DATA COMMUNICATION

 Data communication refers to the exchange of data between two or more networked or
connected devices.
 data communication is communication in which we can send or receive data from one
device to another

DATA COMMUNICATIONCOMOPNENT
A data communications system has five components
1.Message.
Message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information include text,
numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2.Sender
Sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, video camera, and so on.
3.Receiver
Receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium
Transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from sender to receiver.
Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable,
and radio waves.
5. Protocol
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement between
the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks
only Japanese.

COMPUTER NETWORK
A computer network is a set of devices connected through links. A node can be computer, printer,
or any other device capable of sending or receiving the data. The links connecting the nodes are
known as communication channels.
USE/NEED OF COMPUTER NETWORK
 To Share Computer Files

 To share Hardware Device

 Application sharing

 Communication

 Gaming

 Voice over IP

 Resource sharing

 Internet access

 E-Commerce

 Improve Communication Speed & Accuracy

 To reduce the cost of data transfer

Applications of Computer Networks

1.Communication Medium
The most widely used network application is its use as a communication medium. It is possible for
everyone to send and receive e-mails.
Sharing: A Major applications of network is that it facilitates distinct types of sharing:
o Sharing of Peripherals
o Sharing of Data and Information
2.Access to remote database
Another area of network application is access to remote database. Airline reservation, hotel
booking, railway reservation etc. are easy for anyone sitting anywhere in the world.

3.Financial Services
It depending on computer networks include foreign exchange and investment services, electronic
funds transactions (EFT) etc.

4.Information Services
There may be corporate information systems such as marketing information system, customer
information system, product information system etc. Computer networks also facilitate decision
making.

5.Tele Conferencing
Tele Conferencing allows conferences to occur without the participants being in the same place.

6.Entertainment
It applications include video on demand interactive films and games, live television where
audience participate in quiz shows etc.

7.Marketing and Sales

Computer networks are used extensively in both marketing and sales organizations. Marketing
professionals use them to collect, exchange and analyze data relating to customer needs.

8.Business Applications
Now a day, business affairs rely on computer networks and internet works. To monitor production,
inventories, to make payments etc. computers are extensively in use.

Advantages of Computer Networks

1.Resource Sharing
The networking of computers allows to share resources with others on the network. This permits
to share software and peripherals such as printers, plotters, scanners and so on.

2.Easier Backups
It means making copy of data for future use. In Business or office work, backup data is very
important and valuable.

3.Communication
Organizations today are widely dispersed over in the world. They need to exchange information
and data. The computer network allows easy communication through email, internet telephony,
teleconferencing etc. This allows the communication between various organizations to cooperate
with each other in performing certain task rapidly.

4.Interactive Entertainment
Computer network provides many types of games and entertainment. The real time interactive
games like flight simulators are also becoming popular.

5.Cost Reduction
Sharing of hardware and software resources leads to the reduced equipment costs. Also cost of
transfer of data/documents over long distances using computers connected on network is much
cheaper than other means of data transfer like speed cost, telegram etc

Disadvantages of Computer Networks

1.Data Security: Unauthorized Personnel can access the information if network security is weakly
implemented.
2.Expensive: They are expensive to purchase and maintain.
3.Crashes: On a server-based network, if the server crashes, work gets disrupted. If proper
precautions are not taken to ensure regular backups, the crash may result in the loss of critical data.
4.Privacy: If the network is poorly implemented, improper communication may take place. This
may lead to a situation in which the private or important e-mails can be read by other users and
this result in loss of privacy.
5.Viruses: The virus on one system in a network can affect the whole computer network. Viruses
are easily spread over networks. To overcome this problem costs more time, money and
administrative effort.

NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting various
nodes (sender and receiver) through lines of connection. It is the structure of network that tell how
devices are connected with each other.
1.BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to single
cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.

Features of Bus Topology

 It transmits data only in one direction.
 Every device is connected to a single cable

Advantages of Bus Topology

1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. Cables fails then whole network fails.
2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.
2. RING Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for each device.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Transmit the data in high speed
2. It easy to manage
3. We can Expand the topology
4. It can be easy to setup

Disadvantage of ring topology

1. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
2. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.
3. Speed slow after adding new computer
4. Damage the wire disturb the whole network
3.STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub
is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Cost of installation is high.
2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

4.Mesh topology
 A mesh topology is a type of computer network in which each node (computer or other
device) is connected to every other node in the network.
  In mesh topology each device can communicate directly with each other.

Features of Mesh Topology

 Fully connected.

 Robust.

 flexible.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

 Each connection can carry its own data load.
 It is robust.
 Fault is diagnosed easily.
 Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

 Installation and configuration is difficult.
 Cabling cost is more.
 Bulk wiring is required

5.HYBRIDTopology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For example, if in an
office in one department ring topology is used and in another star topology is used, connecting these
topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology).

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

Reliable as Error detecting and troubleshooting is easy.
It will be Effective.
Scalable as size can be increased easily.
Hybrid Topology is Flexible.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

Complexin design.
It can be Costly.

Types of Computer Networks:

a. LAN (Local Area Network): It refers to two or more up to several hundred computers and
variety of computing equipment, linked via some communication lines, to exchange information
speedily, within a small well-defined area. For Example: University, Campus etc.
 Characteristics of LANs:
o Small Area
o Single Owner
o Reliability and Stability
o Physically Secured
o Flexibility
o Low cost data transmission
o Data and Resource Sharing
 Advantages of LANs:
o LAN Can be used for Sharing Resources
o We can exchange the data and file in high speed.
o Data Transaction
o LAN Provide the Centralized Backup
o Easy and Economical Communication
o LAN provide the Good Security
 Disadvantages of LANs:
o LAN can be used Limited Area
o Adds Complexity
 b. WAN (Wide Area Network): It connect computers and smaller networks to large networks over
greater geographic areas, including different continents. These computers may be linked by means
of cables, optical fibers or satellites. The purpose of WAN was to connect multiple systems in an
efficient and economical way so that it can be shared by a large number of users.
 Characteristics of WANs:
o Geographically Expansive
o Centralizing Information
o Remote Access
 Functions of WAN:
o Remote data
o Facilitating Communication
c. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): A Network that expands into a metropolitan area and
exhibits high data rates, high reliability and low data loss is called a metropolitan are network
(MAN).

Characteristics of MANs:

 Intermediate Size
 High Speed Network
 Interconnects LANs
 Connects Whole City

NETWORKING DEVICES
Networking devices are hardware components or devices that are used to facilitate communication
and data exchange between different computers and devices in a network. These devices play a
crucial role in establishing and maintaining network connections, enabling data transmission, and
managing network traffic. Here are some common types of networking devices:

1.Modem (Modulator/Demodulator)
Modem is a device that converts digital and analog signals At the source, modems convert digital
signals to a form suitable for transmission over analog communication facilities (public telephone
lines). At the destination, modems convert the signal back to a digital format.

2.Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal
over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted to extend the
length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same network. An important point
to be noted about repeaters is that they not only amplify the signal but also regenerate it.
When the signal becomes weak, they copy it bit by bit and regenerate it at its star topology
connectors connecting following the original strength. It is a 2-port device.
3.Hubs- A hub (concentrator) contains multiple ports which is used to connect devices in a star
topology. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to all the ports of the hub. But when the
packets are copied, the destination address in the frame does not change to a broadcast address. It
does this in a rudimentary way; it simply copies the data to all of the Nodes connected to the hub
(broadcast).
4. Bridges- The main network device found at the data link layer is a bridge. This device works at
a higher layer than the repeater and therefore is a more complex device. It has some understanding
of the data it receives and can make a decision based on the frames it receives as to whether it
needs to let the information pass, or can remove the information from the network. This means
that the amount of traffic on the medium can be reduced and therefore, the usable bandwidth can
be increased. Bridges are store and forward devices to provide error detection. They capture an
entire frame before deciding whether to filter or forward the frame, which provides a high level of
error detection because a frame’s CRC checksum can be calculated by the bridge. Bridges are
highly susceptible to broadcast storms. A broadcast storm occurs when several broadcasts are
transmitted at the same time. It can take up huge bandwidth.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Bridges

Following are some advantages and disadvantages of Bridges:

Advantages:
• Reliability
• Manageability
• Scalability

Disadvantages:
• A bridge cannot filter out broadcast traffic.
• It introduces 20 to 30 % latency.
• Only 2 networks can be linked with a bridge
5.Router- Router is a networking device which forwards data packets along networks by using
headers and forwarding/routing tables to determine the best path to forward the packets. Routers
work at the Internet layer of the TCP/IP model or layer 3 of the OSI model. Routers also provide
interconnectivity between like and unlike media. A router is connected to at least two networks,
commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISP's network. Some DSL and cable modems,
for home use, have been integrated with routers to allow multiple home computers to access the
Internet.
6. Switch: Switches are used to connect devices within a local network (such as a home or office
network). They operate at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model and use MAC addresses
to forward data only to the intended recipient device, increasing efficiency compared to older
technologies like hubs.
Types of Switch
1. Smart switches: These switches have features similar to managed switches but are
typically easier to set up and manage. They are suitable for small- to medium-sized
networks.
2. Layer 2 switches: These switches operate at the Data Link layer of the OSI model
and are responsible for forwarding data between devices on the same network
segment.
3. Layer 3 switches: These switches operate at the Network layer of the OSI model and
can route data between different network segments. They are more advanced than
Layer 2 switches and are often used in larger, more complex networks.

6. Gateway – A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks

that may work upon different networking models. They work as messenger agents that
take data from one system, interpret it, and transfer it to another system. Gateways are
also called protocol converters and can operate at any network layer. Gateways are
generally more complex than switches or routers. A gateway is also called a protocol
converter.

Connection-Oriented Service:
• It means establishing a dedicated connection between communicating entities before any
data can be exchanged.
• The Connection establishment may be at the physical or the logical level and involves some
form of signaling.
• The Service users undergo the following sequence of operations:
 Establish a connection
 Use the connection i.e. exchange of user data
 Release or clear the connection

Connectionless Service:
 A Connectionless service is that which does not require a connection to be established
before the exchange of data.
 Information is transferred by using independent data units.
 An example of a connectionless service is the postal mail
 Not safe as compare to Connection-Oriented Service
 expensive


Distributed System:
 A Distributed System consists of multiple autonomous computers that communicate
through a network.
 Distributed Computing Interconnects one or more personal computers/computational
entities.
 It allows various services like file sharing, hardware sharing or network sharing.
 The purpose of the distributed system is to co-ordinate the use of shared resources or
provides communication services to the users.
Characteristics or Features of a Distributed System:
 The System may consist of different kinds of computers and networks.
 This system uses distributed processing, in which a task is divided among multiple
computers.
 A Computer Program that runs in a distributed system is called Distributed Program
 Links and the system may change during the execution of a distributed program.
 Each node has its own central processing unit with its own memory and communication
hardware.
 The nodes or computers can be of different sizes, makes and computing powers.

Advantages of Distributed System:

 Distributed Database
 Cost Efficiency
 Faster Problem Solving
 Encapsulation
 Shared Resources
 Response Time Improvement

Disadvantages of Distributed System:

 Hardware Problems
 Technical Problem
 Data Integrity and Security Issues
 Maintenance of Remote Sites

Network software -Network software refers to computer programs and applications that
enable the management, monitoring, security, communication, and overall functionality of
computer networks. This software plays a crucial role in configuring, maintaining, and optimizing
network operations.

Functions of Network Software

 Helps to set up and install computer networks
 Enables users to have access to network resources in a seamless manner
 Allows administrations to add or remove users from the network
 Helps to define locations of data storage and allows users to access that data
 Helps administrators and security system to protect the network from data breaches,
unauthorized access and attacks on a network
 Enables network virtualizations
Network Design Issues:
Identifying and Justifying a Network: In the Network Design, Identifying and Justifying a network is
necessary. The networks are capable of handling various data types and support a wide and ever-growing
range of applications.

Scope: The scope of a network is bounded on one side by the communication facilities offered by the
common carriers and on the other side by the applications.

Manageability: A Network comprising of many different facilities and with complex and specialized
control procedures may be cost effective, it may be difficult to own.

Scalability: Another significant issue in general network design is the scalability – the scalability of the
network to meet future demands based on projected traffic volumes etc.

Link Topology: The topological optimization of a network involves selecting the specific links
interconnecting nodes.

Centralized and Decentralized System:

 In a Centralized System, all processing is done at one central computer.
 In the early days of computer technology, this type of processing was justified because data
processing personnel were in short supply, hardware and software were expensive, and only large
organization could afford computers.
 The Main advantage of Centralized system is being able to exercise tight control on system
operations and applications.
 The Main disadvantage of Centralized system is lack of responsiveness to user’s needs, because
the system and its users could be located far apart from each other.
 In a Decentralized System, each user, department or division has its own computer for performing
processing tasks.
 A Decentralized processing system is certainly more responsive to users than a centralized
processing system.
 Decentralized systems have some drawbacks, including lack of coordination among organizational
units, the high cost of having many systems and duplication of efforts.

Web Based Model:

 For ensuing scalability, the world-wide web has adopted a stateless approach to client-server
communication called the Web-based Model.
 In this model, each interaction between the client and the server is independent of the other
interactions.
 No permanent connection is established between the client and the server and the server maintains
no state information about the clients.

A Web-based Model implies the following factors:

 Changing patterns of network use and unpredictable demands for bandwidth.

  Demand for increased amount of bandwidth.
 Demand for guaranteed quality of service in terms of bandwidth and minimum delay.
 Lack of control by IT staff.

TCP/IP Reference Model:

 Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol is the protocol that makes possible the
communication between different types of machines on different types of networks.
 It was developed by the United States Development of Defence Advanced Research Projects
Agency (ARPA).
 ARPA originally created TCP/IP to connect military networks together.
 It is the most widely used protocol for interconnecting computers and it is the protocol of the
Internet.
 TCP/IP provide the end to end communication.
 The main objective of TCP/IP provide the communication at long distance.

Goals of TCP/IP Model:

 The network should connect multiple networks together.
 The connection should withstand till the source and destination machines are functioning.
 The architecture should be so flexible that it should be able to transfer data among different
hardware or software platforms.

Layers of TCP/IP Model:

1. Application Layer:

This is the highest level layer in the TCP/IP Model which is on the top of the transport layer.
Application layer provide the interface between others layers.

This layer includes all processes and services that use the transport layer to deliver data.

The Protocols contained in the layer are FTP, SMTP, HTTP, SNMP, DNS, POP etc.

2. Transport Layer: The transport layer is responsible for end-to-end communication and data transfer
between devices. It ensures that data is properly delivered, error-free, and in the correct order. The two
primary transport layer protocols in the TCP/IP model are:

 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): Provides reliable, connection-oriented communication. It

ensures data delivery by implementing mechanisms like acknowledgment, flow control, and error
correction.

 User Datagram Protocol (UDP): Offers connectionless communication and is used for
applications where speed is more important than reliability. It doesn't guarantee data delivery or
order, making it suitable for applications like streaming and online gaming.
3. Internet layer
The "Internet Layer" of the TCP/IP model is responsible for addressing, routing, and fragmenting
data packets to facilitate their movement across different networks.
The key protocol at this layer is the Internet Protocol (IP).
IP is responsible for providing logical addressing and routing functionality, allowing data to be
transmitted from a source to a destination across different networks.
IP addresses uniquely identify devices on a network and enable the routing of data packets to their
intended destinations.
There are two main versions of the Internet Protocol:
1. IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4): IPv4 is the older and more widely used version of the
Internet Protocol. It uses 32-bit addresses, represented in four sets of decimal numbers
(e.g., 192.168.1.1). However, the availability of IPv4 addresses has become limited due to
the rapid growth of the Internet and the increasing number of connected devices.
2. IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6): IPv6 was introduced to address the limitations of IPv4
and to provide a solution to the impending exhaustion of IPv4 addresses. IPv6 uses 128-
bit addresses, represented in eight sets of hexadecimal numbers)
Both IPv4 and IPv6 are integral to the functioning of the Internet Layer in the TCP/IP
model. They allow for the identification of devices, as well as the routing and delivery of
data packets across various networks to reach their intended destinations.
3. ICMP: - It is stand for internet control message protocol. ICMP inform to the host about
the problem occurred in the network.
4. Network access layer: -
It is the lowest layer of TCP/IP layer.
It is the combination of physical layer and data link layers.
Frame relay, Ethernet, x.25 token ring protocol use in this layer
Peer-to-Peer Model:
 It was invented in 1979
 Devices are connected directly which is use for share the data and file from one computer
to other.
 Without central server user can send data, file form one computer to other computer that is
also called point to point connection and p2p connection.
 Every connected computer work like client and server.
 With the help of internet, we can connect the device with other. there are no central devices
in this model and so user can contact directly to other device for uploading and
downloading the file.

Advantages of Peer to Peer Network Model:

 Useful for small business
 Cheaper because it does not have server.
 Manage, installation and setup easy.
 If one computer get damage, there will be no effect on other connected devices/network.
 There is no need of manager for managing the device because every computer manages
their own devices.

Disadvantages of Peer to Peer Network Model:

 Not very secure so hacker can easily hack the devices.
 We cannot connect more than 10 computers.
 No central point of storage for file archiving.
 Virus can easily enter in computers.
 Requires users to administer their own computers.
 P2P do not have server so cannot get back up.
 

Client/Server Network Model:

The client-server architecture is a model of computer networking in which a client requests
services hosted by a server. In this model, the client sends a request to the server for a particular
service, and the server accepts this request and provides the service to the client.
 In this model multiple devices connected by the central device
 In Client-Server Network, certain computers act as server and other act as clients.
 A server is the computer that makes the network resources available and provides services
to other computers on their request.
 A Client is any computer on the network that requests something from a server.
 Also called request- response model.

Advantages of Client/Server Model:

 Centralized data storage allows users to access information and provides easy back up of
critical data.
 Easy manageability of a large number of users.
 Central security is provided.
 We can connect large amount of computer.
 Ability to share expensive equipment such as laser printers.
  It can use for small and big network.
 We can share the file easily.

Disadvantages of Client/Server Model:

 If server get down its will effect to whole connected computers.
 We need different technique to maintain a network.
 Complex installation and configuration as compared to a peer to peer network.
 Requirement of client computers and high speed server computers with lots of memory and
disk space.

FRAME RELAY: -
 It is protocol which is used in wide area network.
 It is packet switching technology that is used to transfer the data between two and multiples
local area networks.
 It is designed to transfer the data between local area network at the low cost.
 Frame relay, OSI model used in physical layer and data link layer.
 The speed of data transfer of frame relay is 65 kbps to 45 mbps.
 Frame relay use because when sender send the data in packet the speed of data transmission
gets slow. when put the data in frame and send over the network to end of destination point.
 So it increases the speed of data transmission.
 Frame relay use virtual circuit to connect single router to multiple computers.
 There are two types of frame relay
  1. PVC: Permanent virtual circuit. PVC is the permanent connection between frame relay
node which can be used for long time. These connections are static and cannot change with
time
 2.SVC: Switch virtual circuit. SVC is the temporary connection between frame relay node
which can be used for used time.

ADVANTAGE OF FRAME REALY: -

 1. It provide the high speed because error is in this protocol that why less overhead.
 2. lost cost by using frame relay we can transfer the data at low cost.
 3. It provide frame size 9000 bytes which is enough for LAN frame types.
 4.IT provide safe connection.
 5.Less delay

Disadvantage of frame relay: -

 Cannot flow control and error control.
 We did not get the data in correct sequence.
 It provides the data transfer speed 64 kb to 45 MB. It is not suitable for the
High data rates.
 It is not suitable for sending sensitive data (real time audio, video,).

Characteristics of frame relay: -

 Frame relay work only physical layer and data link layer.
 It is connection less services.
 It is provided the data speed of 64 KB to 45 MB.
 It can detect the error but cannot control the error.
 

X.25 MODEL
 X.25 is a protocol that was developed by the Telecommunication Standardization
sector(ITU-T) Of international telecommunication union.
 It is packet switch communication over WAN.
 It is used in ATM and credit card verification.
 This protocol is based on the protocols used in early packet switching networks
such as ARPANET, DATAPAC, and TRANSPAC.
 X.25 Packet Switched networks allows remote devices to communicate with each other
across high speed digital links.
 X.25 is a Telecommunications Standardization Sector (ITU-T) recommendation that
defines the physical level (physical layer), link level (data link layer), and packet level
(network layer) of the open systems interconnection (OSI) reference model.
 It is a connection oriented services.
 X.25 is a connection oriented service. It supports switched virtual circuits as well as the
permanent circuits
 A protocol X.21 which is a physical layer protocol is used to specify the physical electrical
and procedural interface between the host and network.

ATM Architecture:
The Physical Layer:
 Physical Layer − This layer corresponds to physical layer of OSI model. At this layer, the
cells are converted into bit streams and transmitted over the physical medium. This layer
has two sub layers: PMD sub layer (Physical Medium Dependent) and TC (Transmission
Convergence) sub layer.
 The ATM Layer:
ATM Layer −This layer is comparable to data link layer of OSI model. It accepts the 48 byte segments
from the upper layer, adds a 5 byte header to each segment and converts into 53 byte cells. This layer is
responsible for routing of each cell, traffic management, multiplexing and switching
This layer is common to all the services that provide the packet transfer capabilities.
The ATM layer deals with cells and transport of cell.
It also deals with establishment and release of virtual circuits.
ATM Adaptation Layer:
 This layer corresponds to network layer of OSI model. It provides facilities to the existing
packet switched networks to connect to ATM network and use its services. It accepts the
data and converts them into fixed sized segments. The transmissions can be of fixed or
variable data rate. This layer has two sub layers − Convergence sub layer and Segmentation
and Reassembly sub layer.

Advantages of ATM:
 It provides flexibility for different applications.
 It has ability to connect LAN to WAN.
 It is best suited for voice, video and data communication.
 It provides scalability in speed and network size.
 It transmits data at high speed mbps.

Disadvantages of ATM:
 It is an expensive technique.
 The mechanisms are complex for achieving Quality of Service (QoS).

ATM Applications:
 Video Conferencing.
 Distance Learning

OSI MODELS: -
The full name of the OSI model is "Open System Interconnection." It was developed by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984. This model consists of 7 layers.
The OSI model serves as a reference model for communication between two users in a network.
Each layer of this model is not dependent on the other layers, but data transmission occurs from
one layer to another.
The OSI model explains how data or information is sent and received in a network. Each layer in
this model has its specific role, ensuring that data can easily travel from one system to another.
The OSI model also describes how network hardware and software interact with each other in
terms of layers.
This model consists of 7 layers, and each layer has its distinct function.

1.Physical Layer: -
The Physical Layer is the lowest layer in the OSI model.
This layer is responsible for physical and electrical connections, such as voltage levels, data rates,
etc.
In this layer, digital signals are converted into electrical signals. The layout of the network, also
known as the network's topology, is defined in this layer.
The Physical Layer also determines whether communication will be wireless or wired.
It is also referred to as the "bit unit."
Tasks of the Physical Layer:
1. Physical Connection: The Physical Layer explains how two or more devices are
physically connected to each other.
2. Transmission Mode: It defines the transmission mode used between two devices in the
network. There are three transmission modes: simplex, half-duplex, and full duplex.
3. Signal Specification: It determines the characteristics of the signals used to transmit
information.
4. Network Topology: The Physical Layer is responsible for managing the network
topology.

2.Data Link Layer

The Data Link Layer is the second layer from the bottom in the OSI model.
This layer is also referred to as the "Frame Unit."
In the Data Link Layer, packets of data sent by the Network Layer are encoded and decoded.
Additionally, this layer ensures that there are no errors in the data packets.

Tasks of the Data Link Layer:

1. Framing: The Data Link Layer takes the packets from the Network Layer and encapsulates
them into frames. These frames consist of a header and a trailer, which contain control
information needed for data transmission and error detection.
2. Physical Addressing: It provides physical addressing (such as MAC addresses) to devices
on the network. MAC addresses are unique identifiers assigned to network interfaces.
 3. Error Detection and Correction: The Data Link Layer is responsible for detecting and,
in some cases, correcting errors that might occur during transmission. This is done using
techniques like checksums or cyclic redundancy checks (CRC).
4. Flow Control: The Data Link Layer helps in managing the flow of data between devices
with different data transfer speeds. It prevents fast senders from overwhelming slow
receivers by implementing flow control mechanisms.
5. Access Control: In shared network mediums like Ethernet, the Data Link Layer helps
manage access to the medium, ensuring that multiple devices can communicate without
causing collisions.

3.NETWORK LAYER
The Network Layer is the third layer in the OSI model and is also referred to as the "Packet Unit.".
The primary role of this layer is to provide logical addresses, such as IP addresses, to devices.
The data in the Network Layer is in the form of data packets, and it is responsible for delivering
these data packets from one device to another.

Tasks of the Network Layer:

1 IP Addressing: The main function is to assign IP addresses to devices.
2 Packet Routing: The Network Layer determines the optimal path for data packets to travel
from the source to the destination across the network. It selects the best route based on
factors like distance, congestion, and cost.
3 Addressing and Forwarding: It adds source and destination addresses to the header of
data packets. These addresses are used to identify devices on the Internet.
4 Routing: The Network Layer decides the best path for data packets to follow based on
routing algorithms, ensuring efficient and reliable data delivery.
5 Switching: The Network Layer also performs switching, which involves the forwarding of
data packets within a local network (like a LAN) based on MAC addresses.

4.TRANSPORT LAYER
The Transport Layer is the fourth layer in the OSI model, and it is also known as the "Segment
Unit."
This layer is responsible for transferring data between network entities in an accurate and
reliable manner. It ensures that data is transmitted without errors.
The Transport Layer also verifies that the data sent in a particular order is received in the same
order. Its role includes managing communication between two computers.
The Transport Layer is sometimes referred to as the "end-to-end" layer because it provides
point-to-point connections for transferring data. It ensures that data is reliably transmitted from
the source to the destination.
 This layer offers two types of services: connection-oriented and connectionless.
In connection-oriented communication, a connection is established, data is transmitted, and
then the connection is terminated. In connectionless communication, data packets are sent
independently without establishing a formal connection.

The tasks of the Transport Layer are as follows:

1. Data Transfer: The primary function of the Transport Layer is to transfer data from one
computer to another.
2. Facilitates Communication: It provides communication capabilities between two
computers, enabling them to exchange data.
3. Point-to-Point Connection: The Transport Layer establishes point-to-point connections
for data transfer.
4. Segmentation: When this layer receives a message from the upper layers, it divides the
message into multiple segments. Each segment is assigned a sequence number for easy
identification.
5. Flow Control and Error Control: The Transport Layer manages both flow control, which
ensures that data is sent at a rate the receiver can handle, and error control, which involves
detecting and correcting errors that may occur during transmission.

5.Session Layer: - The Session Layer is the fifth layer in the OSI model, and it manages
connections between multiple computers.
The Session Layer provides sessions for communication between two devices. In simple terms,
whenever a user opens a website, a session is established between the user's computer and the
website's server.
the primary function of the Session Layer is to handle the establishment, maintenance, and
termination of connections.

Tasks of the Session Layer:

1. Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The main role of the Session
Layer is to establish, maintain, and terminate sessions between two devices.
2. Dialog Controller: Similar to a dialog controller, the Session Layer manages the
communication between two processes. It creates a dialog between processes on different
devices.
3. Synchronization: The Session Layer ensures synchronization between sender and receiver
by coordinating the flow of data and detecting errors or lost data. If an error occurs, the
transmission is retransmitted.

6.Presentation Layer
The Presentation Layer is the sixth layer in the OSI model.
This layer is responsible for tasks like data encryption and decryption.
 It is also used for data compression. The Presentation Layer is closely related to the operating
system.
The Presentation Layer is sometimes referred to as the "syntax layer" because it maintains the
proper syntax of data.

Functions of the Presentation Layer:

1. Encryption and Decryption: The primary function of this layer is to perform encryption
and decryption. Encryption helps in securing data. Through encryption, data can be kept
confidential and protected from unauthorized access.
2. Data Compression: The Presentation Layer also handles data compression. Compression
is crucial as it reduces the size of data, making it more efficient to transmit and store.
In summary, the Presentation Layer handles tasks related to data encryption, decryption,
compression, and translation. It ensures that data is presented in the correct format for
communication and handles security and efficiency aspects of data transmission.

7.Application Layer
The Application Layer is the seventh (and topmost) layer in the OSI model.
Its primary function is to provide an interface between our actual applications and the other
layers of the OSI model.
The Application Layer is the closest layer to the end user, providing network services to end
users. It's responsible for presenting data to the user and enabling communication between
different applications.
Protocols like HTTP, FTP, SMTP, and POP fall under the scope of this layer. It controls how
applications access the network.

Functions of the Application Layer:

1. File Access and Management: The Application Layer allows users to access and retrieve
files from other devices on the network.
2. Email Services: It enables email forwarding and storage, allowing users to send, receive,
and manage emails.
3. Database Access: Users can access databases and directories using the Application Layer.
In summary, the Application Layer provides the interface for end users to interact with network
services. It facilitates tasks such as accessing files, managing emails, and interacting with
databases. This layer acts as the bridge between the user and the underlying network
infrastructure.
 Let's see the differences between the OSI and TCP/IP model in a tabular for:

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

It stands for Open System Interconnection. It stands for Transmission Control Protocol.

OSI model has been developed by ISO (International Standard It was developed by ARPANET (Advanced
Organization). Research Project Agency Network).

In the OSI model, the transport layer provides a guarantee for The transport layer does not provide the surety
the delivery of the packets. for the delivery of packets. But still, we can say
that it is a reliable model.

This model is based on a vertical approach. This model is based on a horizontal approach.

In this model, the session and presentation layers are separated, In this model, the session and presentation layer
i.e., both the layers are different. are not different layers. Both layers are
included in the application layer.

It is also known as a reference model through which various It is an implemented model of an OSI model.
networks are built. For example, the TCP/IP model is built from
the OSI model. It is also referred to as a guidance tool.

In this model, the network layer provides both connection- The network layer provides only
oriented and connectionless service. connectionless service.

Protocols in the OSI model are hidden and can be easily replaced In this model, the protocol cannot be easily
when the technology changes. replaced.

It consists of 7 layers. It consists of 4 layers.

OSI model defines the services, protocols, and interfaces as well In the TCP/IP model, services, protocols, and
as provides a proper distinction between them. It is protocol interfaces are not properly separated. It is
independent. protocol dependent.

The usage of this model is very low. This model is highly used.

It provides standardization to the devices like router, It does not provide the standardization to the
motherboard, switches, and other hardware devices. devices. It provides a connection between
various computers.