
c)
= = =2
=tan-1( )= tan-1( )= , =
= cos-1( ) = cos-1( )=
the point is(2 , , ) in rectangular coordinates

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 Coordinate system

Note

To transformation from the Spherical coordinates to the Cartesian coordinates is

given by
x = sin cos
y = sin sin
z = cos
Example:
Convert the point (4, , ) from spherical to rectangular coordinates.
Solution
x= sin cos =4 sin cos =
y= sin sin = sin sin =
z= cos = cos 2
The point is( , ,2 ) in rectangular coordinates.

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