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ALGEBRA
ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE
E DITION 2.5
F REDERICK M. G OODMAN
SemiSimple Press
Iowa City, IA
The author reserves all rights to this work not explicitly granted, including the right to copy, reproduce and
distribute the work in any form, printed or electronic, by any means, in whole or in part. However, individual readers,
classes or study groups may copy, store and print the work, in whole or in part, for their personal use. Any copy of
this work, or any part of it, must include the title page with the author’s name and this copyright notice.
No use or reproduction of this work for commercial purposes is permitted without the written permission of
the author. This work may not be adapted or altered without the author’s written consent.
The first and second editions of this work were published by Prentice-Hall.
ISBN 978-0-9799142-0-1
Contents
Preface vii
A Note to the Reader ix
Chapter 1. Algebraic Themes 1
1.1. What Is Symmetry? 1
1.2. Symmetries of the Rectangle and the Square 3
1.3. Multiplication Tables 7
1.4. Symmetries and Matrices 11
1.5. Permutations 16
1.6. Divisibility in the Integers 24
1.7. Modular Arithmetic 37
1.8. Polynomials 44
1.9. Counting 56
1.10. Groups 69
1.11. Rings and Fields 75
1.12. An Application to Cryptography 79
Chapter 2. Basic Theory of Groups 84
2.1. First Results 84
2.2. Subgroups and Cyclic Groups 93
2.3. The Dihedral Groups 105
2.4. Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms 110
2.5. Cosets and Lagrange’s Theorem 120
2.6. Equivalence Relations and Set Partitions 126
2.7. Quotient Groups and Homomorphism Theorems 133
Chapter 3. Products of Groups 147
3.1. Direct Products 147
3.2. Semidirect Products 155
3.3. Vector Spaces 158
3.4. The dual of a vector space and matrices 173
3.5. Linear algebra over Z 185
3.6. Finitely generated abelian groups 194
Chapter 4. Symmetries of Polyhedra 211
4.1. Rotations of Regular Polyhedra 211
iii
iv CONTENTS
Appendices 521
Appendix A. Almost Enough about Logic 522
A.1. Statements 522
A.2. Logical Connectives 523
A.3. Quantifiers 527
A.4. Deductions 529
Appendix B. Almost Enough about Sets 530
B.1. Families of Sets; Unions and Intersections 534
B.2. Finite and Infinite Sets 535
Appendix C. Induction 537
C.1. Proof by Induction 537
C.2. Definitions by Induction 538
C.3. Multiple Induction 539
Appendix D. Complex Numbers 542
Appendix E. Review of Linear Algebra 544
E.1. Linear algebra in K n 544
E.2. Bases and Dimension 549
E.3. Inner Product and Orthonormal Bases 553
Appendix F. Models of Regular Polyhedra 555
vi CONTENTS
Acknowledgements.
The first and second editions of this text were published by Prentice
Hall. I would like to thank George Lobell, the staff at Prentice Hall, and
reviewers of the previous editions for their help and advice.
Supplements.
I would be grateful for any comments on the text, reports of errors, and
suggestions for improvements. I am currently distributing this text elec-
tronically, and this means that I can provide frequent updates and correc-
tions. Please write if you would like a better text next semester! I thank
those students and instructors who have written me in the past.
Frederick M. Goodman
[email protected]
A Note to the Reader
I would like to show you a passage from one of my favorite books, A River
Runs Through It, by Norman Maclean. The narrator Norman is fishing
with his brother Paul on a mountain river near their home in Montana. The
brothers have been fishing a “hole” blessed with sunlight and a hatch of
yellow stone flies, on which the fish are vigorously feeding. They descend
to the next hole downstream, where the fish will not bite. After a while
Paul, who is fishing the opposite side of the river, makes some adjustment
to his equipment and begins to haul in one fish after another. Norman
watches in frustration and admiration, until Paul wades over to his side of
the river to hand him a fly:
“Then I knew,” he said, “if there were flies in this hole they had
to come from the hole above that’s in the sunlight where there’s
enough heat to make them hatch.
“After that, I should have seen them dead in the water. Since I
couldn’t see them dead in the water, I knew they had to be at least
six or seven inches under the water where I couldn’t see them. So
that’s where I fished.”
He leaned against the rock with his hands behind his head to
make the rock soft. “Wade out there and try George’s No. 2,” he
said, pointing at the fly he had given me. 1
1From Norman Maclean, A River Runs Through It, University of Chicago Press, 1976.
Reprinted by permission.
Chapter 1
Algebraic Themes
The first task of mathematics is to understand the “found” objects in the
mathematical landscape. We have to try to understand the integers, the
rational numbers, polynomials, matrices, and so forth, because they are
“there.” In this chapter we will examine objects that are familiar and con-
crete, but we will sometimes pose questions about them that are not so
easy to answer. Our purpose is to introduce the algebraic themes that will
be studied in the rest of the text, but also to begin the practice of looking
closely and exactly at concrete situations.
We begin by looking into the idea of symmetry. What is more familiar
to us than the symmetry of faces and flowers, of balls and boxes, of virtu-
ally everything in our biological and manufactured world? And yet, if we
ask ourselves what we actually mean by symmetry, we may find it quite
hard to give an adequate answer. We will soon see that symmetry can be
given an operational definition, which will lead us to associate an algebraic
structure with each symmetric object.
Exercises 1.1
It turns out to be essential to include the nonmotion as well, that is, the
rotation through 0 radians about any axis of your choice. One of the things
that you could do to the card while I am out of the room is nothing. When
I returned I could not tell that you had done nothing rather than something;
nothing is also undetectable.
Including the nonmotion, we can readily detect four different symme-
tries of the rectangular card.3
However, another sensible answer is that there are infinitely many
symmetries. As well as rotating by about one of the axes, you could
2The centroid is the center of mass; the centroid of a rectangle is the intersection of
the two diagonals.
3Later we will take up the issue of why there are exactly four.
4 1. ALGEBRAIC THEMES
nonmotion e. If you perform first r1 , and then r2 , the result must be one of
r1 ; r2 ; r3 ; or e (because these are all of the symmetries of the card). Which
is it? I claim that it is r3 . Likewise, if you perform first r2 and then r3 ,
the result is r1 . Take your rectangular card in your hands and verify these
assertions.
r3
r1
r2
e r1 r2 r3
e
r1 r3
r2
r3
When you are finished with the multiplication table for symmetries of
the rectangular card, continue with the table for the square card. You will
6 1. ALGEBRAIC THEMES
have to choose some labeling for the eight symmetries of the square card
in order to begin to work out the multiplication table. In order to compare
our results, it will be helpful if we agree on a labeling beforehand.
b
c
a d
Call the rotation by =2 around the axis through the centroid of the
faces r. The other rotations around this same axis are then r 2 and r 3 ; we
don’t need other names for them. Call the nonmotion e. Call the rotations
by about axes through centers of opposite edges a and b, and the rota-
tions by about axes through opposite vertices c and d . Also, to make
comparing our results easier, let’s agree to list the symmetries in the or-
der e; r; r 2 ; r 3 ; a; b; c; d in our tables (Figure 1.2.5). I have filled in a few
entries of the table to help you get going (Figure 1.2.6). Your job is to
complete the table.
e r r2 r3 a b c d
e r3
r r a
r2 a
r3
a
b
c e
d r2
Before going on with your reading, stop here and finish working out
the multiplication tables for the symmetries of the rectangular and square
1.3. MULTIPLICATION TABLES 7
cards. For learning mathematics, it is essential to work things out for your-
self.
4
4
1 1
3 3
2
4 4
4 2
1 1 3 1
r2
!
3 3 3 1
2 4
2 2
You can make a list of where each of the eight symmetries send the
numbered vertices, and then you can compute products by diagrams as in
Figure 1.3.3. Comparing Figures 1.3.2 and 1.3.3, you see that cd D r 2 .
4
4
4
4
1 3 1
1
d
3 3 ! 3 1
2 2
2 2
4
2
3 1
c
! 3 1
4
e r1 r2 r3
e e r1 r2 r3
r1 r1 e r3 r2
r2 r2 r3 e r1
r3 r3 r2 r1 e
e r r2 r3 a b c d
e e r r2 r3 a b c d
r r r2 r3 e d c a b
r2 r2 r3 e r b a d c
r3 r3 e r r2 c d b a
a a c b d e r2 r r3
b b d a c r2 e r3 r
c c b d a r3 r e r2
d d a c b r r3 r2 e
The multiplication table for the symmetries of the square card is shown
in Figure 1.3.5.
This table has the following properties, which I have emphasized by
choosing the order in which to write the symmetries: The product of two
powers of r (i.e., of two rotations around the axis through the centroid
of the faces) is again a power of r. The square of any of the elements
fa; b; c; d g is the nonmotion e. The product of any two of fa; b; c; d g is a
power of r, while the product of a power of r and one of fa; b; c; d g (in
either order) is again one of fa; b; c; d g.
Actually this last property is obvious, without doing any close compu-
tation of the products, if we think as follows: The symmetries fa; b; c; d g
exchange the two faces (i.e., top and bottom) of the square card, while the
powers of r do not. So, for example, the product of two symmetries that
exchange the faces leaves the upper face above and the lower face below,
so it has to be a power of r.
Notice that in this table, order in which symmetries are multiplied does
matter. For example, ra D d , whereas ar D c.
We end this section by observing the following more or less obvious
properties of the set of symmetries of a geometric figure (such as a square
or rectangular card):
1. The product of three symmetries is independent of how the three
are associated: The product of two symmetries followed by a
third gives the same result as the first symmetry followed by the
product of the second and third. This is the associative law for
multiplication. In notation, the law is expressed as s.t u/ D .st /u
for any three symmetries s; t; u.
10 1. ALGEBRAIC THEMES
Exercises 1.3
1.3.1. List the symmetries of an equilateral triangular plate (there are six)
and work out the multiplication table for the symmetries. (See Figure 1.3.6.)
b
a
We can arrange that the figure (square or rectangle) lies in the .x; y/–
plane with sides parallel to the coordinate axes and centroid at the origin
of coordinates. Then certain axes of symmetry will coincide with the co-
ordinate axes. For example, we can orient the rectangle in the plane so that
the axis of rotation for r1 coincides with the x–axis, the axis of rotation for
r2 coincides with the y–axis, and the axis of rotation for r3 coincides with
the z–axis.
The rotation r1 leaves the x–coordinate of a point in space unchanged
and changes the sign of the y– and z–coordinates. We want to compute
the matrix that implements the rotation r1 , so let us recall how the standard
matrix of a linear transformation is determined. Consider the standard
basis of R3 : 2 3 2 3 2 3
1 0 0
eO1 D 405 eO2 D 415 eO3 D 405 :
0 0 1
If T is any linear transformation of R3 , then the 3-by-3 matrix MT with
columns T .eO1 /; T .eO2 /, and T .eO3 / satisfies MT x D T .x/ for all x 2 R3 .
Now we have
r1 .eO1 / D eO1 ; r1 .eO2 / D eO2 ; and r1 .eO3 / D eO3 ;
so the matrix R1 implementing the rotation r1 is
2 3
1 0 0
R1 D 40 1 05 :
0 0 1
Similarly, we can trace through what the rotations r2 and r3 do in terms
of coordinates. The result is that the matrices
2 3 2 3
1 0 0 1 0 0
R2 D 4 0 1 05 and R3 D 4 0 1 05
0 0 1 0 0 1
implement the rotations r2 and r3 . Of course, the identity matrix
2 3
1 0 0
E D 40 1 0 5
0 0 1
implements the nonmotion. Now you can check that the square of any of
the Ri ’s is E and the product of any two of the Ri ’s is the third. Thus the
matrices R1 ; R2 ; R3 , and E have the same multiplication table (using ma-
trix multiplication) as do the symmetries r1 ; r2 ; r3 , and e of the rectangle,
as expected.
Let us similarly work out the matrices for the symmetries of the square:
Choose the orientation of the square in space so that the axes of symmetry
for the rotations a, b, and r coincide with the x–, y–, and z–axes, respec-
tively.
14 1. ALGEBRAIC THEMES
For the square (with sides of length 2w), .w eO1 / and .w eO2 / must
be contained in the set f˙w eO1 ; ˙w eO2 g. Furthermore if .w eO1 / is ˙w eO1 ,
then .w eO2 / is ˙w eO2 ; and if .w eO1 / is ˙w eO2 , then .w eO2 / is ˙w eO1 .
Thus there are at most eight possible symmetries of the square. As we
have already found eight distinct symmetries, there are exactly eight.
Exercises 1.4