Agriculture G 11 Unit 6 NOTE

6. Animal Genetics and Breeding Practices

6.1. Introduction to Animal Genetics and Breeding
Genetics is the study of heredity, which is the passing of genetic information and traits from parents to offspring.
Genetics include the study of genes and their effects on living organisms. Genes are small sections of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that are coded for specific traits. Animal geneticists have identified elements within
genes that can enhance animal growth, health, and the ability to utilize nutrients efficiently. These genetic advances
can increase production and reduce environmental impacts. Animal genetics is one of the pillars of livestock
development.
Animal breeding indicates the mating of selective animals for purpose of the enhancement of particular
characteristics in subsequent generations. These characteristics are usually chosen with the aim of increasing
production and profitability. Animal breeding ensures a continuous improvement of farm animals. Breeders provide
livestock farmers with a next generation of animals. Thus, animal breeding helps in accumulation of superior genes
and elimination of the less desirable genes.
The objectives of animal breeding are to:
 increase animal yield or productivity
 improve the desirable quality of animal product
 produce disease-resistant animals
6.2. Breed Improvement Methods
Productivity of animals can be increased by better feeding, better health care and better management of the existing
animals. However, genetic improvement also plays an important role. Genetic improvement is based on the principle
that the products (such as milk, meat, and wool) and services (e.g., transport, draught power or cultural services)
provided by animals are functions of their genes and their living environment. There are three methods of genetic
improvement applied in farm animals. These are breed introduction, selection and breeding.
1. Breed Introduction
Breed introduction is bringing high-quality breeds of livestock into the farm or a country. Before introducing, it is
important to be sure that the breeds possess higher quality and characteristics than the local ones.
Advantages of breed introduction
 Characteristics which are not originally present in the local breeds are introduced
 Breed introduction enhances productivity
 Crossbreeds may perform better than local breed if adapted to the local environment
Disadvantages of introduction
 It may introduce new diseases and pests to the area
 Exotic breeds may struggle to adapt to the new area
 Exotic breeds may not reach full productivity in the new environment
2. Selection
Selection is the process of allowing genetically superior animals to be parents of future generations while culling
others. The animals retained have certain desirable characteristics which make them more productive. Animals with
desirable characteristics are selected. Selected animals make up the breeding stock. The breeding stock should pass
the good qualities to their offspring for better performance. Selection increases occurrences of desirable genes and
decreases that of the undesirable ones. There are two types of selection.
i. Natural selection
ii. Artificial selection: Different types:-
 In-breeding: closely related/family
 Line-breeding: distantly related
 Out breeding: unrelated but same breed
 Cross breeding: Different breed
Advantages of selection
 It ensures that only the best naturally available animal is selected
 Animals with desirable characteristics are selected.
  Animals from best breeds are bred for distribution.
 Animals with undesirable characteristics are detected and culled.
 Selection reduces the spread of diseases and parasites associated with breeding stocks.
Disadvantages of selection
 Selection is very costly in terms of time and money
 It requires expertise which may not be readily available
 It may bring about elimination or exclusion of some desirable traits of some parent stock
 No new desirable characteristics that do not occur in the existing stock are introduced
3. Breeding
Breeding involves the development of animals by transferring inherited qualities from parents to offspring. This is
achieved through mating. There are different methods of breeding:
In-breeding: closely related/family
Line-breeding: distantly related
Out breeding: unrelated but same breed
Cross breeding: Different breeds
6.3. Farm Animal Reproductive Technologies
Reproduction techniques are becoming more and more important and necessary for modern animal breeding.
Reproduction techniques are used to make safe and efficient breeding possible. Breeding programs can be improved
and optimized through the use of reproductive techniques. Reproductive techniques allow the dissemination of genes
of interest and increase the reproductive capacities of animals. Over the years, various biotechnology methods are
used in improving the breeding stock of animals. Artificial insemination and embryo transfer are some examples of
these biotechnology methods.
6.3.1. Artificial Insemination (AI)
Artificial insemination is the process of collecting sperm cells from male animals and depositing them into the
reproductive tract of a female (vagina, cervix or uterus) by a method other than natural mating. It is the most
important reproduction technology for genetic improvement in domestic animals. The semen is collected
hygienically from superior males. The semen containing spermatozoa are carefully handled, diluted and stored in a
freezer at a temperature of -196oC in liquid nitrogen. The semen stays there until it is required for use. A liquid
nitrogen tank is used for preserving and storing semen for an extended period of time. Success in insemination
timing is dependent upon a good heat detection program. Effective AI work needs accurate herd supervision and
heat detection. Oestrus in females is identified by the following signs:
 loss of appetite
 constant vocalizations
 restlessness
 rubbing up against herd-mates
 lips of the vulva become redder and more moist than usual
 swelling around the vulva
 a thin mucous discharge from the vulva
 stop when mounted by other animals
 mount other animals
Advantages of Artificial Insemination (AI)
 Wider variety of superior males used
 Increase number of females that can be breed to a superior male
 Reduces spread of infectious diseases such as contagious abortion and vibriosis
 Don’t have to keep a male animal on the farm. Mostly semen is brought from AI centers.
 It helps in maintaining the accurate breeding and parturitionrecords.
 Old, heavy and injured males can be used.
Disadvantages/limitations of Artificial Insemination (AI)
 Requires well-trained operators.
 Requires specialist equipment and facilities.
 Requires more time than natural services.
 Improper cleaning of instruments and in sanitary conditions may lead to lower fertility.
  If the bull is not properly tested, the spreading of genital diseases will be increased.
6.3.2. Embryo Transfer (ET)
Embryo transfer is an artificial method of breeding whereby newly formed embryos prior to implantation are
removed from a female animal (donor) and transferred into the reproductive tract of another female (recipient) of
the same species. In embryo transfer, the donors are highly productive or are superior animals. Embryo transfer is
used to disseminate desirable genes from superior female animals and from various species (horses, cattle, sheep,
goats, and pigs).
The embryo transfer process in cattle begins with cows donating a hormone treatment to produce more than one
ovulation (egg) at a time. The cows are then artificially inseminated with bulls also possessing desirable genetics.
Seven days later, a veterinarian recovers the embryos by using a catheter and recovery fluid. The fluid passes through
a specialized filter, which catches the embryos. After recovering the embryos from both cows, they will be filtered
into a lab and evaluated under a microscope. It is estimated that the process produces an average of six good embryos
per cow. Any fertilized embryos captured in the process can be transferred into a surrogate cow, called a recipient,
that will carry the pregnancy to term, or the embryos can be frozen to be used later.
Advantages of Embryo Transfer (ET)
 Allows a producer to quickly multiply the number of offspring of the top females
 Is an easier and more rapid exchange of genetic material between countries
 Involves no transport of live animals
 Reduces risks of disease transmission
 Enhances storage and expansion of rare genetic stock
Disadvantages of Embryo Transfer (ET)
 The technique requires a high cost.
 It requires skilled technicians.
 It may be time consuming.
6.4. Animal Identification and Record Keeping
Maintaining herd performance records is one of the best management tools for a successful genetic improvement.
Performance records help producers identify areas of weakness in the overall herd/flock performance. Information
on animals’ performance help a farmer to make informed decisions about flock management, the selection of new
breeding stock and culling low performing animals. Recording of phenotypic data is the major driving force for
genetic progress. This genetic progress is very much dependent on the accuracy of the data.
Individual animal identification allows producers to keep records of an animal’s parentage, birth date and production
records. There are many identification systems. Permanent identifications include branding, ear tags, tattooing, ear
notches or microchips. There are also some simple temporary methods to mark the animals. Tail marking with a pen
and chalk, clipping their hair, or dying their fur are simple techniques to identify animals.