Chapter 1

Illumination

1.1. Introduction
Light:
It is a form of electromagnetic energy radiated from a body which is
capable of being perceived by the human eye. The sensation of light results
from a flow of energy into the eye and the light will appear to vary if the
rate of this flow of energy varies. Light can be of different colours, which
depend on the wavelength of the radiation causing it.
- Light can be described as a vibratory motion, which is transmitted in the
form of waves through spaces. Visible light travels in the form of
transverse waves of electromagnetic oscillations. The speed of all
electromagnetic waves is 3 × 108 m/sin free space. The wavelength and
frequency are different for different waves. The velocity with which these
waves travel is related to the wavelength and frequency, by the relation:
υ = λ f
- The complete range of waves along with there frequency and wavelengths
are within visible spectrum as shown in fig (6.1).

Wavelength m

10-14 10-12 10-10 10-8 10-6 10-4 10-2 1 102

Cosmic rays Long-wave radio

waves
Y rays

X rays Short-wave radio rays

Ultraviolet rays Infrared rays

Visible rays
Frequency cycles /s (Hz)

3× 1022 3× 1022 3× 1022 3× 1022 3× 1022 3× 1022 3× 1022 3× 1022 3× 1022

Fig 1.1 Spectrum of electromagnetic waves

- Light emitted together with its color for the wavelengths within the
visible spectrum.

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Small unit of length called Angstrom or Micron is the unit of light
wavelengths within the visible spectrum.
Angstrom (Au) λ = 10-10 m
Micron = 10-6 m
- All the studies and researches in lighting engineering try to achieve a
good lighting scheme for the viewer when comfortable appearance the
surrounding either interior or exterior spaces will be released with the
following essentials:
i) Adequate illumination of suitable color on the working surfaces.
ii) Good maintenance.
iii) Avoidance of hard shadows.
iv) Avoidance of glare.
- The aim of artificial lighting is to supplement the daylight or to replace it
in modern offices, homes, industries workshops etc.
- Good illumination ensures increased production, efficiency of work and
reduced accidents.

1.2. Parameters and factors of illumination

1. Plane angle
- A plane angle is subtended at a point and is enclosed by two straight
lines lying in the same plane.
X
Arc
= radians O θ
Radius
Y
The largest angle subtended at a (a) Plane angle
point is 2π radians

2. Solid angle ω
- A solid angle is the angle generated Area
by the surface passing through the (b) Solid angle A
point in space and the periphery of
the area .It is denoted by ω, expressed θ/2
in "steradians" and is given by the O θ D h B
ratio of the area of the surface to the
square of the distance between the
area and the point. C
(c)Relation between solid and plane angles
Fig 1.2

Area A
= 2
= 2
( Radius ) r

2
The largest solid angle subtended at a point is due to a sphere at its center,
4 r 2 ( Area of sphere )
and is equal to = 4 steradians .
r2
-Relationship between ω and θ
In the above fig (6. 1(c)), Surface area of segment ABC = 2 π r h

h = OB- OD = r -r cos θ/2


Surface area of segment ABC = 2 r 2 1 − cos 
 2
 
2  r 2 1 − cos 
Surface area  2  
Solid angle  = = = 2 1 − cos 
 2
2 2
( Radius ) r

It can be summarized the detentions related to the illumination as follows:

1. Light:
It is the radiant energy from a hot body which produces the visual sensation
upon the human eye.

2. Lumen flux:
It is the total quantity of light energy emitted per second from a luminous
body. It is measured by lumens. The concept of luminous flux assists us to
specify the output and efficiency of a given light source.

3. Luminous intensity:
It is the luminous flux emitted by the source per unit solid angle in a given
direction. It can be measured by 'candela' (cd) or Lumen / steradian
F
If luminous flux is F then, I (luminous intensity) =

4. Lumen:
It is the unit of luminous flux and is defined as the amount of luminous flux
given out in space represented by one unit solid angle by a source having
an intensity of one candle power in all directions.

Lumens = Candle power × Solid angle

Total Lumens given out by source of one candela is 4 π lumens

5. Candle power:
It is defined as the number of lumens emitted by a source in a unit solid
angle in a given direction.

Lumens
C.P. =


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6. Illumination
It is the luminous flux received by a surface per unit area. It is measured
by 'lumen per square meter' or lux or meter-candle,

F
- E= Lumens / m2 or lux
A
where F luminous flux A the area of the surface.

7. Brightness (or luminance)

It is defined as the luminous intensity per unit projected area of the surface
in the given direction.

8. Mean horizontal candle power

It is defined as the mean of candle power in all directions in the horizontal
plane containing the source of light.

9. Mean spherical candle power

It is defined as the mean of candle power in all directions and in all planes
from the source of light.

10. Mean hemi-spherical candle power

It is defined as the mean of candle powers in all directions above or below
the horizontal plane passing through the source of light.

11. Reduction factor:

It is the ratio of its mean spherical candle power to its mean horizontal
candle power.
M .S.C.P.
- Re duction Factor =
M .S. H .B.
12. Lamp efficiency:
It is defined as the ration of the luminous flux to the power input. It is
expressed in lumens per unit.

13. Specific consumption:

It is defined as the ratio of power input to the average candle power. It is
expressed in watts per candle.

14. Space-height ratio:

It is defined as the ratio of horizontal distance between adjacent lamps and
height of their mountings.

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15. Utilization factor:
It is the ratio of total lumens reaching the working plane to total lumens
given out by the lamp.
- Utilization factor (η):
It is the ratio of the lumens actually received by the working plane to the
total lumens emitted by the luminous source.
lumens acually received on working plane
− =
lumens emitted by the light source

This factor depends on the following:

(1) The type of lighting system, whether direct or indirect, etc. for direct
lighting, more intensity will be and less intensity will be for indirect
lighting.
(2) The type and mounting height of the fittings, where utilization factor
decreases with the increase in mounting height of lamps.
(3) The color and surface of walls and ceilings. Utilization factor increases
with the light colors and decreases for dark colors.
(4) The shape and dimensions of the room. For direct lighting (η) ranges
from 0.4 to 0.6. For indirect lighting, (η) ranges from 0.1 to 0.35.

16. Maintenance factor (M):

It is the ration of illumination under normal working conditions to the
illumination when the things are perfectly clean.
The effective candle power of all lamps deteriorates due to the aging of the
lamps and accumulation of dust or dirt on the lamps globs, reflectors, walls
and ceilings. This fact is taken into account by including the maintenance
factor. It is varied from 0.6 to 0.8,

Illu min ation due to actual conditions

- Ma int enance factor =
Illu min ation when every thing is perfectly clean

17. Depreciation factor:

It is the inverse of maintenance factor. It is defined as the ratio of initial
metre-candles to the ultimate maintained metre-candles on the working
plane. Its value is more than unity 9equal 1.3 when the lamp is clean and
1.5 when there is much dust).

Illu min ation when every thing is perfectly clean

−P=
Illu min ation due to actual conditions