CHAPTER 2

NEUTRON-NUCLEUS REACTION AND

NEUTRON CROSS SECTION
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The design and analysis of a nuclear reactor core requires the determination of
nuclear fuel element configurations and mechanical and control devices that can
provide self-sustaining chain reactions and produce power safely and economically.
This in turn requires an accurate representation of interactions of nuclear radiation
with matter. For the nuclear reactor physics analysis that we focus on in this book,
the mechanisms of neutrons undergoing collisions with nuclei of core materials are
of primary interest. Thus, interactions of γ-rays with various materials, resulting
in the deposition of heat in the core, will not be explicitly considered.
We begin in Section 2.1 with a discussion of how the probability of neutrons
interacting with the surrounding nuclei is represented in terms of the microscopic
cross section, together with the physical meaning of the macroscopic cross section.
We present a brief review of the mechanisms of neutron interactions with matter
in Section 2.2, focusing on the reactions resulting in the formation of compound
nuclei. The concepts of mass defect and binding energy will be discussed, to-
gether with various reactions that are of significance in our subsequent effort to
obtain relationships governing the transport of neutrons in space, time, and energy

27
Lee, JC 2020,Nuclear Reactor
Nuclear Reactor Physics
: Physics andand Engineering,
Engineering, First& Edition.
John Wiley Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest©Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 28 CHAPTER 2: NEUTRON-NUCLEUS REACTION AND NEUTRON CROSS SECTION

in a reactor core. Various parameters and data related to the fission process are
presented in Section 2.3. To accurately represent neutrons undergoing scattering
collisions in the core, Section 2.4 discusses two-body collision mechanics and
transformation from the laboratory to the center-of-mass coordinate system. Sec-
tion 2.5 introduces a particular type of cross section that represents a resonance
phenomenon in neutron-nucleus interactions. Scattering collisions discussed in
Section 2.4 will allow us to relate the change in the energy of a neutron to the
change in the direction of the neutron motion, as it undergoes an elastic scattering
collision with a nucleus, leading to the concept of scattering kernel in Section 2.6.
We conclude the chapter with general remarks on key features of neutron cross
sections of importance in Section 2.7.

2.1 NEUTRON-NUCLEUS REACTION PROBABILITY AND NEUTRON

CROSS SECTION

To introduce the concept of neutron cross section, consider a simple experiment

where a collimated beam of neutrons of intensity I [neutron·cm−2 s−1 ] is incident
uniformly on a slab of thickness a [cm]. The slab consists of a certain nuclide
with number density N [nucleus·cm−3 ], some of which are illustrated as spheres
in Figure 2.1. The number of neutrons −dI suffering collisions in a thin layer
dx of the slab per cm2 per s will then be proportional to beam intensity I and
the number N dx of nuclei in unit cm2 of the layer exposed to the beam. With a
proportionality constant for the interaction selected as σ, we obtain
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

−dI = σIN dx, (2.1)

or alternately,

cm2
   
dI number of nuclei
− =σ N dx . (2.2)
I nucleus cm2

Thus, the ratio (−dI)/I yields the probability of neutron interactions in distance
dx and also represents the fraction of the nominal slab cross-sectional area that
serves as the effective target area. This leads to the definition of the reaction
probability σ as the microscopic cross section, expressed in units of [barn = 10−24
cm2 ]. Defining the macroscopic cross section Σ = N σ, in units of [cm−1 ], recasts
Eq. (2.2) as

dI
= −ΣI. (2.3)
dx
The microscopic cross section σ introduced in Eq. (2.2) suggests that we may
interpret σ as an effective surface area of the nucleus that is presented to the
neutrons on their paths. Since the neutron-nucleus reactions are characterized by

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 2.2 MECHANISMS OF NEUTRON-NUCLEUS INTERACTION 29

Figure 2.1 A collimated beam of neutron incident on a slab.

quantum mechanical phenomena, the microscopic cross section is characteristic

of each nuclide and is a function of reaction type, e.g. scattering, capture, and
fission, and depends heavily on the relative speed between the neutron and nucleus.
The microscopic cross section for each nuclide and each reaction type has to be
measured in the laboratory, although there are theoretical models that provide
physical understanding of general cross section behavior. One such measurement
could indeed involve a simple neutron penetration experiment as visualized in
Figure 2.1.
We may readily integrate Eq. (2.3), representing the neutron beam intensity I
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

decreasing as the beam penetrates the slab, to determine the intensity I(a) of the
beam of neutrons that penetrate, without suffering any collision, the entire slab of
thickness a
I(a) = I(0)exp(−Σa), (2.4)
where I(0) is the intensity of the beam incident on the left-hand side (LHS) of
the slab. Equation (2.2), written in terms of the macroscopic cross section Σ,
suggests that Σ represents the probability of neutron-nucleus reactions per unit
distance of neutron travel. In an infinite medium, this observation also leads to the
interpretation that 1/Σ represents the average distance a neutron travels between
collisions, or the mean free path (mfp). This interpretation of 1/Σ as the mfp is
analogous to the interpretation of 1/λ as the mean life of a radioactive species with
decay constant λ, where λ represents the probability of radioactive decay per unit
time.

2.2 MECHANISMS OF NEUTRON-NUCLEUS INTERACTION

We now present a brief review of mechanisms of neutron interaction with matter,

recognizing again that the interactions are characterized by quantum mechanical

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 30 CHAPTER 2: NEUTRON-NUCLEUS REACTION AND NEUTRON CROSS SECTION

phenomena. We discuss interactions that result in the formation of a compound

nucleus [Gla52] as well as those involving elastic scattering and direct interactions.

1. Compound nucleus formation

We consider in general particle a incident on target nucleus X forming a com-
pound nucleus (CN), which eventually decays into residual nucleus Y and ejects
particle b

X + a → CN ? → Y + b (2.5)
In the reaction depicted in Eq. (2.5), we indicate the compound nucleus CN with
an asterisk to highlight the point that it is left in an excited state. The reaction
would typically be written in standard notation: X(a, b)Y . For neutron reactions
of our primary interest, the incident particle a is a neutron, and the ejected particle
could be another neutron, a photon, or another particle, e.g. a proton.
That a neutron-nucleus reaction results in the formation of another nucleus, i.e.
a compound nucleus, rather than a direct interaction yielding a residual nucleus
and an ejected particle may first be indicated [Gla52] by a relatively long reaction
time on the order of 10−14 s. This reaction time may be compared with the time
required for a slow neutron of speed v = 103 m·s−1 to travel a distance of 10−14 m,
which is equal to a typical diameter of a nucleus. Thus, the reaction time of 10−14
s is three orders of magnitude longer than the transit time of 10−17 s, suggesting
the formation of an intermediate nucleus, i.e. a compound nucleus.
An important feature of the compound nucleus resulting from a neutron interac-
tion is that mass m(CN ) of the CN often is less than the sum of mass m(X) of
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

target nucleus X and mass m(n) of the incident neutron, with the result that the
mass defect appears as the binding energy Eb of the CN

Eb = [m(X) + m(n) − m(CN )]c2 (2.6)

where c is the speed of light. The binding energy is often referred to as the Q-value
of the reaction and is the energy that has to be supplied to break up the CN back
to its constituents: nucleus X and a neutron. The CN would be left in an excited
state, with the excitation energy Eex including in general the kinetic energy Ek of
the neutron
Eex = Eb + Ek . (2.7)
The energy levels of a CN clarifying Eq. (2.7) is illustrated in Figure 2.2, where
we indicate that for neutron interactions with many heavy nuclides of interest in
reactor physics, Eb is on the order of 8 MeV. Determination of the excited level
of a CN through Eq. (2.7) is strictly valid in the center-of-mass (CM) framework,
but only approximate in the laboratory. This reflects the fact that the CN itself will
acquire some kinetic energy of its own, although the target nucleus is at rest, as
discussed further in Section 2.4.

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 2.2 MECHANISMS OF NEUTRON-NUCLEUS INTERACTION 31

Ek = Kinetic energy of neutron

Eb = Binding energy Eex = Excitation energy

! 8 MeV

Ground state of CN

Figure 2.2 Energy levels for a compound nucleus.

When the excited state of the CN lands in the proximity of one of quantum levels
of the nucleus, then the probability of the CN formation increases markedly. This
phenomenon is known as the resonance reaction and involves both the resonance
capture and resonance scattering of neutrons. A CN may decay in a number of
different modes or channels:
(a) Radiative capture refers to the case when the CN decays from the excited state
to ground state with the emission of a photon. In this case, the cross section is
written as σ(n,γ), σγ , or σc .
(b) When the CN is rather unstable, it may split into two lighter nuclei together
with the emission of 2∼3 neutrons. This is the fission process, with cross
section σf significant for heavy nuclides, and it is of fundamental importance
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

to any nuclear reactor. The fission process is discussed further in Section 2.3.
(c) The CN may also decay with the emission of a neutron, typically through a
resonance reaction. This is known as resonance elastic scattering, with cross
section σs (n,n) or σse,res .
(d) Neutrons may experience inelastic scattering, whereby a neutron is ejected
with energy E < Ek , while the CN is left in an excited state, which subse-
quently decays with the emission of a photon. The inelastic scattering cross
section σin is usually significant for Ek > 0.1 MeV and hence is important
for the slowing down of neutrons for sodium-cooled fast reactors, where the
average energy of neutrons may lie close to 0.1∼0.2 MeV. Note that in an
inelastic scattering, momentum is conserved but kinetic energy is not, while
both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved in an elastic scattering.
2. Potential scattering
In addition to various neutron-nucleus reactions involving the formation of a
CN, as just discussed, neutrons also undergo ordinary elastic scattering collisions
with the surrounding nuclei in a reactor core. This reaction may be visualized
as the scattering of two billiard balls and characterized by a short reaction time
compared with that associated with CN formation. Such scattering collisions are
known as potential scattering, where the cross section is represented simply as

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 32 CHAPTER 2: NEUTRON-NUCLEUS REACTION AND NEUTRON CROSS SECTION

σp = 4πR2 in terms of nuclear radius R. Note here that σp represents the surface
area, not the projected area πR2 , of the nucleus visualized as a sphere of radius R.

3. Direct interactions
For high-energy neutrons with Ek > 10 MeV, there is also another mode of
neutron-nucleus reactions that is of importance. The reaction in this case is a
knockout process, where a neutron literally knocks a chunk of nucleons off the
nucleus, resulting in (n, p), (n,2n), and similar reactions.
As a summary of various neutron-nucleus reactions discussed in this section, we
introduce notations for cross sections of relevance to reactor physics. We begin
with the total cross section written as a sum of the cross sections representing radia-
tive capture, fission, elastic and inelastic scattering, and other reactions including
the (n,2n) reaction

σt = (σγ + σf ) + (σse + σin ) + σ(n, 2n) + · · · , (2.8)

which may be routinely grouped into

σt = σa + σs (2.9)

if we neglect the (n,2n) and other minor reactions. The absorption cross section
may be rewritten in terms of the smooth background cross section and the resonance
component
σa = σa,smooth + σa,res (2.10)
while the elastic scattering cross section may be split into the potential and reso-
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

nance components
σse = σp + σse,res . (2.11)
We discuss one particular model for representing the resonance cross section in
Section 2.5, together with further elaboration on the angular and energy distribu-
tions of neutrons emerging from elastic scattering.

2.3 NUCLEAR FISSION PROCESS

The neutron-nucleus reaction of particular interest to nuclear reactor physics is

naturally the fission process. The fission reaction, as part of the general compound
nucleus reaction process, occurs primarily with heavy nuclides, often referred to as
actinides with the atomic number Z ≥ 90. Splitting of the compound nucleus may
occur with the absorption of both low-energy neutrons, known as thermal neutrons,
and high-energy neutrons and may be visualized through a liquid drop model. The
compound nucleus with excess energy may undergo oscillations and deform into a
shape of liquid drop, which may eventually split and release one or more neutrons.
The probability of fission reaction increases for a target nucleus with an even

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 2.3 NUCLEAR FISSION PROCESS 33

Table 2.1 Fission energy breakdown for 233 U, 235 U, 238 U, 239 Pu, and 241 Pu.

233 235 238 239 241

Component U U U Pu Pu
Fission product 168.34 169.13 169.54 175.66 175.36±0.68
Prompt neutron 4.904 4.828 4.631 6.071 5.99±0.13
Delayed neutron 0.003 0.008 0.023 0.003 0.005±0.001
Prompt gamma 7.736 7.281 5.610 6.369 7.64±0.69
Delayed gamma 5.235 6.33±0.05 8.25±0.07 5.17±0.06 6.40±0.09
Delayed beta 5.020 6.50±0.05 8.48±0.08 5.31±0.06 6.58±0.09
Neutrino 6.875 8.75±0.07 11.39±0.11 7.14±0.09 8.85±0.12
Total 198.116 202.827 207.925 205.719 210.83±0.25
Source: ENDF/B-VIII.0 [NDS18].

number of protons and an odd number of neutrons such that even with a negligible
kinetic energy of incident neutrons, the resulting compound nucleus may undergo
a fission process and release neutrons. The primary examples of nuclides with the
particular combination of proton and neutron numbers are 233 U, 235 U, 239 Pu, and
241
Pu, known as fissile nuclides. On the other hand, a target nucleus with an even
number each of both protons and neutrons usually requires neutrons with kinetic
energy E ≥ 0.1 MeV to undergo fission. Nuclides of this type are referred to as
fertile nuclides, e.g. 234 U, 238 U,240 Pu, and 242 Pu. A fertile nucleus upon neutron
capture typically undergoes a radiative capture process resulting in a fissile nucleus.
The fission process typically results in two light nuclei known as fission fragments
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

or fission products. In addition to the binary fission process, there exists a small,
finite probability of a ternary fission process releasing three fission products.
Together with the fission products, the fission process also releases a significant
amount of energy and a number of neutrons, with the energy breakdown tabulated
for four major fissile nuclides 233 U, 235 U, 239 Pu, and 241 Pu and the major fertile
nuclide 238 U in Table 2.1. Approximately 200 MeV of energy is released together
with ∼2.45 neutrons from the thermal fission of 235 U. The fission energy is carried
off by fission products, neutrons, photons, and β-particles. Note that the fission
products decay through β- and γ-decay processes and generate heat continually
even after the fission process is terminated in a reactor core. The fission product
decay heat accounts for 6 ∼7 % of the total fission energy release of ∼200 MeV
and decreases as a function of the decay constants of the fission products. Most of
the fission products are rich in neutrons and decay with the release of β-particles.
In the decay process, energetic photons are also emitted. Thus, the kinetic energy
of electrons and photons are deposited in the fuel, coolant, and structural materials
as part of the radioactive decay process of the fission products and has to be duly
considered in the safety assessment of any nuclear reactor core.
The yield of fission products is plotted in Figure 2.3 as a function of the fission
product mass number A for the major fissile nuclide 235 U for thermal neutron

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 34 CHAPTER 2: NEUTRON-NUCLEUS REACTION AND NEUTRON CROSS SECTION

Fission product yield fraction

Fission product mass number A

Figure 2.3 Fraction of fission product released vs. mass number for thermal fission of
235
U for incident neutron energy of 0.1 eV, ENDF/B-VIII.0 MT = 454, MF = 8. Source:
ENDF/B-VIII.0 [NDS18].

fission events at 0.1 eV. The double-humped plots are peaked around atomic
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

number Z = 35 and Z = 60 and are fairly similar for other fissile and fertile
nuclides. Vertical bars denoting approximate estimates of 1.0 standard deviation
for the data points are used in the plot. Fast fission events produce a profile that is
a bit more peaked than indicated in Figure 2.3.
Most of the neutrons released from the fission process are released immediately
upon the decay of the compound nucleus and are known as prompt neutrons, while
a small fraction of neutrons released through the decay of fission products are
known as delayed neutrons. The fission products that produce delayed neutrons
are known as the delayed neutron precursors and they are usually collected into six
groups for convenient handling in reactor kinetics studies as detailed in Chapter 8.
The total fraction β of delayed neutrons, decay constants, and half-lives together
with fractional yields, ai = βi /β, i = 1, . . . , 6, in a six-group structure are
summarized in Table 2.2. It is worth noting that the total delayed neutron fraction
β is significantly different among the major fissile and fertile nuclides of interest.
We also note from the distribution of fission energy in Table 2.1 that the energy
associated with both prompt and delayed neutrons varies visibly from nuclide to
nuclide. This implies that the number of neutrons released from the fission process
also depends on the fissioning nuclide, as illustrated in Figures 2.4 and 2.5. Figure
2.4 indicates that the average total number ν(E) of neutrons released from the

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 2.3 NUCLEAR FISSION PROCESS 35

Table 2.2 Delayed neutron data for U233 , U235 , Pu239 , Pu241 , and U238 for incident
neutron energy of 0.1 eV, ENDF/B-VIII.0 MF = 1, 5, 7, 9, 11, MT = 455.

233 235
U: β = 0.002696 U: β = 0.006523
Precursor Decay Half-life Fractional Decay Half-life Fractional
group constant t1/2 (s) yield constant t1/2 (s) yield
λi (s−1 ) ai = βi /β λi (s−1 ) ai = βi /β
1 0.0129 53.7323 0.0859 0.0133 51.9756 0.0350
2 0.0347 19.9754 0.2292 0.0327 21.1719 0.1807
3 0.1193 5.8101 0.1781 0.1208 5.7389 0.1725
4 0.2862 2.4219 0.3516 0.3028 2.2893 0.3868
5 0.7877 0.8800 0.1142 0.8495 0.8160 0.1586
6 2.4417 0.2839 0.0409 2.8530 0.2430 0.0664
239 241
Pu: β = 0.002251 Pu: β = 0.005500
Precursor Decay Half-life Fractional Decay Half-life Fractional
group constant t1/2 (s) yield constant t1/2 (s) yield
λi (s−1 ) ai = βi /β λi (s−1 ) ai = βi /β
1 0.0133 52.2302 0.0363 0.0136 50.9705 0.0180
2 0.0309 22.4457 0.2364 0.0300 23.1311 0.2243
3 0.1134 6.1140 0.1789 0.1167 5.9380 0.1426
4 0.2925 2.3697 0.3267 0.3069 2.2585 0.3493
5 0.8575 0.8083 0.1702 0.8701 0.7966 0.1976
6 2.7297 0.2539 0.0515 3.0028 0.2308 0.0682
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

238
U: β = 0.018010
Precursor Decay Half-life Fractional
group constant t1/2 (s) yield
λi (s−1 ) ai = βi /β
1 0.0136 50.8545 0.0139
2 0.0313 22.1212 0.1128
3 0.1233 5.6198 0.1310
4 0.3237 2.1411 0.3851
5 0.9060 0.7651 0.2540
6 3.0487 0.2274 0.1031
Source: ENDF/B-VIII.0 [NDS18].

fission process is generally larger for Pu fission than U fission, as illustrated for
two key nuclides, supporting the tabulated data of Table 2.1. It should be noted
that an overbar symbol is used for ν(E) to indicate that some fission events may
release more or less than two neutrons as discussed earlier. Note also that the
average number ν(E) of neutrons emitted in the fission process depends heavily

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 36 CHAPTER 2: NEUTRON-NUCLEUS REACTION AND NEUTRON CROSS SECTION

Total number ν (E) of neutrons emitted per fission

Incident neutron energy E (MeV)

235 239
Figure 2.4 Number of total fission neutrons emitted per fission for U and Pu,
ENDF/B-VIII.0 MF = 1, MT = 452. Source: [NDS18].

on the neutron energy E that induces nuclear fission. We verify that the average
number of neutrons released from thermal fission of neutrons for 235 U with the
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

incident energy E = 0.025 ∼ 0.1 eV is equal to 2.45, as generally assumed.

For other U and Pu nuclides, the general trends illustrated in Figure 2.4 for 235 U
and 239 Pu, respectively, hold. Associated also with the dependence of ν(E) on
the incident neutron energy E is the energy dependence of the average number
ν d (E) = β · ν(E) of delayed neutrons released from the fission process, as
illustrated for 235 U and 239 Pu fission in Figure 2.5. The energy dependence
for ν d (E) noted is, however, of little significance for nuclear reactor physics
considerations because practically all fission events take place with energy far
below 5 MeV.
To conclude the discussion on characteristic features of nuclear fission, we
compare in Figure 2.6 the emission energy spectra χ(E 0 → E) for prompt and
delayed neutron emissions as a function of the emerging neutron energy E for 235 U
fission. Both spectra follow approximately a Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution but
with the peak energy significantly lower for the delayed neutron emission spectrum.
The difference in emitted energy spectra plays a role in determining the effective
delayed neutron fraction for proper representation of delayed neutron effects in
reactor kinetics discussed in Chapter 8.
We also note that various experimental data summarized in this section for fission
reaction physics are extracted from the Evaluated Nuclear Data File (ENDF), Part

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 2.4 TWO-BODY COLLISION MECHANICS AND CENTER-OF-MASS SYSTEM 37

Number ν d (E) of delayed neutrons emitted per fission

Incident neutron energy E (MeV)

Figure 2.5 Number of delayed neutrons released as a function of incident neutron energy
for 235 U and 239 Pu, ENDF/B-VIII.0 MF = 1, MT = 455. Source: [NDS18].

B, Version VIII.0 [Bro18]. The contents and notational convention for the ENDF
library are summarized in Table 2.3. The file structure is carried over from earlier
versions of the ENDF databases and is documented in the Version VII release report
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

[Cha06]. Part B of the data libraries refers to a fully evaluated set of data, while Part
A contains data that have yet to be closely evaluated and documented. The ENDF
database is developed and maintained by the Cross Section Evaluation Working
Group (CSEWG) at the National Nuclear Data Center (NNDC) of the Brookhaven
National Laboratory. The database was initiated with the Brookhaven report series
BNL-325, often referred to as the Barn Book, and subsequently evolved into the
ENDF series with the final hard copies [Mug81,Mug84,McL88] published for
ENDF/B-V. Other cross section libraries widely used in the nuclear community
include the Joint Evaluated Fission and Fusion File (JEFF) maintained by the
Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) of the Organization of Economic Cooperation
and Development (OECD), with the latest version 3.3 released in November 2017
[JEF17].

2.4 TWO-BODY COLLISION MECHANICS AND CENTER-OF-MASS

SYSTEM

We derive in this section the relationships governing the elastic scattering [Gol80]
of a neutron of mass m and a nucleus of mass M . Of particular interest are the

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 38 CHAPTER 2: NEUTRON-NUCLEUS REACTION AND NEUTRON CROSS SECTION

Fission neutron energy spectrum χ (E ′ → E) (MeV −1 )

Neutron emission energy E (MeV)

Figure 2.6 Energy spectrum of fission neutrons emitted for 235 U, ENDF/B-VIII.0 MF =
5, MT = 18 and 455. Source: [NDS18].

Table 2.3 Contents of Evaluated Nuclear Data File.

File number Section and material Contents

Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

MF = 1 General information
MF = 1 MT = 451, . . . ,458 Number of neutrons and energy released in fission
MF = 2 MT = 151 Resonance parameters, resolved and unresolved
MF = 3 MT = 1, . . . ,107 Reaction cross sections
MF = 4 Angular distributions of emitted particles
MF = 5 Energy distributions of emitted particles
MF = 7 Thermal neutron scattering
MF = 8, . . . ,10 Fission product and radioactivity data
MF = 12,13,15 Photon production and energy spectra
MF = 31, . . . ,40 Covariance data
MAT = 1, . . . ,9999 Nuclides, elements, compounds
Source: [Cha06].

angular distribution and energy of the neutron emerging from the elastic scattering
process in the laboratory (Lab) system. This requires the transformation of the
two-body collision mechanics from the CM to Lab coordinate.
To simplify our mathematical treatment, we consider somewhat of an idealized
problem where the neutron moves with speed v0 toward the nucleus at rest in the

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 2.4 TWO-BODY COLLISION MECHANICS AND CENTER-OF-MASS SYSTEM 39

Lab, as illustrated in Figure 2.7. Here, the velocities after the collision are indicated
with primes. In the elastic collision under consideration, both linear momentum
and kinetic energy of the colliding particles are preserved in both coordinate sys-
tems. In the CM system, the scattering particles move directly toward each other
before the collision and move away from each other scattered through an angle θc .
Furthermore, for an observer located at the CM, the total linear momentum of the
scattering particles is zero throughout the entire collision process. This follows
from the definition of a center of mass.

Figure 2.7 Velocities before and after the collision in Lab and CM systems.

1. Basic relationships between the CM and Lab frames

Represent the conservation of momentum and kinetic energy in the CM system
using the velocities defined in Figure 2.7
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

mvc + M Vc = 0 = mvc0 + M Vc0 , (2.12)

1 1 1 1
mv 2 + M Vc2 = m(vc0 )2 + M (Vc0 )2 . (2.13)
2 c 2 2 2
From these two conservation equations, it may be readily shown that both particles
move away in the CM frame, each with the same speeds after the collision as those
when they enter the collision

vc0 = |vc0 | = vc , (2.14a)

V c0 = |Vc0 | = Vc . (2.14b)
With the understanding that neutron velocity in the Lab frame can be written as a
vector sum of its velocity in the CM frame and velocity vCM of the CM itself

v`0 = vc0 + vCM , (2.15)

Figure 2.8 clarifies the relationship between the velocities and scattering angles in
the Lab and CM frames before and after the collision.

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 40 CHAPTER 2: NEUTRON-NUCLEUS REACTION AND NEUTRON CROSS SECTION

Vc

(a) Before collision (b) After collision

Figure 2.8 Relationship between velocities and scattering angles before and after the
collision.

2. Linear momentum in the CM and Lab frames

Since the CM itself moves with velocity vCM with a combined mass of two
scattering particles and the linear momentum of the CM is equal to the total linear
momentum before the collision in the Lab system, we obtain

(m + M )vCM = mv` + M V` = mv` , V` = 0. (2.16)

Thus, we obtain an expression for the speed of the CM

m µ 1
vCM = v0 = v0 = v0 , (2.17)
m+M M A+1
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

which remains constant throughout the collision process due to the conservation
of linear momentum. In Eq. (2.17), we have introduced the mass number A of the
nucleus and reduced mass µ
M mM 1 1 1
A= , µ= or = + . (2.18)
m m+M µ m M
Equations (2.14a) and (2.17) then yield expressions for the CM velocities for the
scattering particles:
µ
vc0 = vc = v0 − vCM = v0 = AvCM , (2.19a)
m
µ
V c0 = |Vc | = |V` − vCM | = v0 . (2.19b)
M
In Eqs. (2.19), we also invoked the relationship between the Lab and CM frames
equivalent to Eq. (2.15).
3. Kinetic energy in the CM and Lab frames
Determine first an expression for the total kinetic energy Ec of the scattering
particles in the CM, written in terms of reduced mass µ

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 2.4 TWO-BODY COLLISION MECHANICS AND CENTER-OF-MASS SYSTEM 41

1 1 1
mvc2 + M Vc2 = µv02 ,
Ec = (2.20)
2 2 2
noting that the initial Lab speed v0 of the neutron is simply the relative speed
between the two particles in the Lab system. With Eqs. (2.19), note also that
v0 is the relative speed between the particles in the CM frame. This observation
allows us to interpret the kinetic energy Ec as that of one combined particle with
mass µ moving with speed v0 . This then suggests that the two-body collision
mechanics in the Lab frame is converted into one-body mechanics in the CM
frame, which provides a powerful technique to obtain complex equations in a
significantly simplified manner [Gol80]. One such example is the Breit-Wigner
formula discussed in Section 2.5, which was derived [Eng66,Bre36] in terms of the
CM energy Ec , rather than in terms of the kinetic energy of the incident neutron
in the Lab system
1
E` = mv02 = E0 . (2.21)
2
Without too much effort, we may rewrite Eq.(2.20)

M 1 2
Ec = E` = E` − (m + M )vCM < E` , (2.22)
m+M 2
noting clearly that Ec < E` , with the difference equal to the kinetic energy of the
CM movement.

4. Scattering angle and neutron kinetic energy after collision

Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

With the relationship between the scattering angles and velocities after the
scattering illustrated in Figure 2.8, we now turn our attention to the task of obtaining
equations connecting the Lab neutron scattering angle to the CM scattering angle:

(v`0 )2 = (vc0 )2 + vCM

2
+ 2vc0 vCM cos θc , (2.23a)
v`0 cos θ` = vc0 cos θc + vCM . (2.23b)
Combining Eqs. (2.23) and using Eqs. (2.17) and (2.19a) yields

vc0 cos θc + vCM 1 + A cos θc M

cos θ` = =√ , A= . (2.24)
v`0 1 + A2 + 2A cos θc m

From Figure 2.8, note v`0 sin θ` = vc0 sin θc , which yields, together with Eqs.
(2.19a) and (2.23b),
sin θc
tan θ` = . (2.25)
1
cos θc +
A
Finally, combining Eqs. (2.23a), (2.17), and (2.19a), yields a ratio for kinetic
energy E of the neutron emerging from the collision to energy E0 before the

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 42 CHAPTER 2: NEUTRON-NUCLEUS REACTION AND NEUTRON CROSS SECTION

collision in the Lab frame

E (v 0 )2 1 + A2 + 2A cos θc (1 + α) + (1 − α) cos θc
= `2 = 2 = , (2.26)
E0 v0 (A + 1) 2

with the definition

2
(A − 1)
α= 2. (2.27)
(A + 1)
Equation (2.26) yields the maximum and minimum values of the Lab kinetic energy
of the scattered neutron as a function of the CM scattering angle:

Emax = E0 for θc = 0: glancing collision,
(2.28)
Emin = αE0 for θc = π: head-on collision.

The expression for Emin provides a physical interpretation for the parameter α of
Eq. (2.27) as the minimum fraction of the neutron energy attainable after collision.

2.5 SINGLE-LEVEL BREIT-WIGNER FORMULA FOR RESONANCE

REACTION

Breit and Wigner [Bre36,Eng66], using the concept of virtual potential in partial-
wave expansions for the Schrödinger equation [Kra88,Ser89], derived a theoretical
model to represent resonance reactions resulting in a CN formation. As discussed
in Section 2.2, the probability of the CN formation increases sharply when the
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

excited energy level of the reaction lies in the vicinity of a quantum state of the
CN. For neutron reactions with moderate and high mass number with Eb ' 8.0
MeV, the separation of energy levels is 1∼10 eV so that the resonance reaction
involving neutrons occurs typically for neutron energies of this order of magnitude.
We will not attempt to derive [Eng66] the single-level Breit-Wigner formula in this
section, but merely make use of it, with some physical interpretation of the formula
provided.
For a neutron undergoing low-energy s-wave scattering with a nucleus, the
reaction probability or the reaction cross section associated with a compound
nucleus formation is written as a sum of the radiative capture cross section σγ =
σ(n, γ) and the scattering cross section σn = σ(n, n)
π Γn Γγ 2π
σγ = , k= , (2.29a)
k (Ec − E0 ) + (Γ/2)
2 2 2 λ
2
π Γn
σn = + 2kR , (2.29b)
k 2 (Ec − E0 ) + iΓ/2

as a function of kinetic energy Ec of the neutron and nucleus in the CM system and
the CM energy E0 corresponding to the peak of the resonance, together with the

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 2.5 SINGLE-LEVEL BREIT-WIGNER FORMULA FOR RESONANCE REACTION 43

total level width Γ, partial level widths Γn and Γγ , wave number k and wavelength
λ of the de Broglie wave [Kra88,Ser89] associated with the CN formation, and the
nucleus radius R. Explicitly writing out the magnitude of the complex expression
for σn yields
π Γ2n 4πR Γn (Ec − E0 )
σn = + + 4πR2 , (2.30)
k (Ec − E0 ) + (Γ/2)
2 2 2 k (Ec − E0 )2 + (Γ/2)2
where the three terms represent (i) resonance scattering, (ii) interference, and (iii)
potential scattering cross sections, respectively. Add the statistical factor

 2J + 1
, I 6= 0,
g = 2(2I + 1) (2.31)
 1, I = 0,

with I representing the spin of the target nucleus and J = I ± 1/2 representing
the spin of the CN, and define the total CN cross section:
4π Γn 4π Γn (E0 )
σ0 = g = g. (2.32)
k2 Γ k=k0 ,Ec =E0 k02 Γ

For the s-wave scattering associated with low-energy neutron interactions, I = 0

and g = 1, corresponding to the quantum number ` = 0 for the angular momentum
of the relative motion between the neutron and nucleus. Note also that the de
√ wave number k and the scattering partial width Γn are both proportional
Broglie
to Ec , while the total width Γ is nearly independent of Ec and Γ  Γn . These
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

observations allow recasting Eq. (2.29) as

r
k02 Γn (Ec ) Γγ 1 E0 Γγ 1
σγ (Ec ) = σ0 2 2
= σ0 , (2.33a)
k Γn (E0 ) Γ 1 + x E c Γ 1 + x2
r
E0 Γn (Ec ) 1 4πRσ0 x
σn (Ec ) = σ0 + + 4πR2 , (2.33b)
Ec Γ 1 + x2 λ0 1 + x2
with
Ec − E0 h h A+1
x= , λ0 = √ =p ,
Γ/2 2µE0 2mE`,0 A
the CM kinetic energy E0 = 12 µv02 of interacting particles defined in Eq. (2.20),
and the Planck constant h = 6.626×10−34 J·s. Combining the resonance portion
of σn with σγ finally yields the total resonance cross section as a function of
neutron energy Ec in the CM system
r
E0 1
σt (Ec ) = σ0 , (2.34)
Ec 1 + x2
where E0 is the resonance energy corresponding to the peak of the resonance and
is equal to a quantum level of the CN formed. The parameter σ0 is the peak total

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 44 CHAPTER 2: NEUTRON-NUCLEUS REACTION AND NEUTRON CROSS SECTION

σ t (Ec )
σ0

σp

E1 E0 E2 Ec

Figure 2.9 Resonance cross section as a function of neutron energy.

cross section of the resonance, while the level width Γ is the full width at half
maximum (FWHM) of the resonance, as illustrated in Figure 2.9.
According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle [Kra88,Ser89], the product
of the uncertainty ∆E in energy measurement and the uncertainty ∆t in time
measurement is constrained by ~ = h/2π
~
∆E∆t ≥
. (2.35)
2
Thus, we may interpret [Gla52] the level width Γ as the uncertainty or indefiniteness
associated with the determination of the resonance energy E0 , which then suggests
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

1
, Γ∝ (2.36)
τ
where τ is the mean life of the particular quantum level of the CN. Since the
inverse of the mean life is the decay constant associated with a particular event,
we may finally interpret that Γ represents the decay probability of the resonance.
Thus, Γ may be constructed as a sum of partial widths associated with various
decay channels, radiative capture, scattering, and fission
Γ = Γγ + Γn + Γf . (2.37)
We then note that the cross section associated with a particular decay mode is
proportional to the partial width of that particular mode, with the peak total cross
section written as a sum of three partial cross sections
σ0 = σt (E0 ) = σγ (E0 ) + σn (E0 ) + σf (E0 ). (2.38)
The peak resonance cross section σ0 of Eq. (2.32) may now be explicitly written
as  2
1 6 A+1 Γn
σ0 [b] = 2.604 × 10 g, (2.39)
E`,0 A Γ

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 2.6 DIFFERENTIAL SCATTERING CROSS SECTION AND SCATTERING KERNEL 45

where A is the mass number of the nuclide and g is the statistical factor given
in Eq. (2.31). Note that, in Eq. (2.39), E`,0 is the total kinetic energy in units
of eV of the neutron and nucleus in the laboratory system corresponding to the
CM resonance energy Ec , and is the energy used in all cross section databases
and libraries, e.g. BNL-325 (barn book) [McL88] and the Evaluated Nuclear Data
File, part B, version VIII (ENDF/B-VIII) [Bro18].
To conclude our discussion of the Breit-Wigner formula, we offer a few remarks:
(a) Note that for a sharp resonance, with the approximation that Ec ' E0 in Eq.
(2.34), it may readily be shown that E2 − E1 = Γ, verifying the statement
made earlier that Γ is equal to the FWHM of the resonance.
(b) The actual range of the influence of a resonance is better represented by the
practical width
σ0
r
Γp = Γ , (2.40)
σp
which can be shown to be approximately equal to the energy interval over
which the sum of resonance scattering and absorption cross sections is equal
to or larger than the potential scattering cross section σp illustrated in Figure
2.9.
(c) For two limiting cases [Gla52] when (i) Ec  E0 and (ii) Γ  Ec −E0 , obtain
an approximate relationship σt ∝ 1/v, where v is the neutron speed. Case
(i) represents the behavior of many materials well below the first resonance
energy, where the neutron cross section often exhibits a “1/v-behavior.” The
broad resonance approximation of case (ii) may explain the behavior of 10 B,
which is one of the most common neutron-absorbing materials used in a variety
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

of applications.

2.6 DIFFERENTIAL SCATTERING CROSS SECTION AND

SCATTERING KERNEL

Through the simple neutron penetration experiment considered in Section 2.1, we

determined in Eq. (2.1) an expression for the number −dI of neutrons suffering
collisions in the interval dx per unit cm2 per s. We now wish to extend the simple
experiment to obtain an expression for the number −dI(Ω) of neutrons scattered
into solid angle dΩ around direction Ω in the interval dx per unit cm2 per s. As
illustrated in Figure 2.10, we now explicitly assign direction Ω0 to the neutrons
incident on the slab, again in a collimated beam. Recall that the solid angle dΩ is
defined as
dA
dΩ = 2 , (2.41)
r
where dA is the cross-sectional area of a differential cone of length r, or the
differential cross-sectional area subtended at distance r. The solid angle is dimen-
sionless, usually expressed in units of steradian, and should not be considered a
differential of unit directional vector Ω.

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 46 CHAPTER 2: NEUTRON-NUCLEUS REACTION AND NEUTRON CROSS SECTION

Figure 2.10 Scattering of collimated beam into solid angle dΩ around Ω in distance dx.

2.6.1 Differential Microscopic Scattering Cross Section

Similar to the procedure we followed in Section 2.1 to determine the total number
of neutrons suffering collision in dx, we introduce the scattering probability and
obtain an expression for the number of neutrons scattered in the interval dx per
unit cm2 per s into solid angle dΩ around direction Ω

−dI(Ω) = Iσ(Ω)dΩN dx = −d2 I(Ω), (2.42)

Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

where we indicate that it is a doubly differential quantity associated with both dx

and dΩ. Equation (2.42) is recast to determine the fraction of incident neutrons
scattered in dx into dΩ
cm2
   
dI(Ω) number of nuclei
− = σ(Ω)dΩ · N dx . (2.43)
I nucleus cm2
Equation (2.43) suggests a more precise interpretation for the differential micro-
scopic scattering cross section as the effective cross section area of the nucleus for
scattering into unit solid angle (steradian), which may be written more formally
as:
dσ(Ω0 → Ω)
σ(Ω) = = σ(Ω0 → Ω). (2.44)
dΩ
The last two notations clearly indicate that the differential cross section is associ-
ated with scattering from direction Ω0 into unit solid angle around Ω.
Integrating the differential scattering cross section over all possible scattering
angles yields the total or integral microscopic cross section
Z
σ= σ(Ω)dΩ, (2.45)
4π

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 2.6 DIFFERENTIAL SCATTERING CROSS SECTION AND SCATTERING KERNEL 47

which is the microscopic cross section σ introduced in Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2) if
the slab under consideration comprises a purely scattering medium. In this case,
integrating Eq. (2.43) over Ω yields Eq. (2.2) representing the total fraction of
neutrons suffering collisions in dx, regardless of the scattering angle. Since
neutrons undergoing scattering collisions with surrounding nuclei will in general
undergo changes in their energy as well as their direction of motion, we may
generalize Eq. (2.44)
d2 σ(E → E 0 , Ω → Ω0 )
σ(E → E 0 , Ω → Ω0 ) = , (2.46)
dE 0 dΩ0
so that
dσ(E → E 0 )
Z
σ(E → E 0 , Ω → Ω0 )dΩ0 = σ(E → E 0 ) = . (2.47)
4π dE 0
Similarly, integration of the energy-dependent scattering cross section over all
energies that the neutron may acquire following the scattering collision yields the
total microscopic cross section of Eq. (2.45)
Z ∞
σ(E) = σ(E → E 0 ) dE 0 , (2.48)
0

where we emphasize the point that the microscopic cross section is in general a
function of the incident neutron energy E. Note also that σ(E) is a cross section
for neutrons of energy E expressed in units of cm2 , or more commonly, in units
of barn.
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

2.6.2 Scattering Kernel for Isotropic Scattering in CM Frame

For elastic scattering of low-energy neutrons of interest in reactor physics, often
referred to as the s-wave scattering associated with low-level quantum levels ex-
cited in the process, we may assume to a good approximation that the neutrons
are scattered isotropically in the CM system. Furthermore, recall from Eq. (2.26)
that the neutron energy E after the collision is uniquely determined by the CM
scattering angle θc . Thus, the differential scattering cross section of Eq. (2.46)
may be rewritten in a somewhat simplified, and perhaps more intuitive, manner to
represent the probability of neutrons suffering scattering collisions at energy E0
and emerging in differential solid angle dΩc around Ωc
σs (E0 )
σs (E0 , Ωc )dΩc = 2π sin θc dθc , (2.49)
4π
where we clearly highlight the scattering cross section with the subscript s and
indicate the incident energy E0 . The solid angle dΩc is illustrated explicitly in
Figure 2.11, with azimuthal symmetry inherent in the CM scattering process
dA 2πr sin θc · rdθc
dΩc = = = 2π sin θc dθc . (2.50)
r2 r2

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 48 CHAPTER 2: NEUTRON-NUCLEUS REACTION AND NEUTRON CROSS SECTION

Figure 2.11 Solid angle with azimuthal symmetry.

Equation (2.49) may be rewritten in terms of the outgoing neutron energy E

σs (E0 )
σs (E0 , Ωc )dΩc = sin θc dθc = −σs (E0 → E)dE, (2.51)
2
where a negative sign is introduced in the last expression to render the microscopic
scattering cross section σs (E0 → E) positive with the realization that an elastic
scattering generally entails a decrease in the neutron energy, i.e. −dE > 0. Solve
for σs (E0 → E) from Eq. (2.51)
σs (E0 ) dθc
σs (E0 → E) = − sin θc
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

2 dE
and, recalling Eq. (2.26), finally obtain the elastic scattering kernel:

 σs (E0 )
, αE0 ≤ E ≤ E0 ,
σs (E0 → E) = σs (E0 )p(E0 → E) = E0 (1 − α) (2.52)
0, otherwise.


The microscopic scattering cross section σs (E0 ) is the probability of scattering

for neutrons of energy E0 in units of barn, and the term p(E0 → E) represents the
conditional probability that neutrons, having suffered scattering at energy E0 , will
emerge in a unit energy interval around E. The scattering kernel is graphically
displayed in Figure 2.12. Integrating Eq. (2.52) over the entire neutron energy
below the incident energy E0 yields
Z E0 Z E0
σs (E0 → E)dE = σs (E0 → E)dE = σs (E0 ). (2.53)
0 αE0
This is an intuitive result, since the integral of the scattering kernel over all possible
energies of the scattered neutron should simply yield the probability of scattering
at energy E0 . This is another way of stating that the integral of the conditional
probability p(E0 → E) over all outgoing energies should be 1.0.

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 2.7 FURTHER REMARKS ON NEUTRON CROSS SECTION 49

Figure 2.12 Elastic scattering kernel as a function of outgoing neutron energy.

2.7 FURTHER REMARKS ON NEUTRON CROSS SECTION

Having discussed key features of neutron-nucleus reactions, followed by the deriva-

tion of fundamental relationships governing neutron cross sections, in particular,
the scattering cross section and the Breit-Wigner formula for resonance reactions,
we now conclude with a few remarks on general behavior [Lam66] of the neutron
cross section.

1. Total cross section σt

Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

(a) Light nuclides: The total cross section indicates a region of nearly constant
value, which may sometimes be coupled to a 1/v-region

C2
σt = C 1 + , (2.54)
v
where the constant value C1 may be associated with the elastic scattering
cross section and the 1/v-region associated with the (n, γ) radiative capture
process with some constant C2 . Resonances appear mostly in the keV∼MeV
region, but the cross section values are rather small. This may be qualita-
tively understood [Gla52] if we recall the concept of de Broglie wavelength
[Kra88,Ser89]
h h h 1
λ= = =√ ∝√ . (2.55)
p mv 2mE E
and visualize the wavelength λ as a measure of the wave packet, and hence
the probability, associated with the neutron-nucleus interaction. Thus, we can
expect that the resonance cross sections will exhibit relatively small values for
light nuclides, since the resonances occur at much higher energies for light
nuclides than for heavy nuclides.

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 50 CHAPTER 2: NEUTRON-NUCLEUS REACTION AND NEUTRON CROSS SECTION

Figures 2.13 and 2.14 present a few cross section plots for 10 B and 12 C, re-
spectively, from the latest edition of ENDF/B library, ENDF/B-VIII. For 10 B,
the total cross section, which is mostly associated with the absorption cross
section, shows a 1/v-behavior for a large range of energy, 10 meV∼50 keV,
as suggested in Eq. (2.54). This point was also discussed as a limiting case
of the Breit-Wigner resonance cross section in Section 2.5 and is the reason
why 10 B is the favorite choice as a neutron absorber. In contrast, 12 C ex-
hibits a nearly constant total cross section, as suggested by C1 of Eq. (2.54),
for a broad energy interval all the way up to 50 keV, with some resonances
observed at high energy reaching into the MeV range. In passing, we should
note that the tabulated cross section data are subject to significant experimental
uncertainties in general, with the uncertainty quantification of various cross
sections currently in active study with covariance matrices documented in the
ENDF/B-VIII databases.
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Figure 2.13 Total cross section σt of 10 B, ENDF/B-VIII.

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 2.7 FURTHER REMARKS ON NEUTRON CROSS SECTION 51
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Figure 2.14 Total cross section σt of 12 C, ENDF/B-VIII.

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 52 CHAPTER 2: NEUTRON-NUCLEUS REACTION AND NEUTRON CROSS SECTION

(b) Heavy nuclides: The total cross section often shows a 1/v-behavior for low
energies, followed by a multitude of large resonances in the eV∼keV range.
As discussed in connection with Eq. (2.55), since the resonances occur at
much lower energies than those for light nuclides, the resonance absorption
cross sections are large and plays a significant role in determining reaction
rates of neutrons in this energy range. This point is highlighted by low-lying
resonances, in the eV range, with peak cross sections of several kb for both
238
U and 239 Pu plotted in Figures 2.15 and 2.16, respectively. A number of
nearly overlapping resonances are also noted. These unresolved resonances
require statistical rather than individual representation [Heb10].

2. Elastic scattering cross section

As discussed in Section 2.2, in particular with Eq. (2.11) as part of the general
discussion on neutron-nucleus interactions, the elastic scattering cross section σse
comprises both the potential scattering cross section σp and resonance scatter-
ing cross section σse,res . The combined σse is thus typically nearly constant,
characterized by the hardball-type potential cross section, except near localized
resonances. In addition, note that for scattering cross sections, crystalline or
molecular effects of the particular atom or compound also play an important role,
especially for low-energy neutron scattering events.
An example in this regard is a relationship between bound- and free-atom scat-
tering cross sections, which can be studied [Bel70] with Eq. (2.24). For a tightly
bound atom in a molecule, the effective mass number A  1.0 so that the scat-
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

tering in the laboratory system may be considered isotropic as in the CM System,

with cos θc = cos θ` = µ` ,
1
σbound (µ` ) = σbound .
2
Furthermore, for a glancing collision with µc = µ` = 1.0, the nucleus does not
recoil and hence the mass of the nucleus is immaterial, resulting in

dµc
σbound (µ` = 1.0) = σf ree (µ` = 1.0) = σf ree (µc )
dµ` µc =µ` =1
 2 (2.56)
1 A+1
= σf ree ,
2 A
which yields
 2
A+1
σbound = σf ree . (2.57)
A
This indicates that, for a proton with mass number A = 1, the bound-atom scat-
tering cross section for a molecule of water may be four times as large as that of

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 2.7 FURTHER REMARKS ON NEUTRON CROSS SECTION 53
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Figure 2.15 Radiative capture cross section σγ for 238 U, ENDF/B-VIII.

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 54 CHAPTER 2: NUCLEAR REACTOR PHYSICS AND ENGINEERING
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Figure 2.16 Radiative capture cross section σγ for 239 Pu, ENDF/B-VIII.

a free, unbound proton. Effects of thermal motion of neutrons and nuclei on scat-
tering cross sections for moderating materials, e.g. light water, heavy water, and
graphite, are often represented in Monte Carlo calculations by a tabulated function
S(α, β), where the gain in the linear momentum and kinetic energy of neutrons
due to thermal motion of nuclei are represented by dimensionless parameters α
and β, respectively [Heb10].

References

[Bel70] G.I. Bell and S. Glasstone, Nuclear Reactor Theory,Van Nostrand Rein-
hold (1970).

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 PROBLEMS FOR CHAPTER 2 55

[Bre36] G. Breit and E. Wigner, “Capture of Slow Neutrons,” Phys. Rev. 49, 519
(1936).
[Bro18] D.A. Brown et al., “ENDF/B-VIII.0: The 8th Major Release of the Nuclear
Reaction Data Library with CIELO-project Cross Section, New Standards and
Thermal Scattering Data,” Nuclear Data Sheets 148, 1 (2018).
[Cha06] M.B. Chadwick et al., “ENDF/B-VII.0: Next Generation Evaluated Nu-
clear Data Library for Nuclear Science and Technology,” Nuclear Data Sheets
107, 2931 (2006).
[Eng66] H.A. Enge, Introduction to Nuclear Physics, Addison-Wesley (1966).
[Gla52] S. Glasstone and M.C. Edlund, The Elements of Nuclear Reactor Theory,
D. Van Nostrand (1952).
[Gol80] H. Goldstein, Classical Mechanics, Addison-Wesley (1980).
[Heb10] A. Hébert, Applied Reactor Physics, Presses Internationales Polytech-
nique (2010).
[JEF17] Nuclear Energy Agency, http://www.oecd-nea.org/dbdata/jeff/jeff33 (2017).
[Kra88] K.S. Krane, Introductory Nuclear Physics, Wiley (1988).
[Lam66] J.R. Lamarsh, Introduction to Nuclear Reactor Theory, Addison-Wesley
(1966).
[NDS18] International Atomic Energy Agency, https://www-nds.iaea.org/public/
download-endf/ENDF-B-VIII.0/000-NSUB-index.htm (2018).
[McL88] V. McLane, D.L. Dunford, and P.F. Rose, Neutron Cross Sections, vol.
2, Neutron Cross Section Curves, Academic Press (1988).
[Mug81] S.F. Mughabghab, M. Divadeenam, and N.E. Holden, Neutron Cross
Section, vol. 1, Neutron Resonance Parameters and Thermal Cross Sections, Part
A, Z = 1 − 60, Academic Press (1981).
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

[Mug84] S.F. Mughabghab, Neutron Cross Section, vol. 1, Neutron Resonance

Parameters and Thermal Cross Sections, Part B, Z = 61 − 100, Academic Press
(1984).
[Ser89] R.A. Serway, C.J. Moses, and C.A. Moyer, Modern Physics, Saunders
College Publishing (1989).

Problems

2.1 Prove that for a sharp resonance, the FWHM of a resonance is equal to its level
width Γ.
2.2 Californium-252 is widely used as a compact neutron source. 252 98 Cf decays
by either spontaneous fission or emission of α-particles. About 3.09% of the
total decay events are spontaneous fission with a half-life of 85.60 years, and
the remaining 96.91% are α-decay with a half-life of 2.729 years. For each
spontaneous fission of 252 Cf, 3.75 neutrons are released on the average. (a) What
is the neutron generation rate in units of [neutron·s−1 mg−1 ] of 252
98 Cf? (b) What is

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 56 CHATPER 2: NUCLEAR REACTOR PHYSICS AND ENGINEERING

the neutron generation rate in units of [neutron·s−1 Bq−1 ]? (c) What is the half-life
of 252 Cf, accounting for both spontaneous fission and α-decay?
2.3 An alpha particle reacts with a 23 Na nucleus and emits a proton. (a) What are
the compound and residual nuclei in this (α, p) reaction? (b) If the kinetic energy
of the alpha particle is 2.0 MeV in the laboratory, what is the excitation energy of
the compound nucleus in the center of mass?
2.4 Starting from Eq.(2.34), derive the expression for the practical width Eq.(2.40).
2.5 Extend the two-body elastic collision model of Section 2.4 to the case when a
nucleus of mass M and a neutron of mass m move toward each other with speed
V` and speed v` , respectively, and derive an expression for the ratio of the energy
E after the collision to E0 before the collision. Determine the condition under
which the ratio may be greater than 1.0. √
2.6 For the 235 U fission spectrum χ(E) = 0.77 E exp(−0.775E), E in MeV, (a)
determine the fraction of fission neutrons that can cause fission in 238 U with the
fission threshold of 1.0 MeV and (b) the average energy of fission neutrons.
2.7 Prove that the kinetic energy of two interacting particles in the CM can be
represented by the kinetic energy of a single particle of reduced mass µ and
relative speed between the particles.
2.8 In the boron neutron capture therapy, thermal neutrons are absorbed in 10 B
nuclei via an (n, α) reaction. The kinetic energy of the alpha particles and residual
nuclei is then deposited in tumor cells. (a) What are the compound and residual
nuclei in this (n, α) reaction? (b) If the neutron energy is 0.025 eV in the laboratory,
what is the excitation energy of the compound nucleus in the center of mass? (c) If
the kinetic energy of the α-particle is 1.47 MeV and a 0.48-MeV γ-ray is emitted
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

in the reaction, what is the kinetic energy of the residual nucleus obtained in part
(a)?
2.9 A compact neutron source consists of 13 g of 238 9
94 Pu mixed with 7 g of 4 Be.
238
In the neutron source, 5.5-MeV α-particles, emitted from the decay of Pu with
a half-life of 87.7 years, react with 9 Be and produce neutrons. (a) Determine
the radioactivity of 23894 Pu in the neutron source in units of Ci. (b) What are the
residual nuclei produced through the interaction of α-particles with 9 Be nuclei? (c)
Determine the maximum energy of neutrons produced and the neutron production
rate, with the observation that 30 neutrons are produced typically from 106 α-
particles.
2.10 A neutron of speed v0 undergoes an elastic scattering collision with a proton,
which is initially stationary in the laboratory. In the CM system, the neutron is
scattered off by θc = π/2. (a) Sketch the velocity of the particles in the CM
system after the collision. (b) What is the speed vCM of the center of mass itself?
(c) What is the neutron speed vc0 after collision in the CM system? (d) Based on
the results of parts (b) and (c), determine the scattering angle θ` of the neutron in
the laboratory system.
2.11 In a Compton scattering [Kra88] between a photon and an electron, it may be
assumed that the electron of mass m is initially at rest. The photon with incident

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
 PROBLEMS FOR CHAPTER 2 57

energy E and wavelength λ emerges from the collision at an angle θ from the
initial direction, while the electron moves away from the collision with speed v.
(a) Set up the energy and momentum balance statements for the photon-electron
scattering process, accounting for the relativistic energy of the scattered electron.
(b) Using the results of part (a), obtain an expression for the wavelength λ0 after
the collision in terms of λ and θ.
2.12 A photon of energy E emerges at an angle θ from the initial direction
with energy E 0 following a Compton scattering with an electron. (a) Obtain an
expression relating E 0 to E in units of the rest mass of an electron. (b) What is the
maximum kinetic energy that the electron could gain for E = 2.044 MeV?
2.13 A neutron of energy E0 suffers an elastic scattering collision with a nucleus
of mass number A initially at rest in the Lab system. (a) What is the probability
that the neutron will have energy below E0 /2 after scattering? (b) What is the
average energy E that the neutron is expected to have after scattering? (c) How
many scattering collisions with deuterons would a neutron of energy 1.0 MeV
undergo, on average, to attain an energy of 1.0 eV?
2.14 One method of producing neutrons in the laboratory is to bombard alpha
particles on a 7 Li target. (a) What is the residual nucleus in this (α, n) reaction?
(b) What is the minimum kinetic energy of the alpha particles in the CM frame to
produce neutrons? (c) What is the minimum energy of the alpha particles in the
laboratory system?
2.15 Prove that the interacting particles undergoing elastic collisions move away
in the CM system, each with the same speeds as those entering the collision, as
indicated in Eqs. (2.14).
2.16 In a binary fission event in 235 U induced by a thermal neutron capture, one
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

of the fission products is 141 Cs. (a) What is the other fission product if no prompt
neutrons are released? (b) If both fission products undergo β-decays until they
become stable, what will be the final products? (c) Estimate the energy released in
the fission process. (d) Repeat parts (a) and (b) with the emission of two prompt
neutrons. For atomic mass data, consult https://www-nds.iaea.org/amdc/.
2.17 The radiative capture cross section of 113 Cd for thermal neutrons is 25 kb.
Estimate the thickness of Cd metal foil that would be required to attenuate a thermal
neutron beam by a factor of 100.
2.18 Neutrons of mass m and kinetic energy E0 are incident on a target of stationary
nuclei of mass M . The neutrons are inelastically scattered from the target nuclei
through head-on collisions, i.e. the scattering angle θc = π in the CM system and
the neutrons have zero kinetic energy after collision in the laboratory system. (a)
Determine the speed vc0 of neutrons in the CM system after the head-on collision.
(b) Obtain the energy level Q for the state to which the target nuclei are excited in
this inelastic collision process.

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.
Copyright © 2020. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Lee, JC 2020, Nuclear Reactor : Physics and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, Newark. Available from:
ProQuest Ebook Central. [3 December 2024].
Created from manchester on 2024-12-03 08:42:34.