Tectonic Geomorph
Tectonic Geomorph
• It is the study of the interplay between Major plates are large tectonic plates
tectonic and surface processes that shape the with an area of around or greater
landscape in regions of active deformation than 100 million square kilometers.
and at time scales ranging from days to There are seven major tectonic
million of years plates, including the North American
• It investigates the effects of active tectonic Plate, Eurasian Plate, African Plate,
processes - faulting, tilting, folding, uplift, South American Plate, and Pacific
and subsidence - upon landforms. Plate. Minor plates, on the other
• It utilize techniques and data derived from hand, are smaller tectonic plates that
studies of geomorphology, seismology, have an area ranging from 1 to 100
geochronology, structure, geodesy, million square kilometers. Lastly,
stratigraphy, meteorology, and Quaternary microplates are tectonic plates that
Science are less than 1 to 10 million square
kilometers in size. Examples of
microplates include the Arabian
Plate, the Juan de Fuca Plate, the
Nazca Plate, the Scotia Plate, and the
Philippine Plate. Although there are
various microplates, they are often
not easily visible in geological
figures.
Tectonic Plates
➔ Tectonic plates refer to solid, rigid
layers of the Earth that make up the
lithosphere. The lithosphere is a solid
layer composed of the crust and the
upper part of the mantle, floating on
top of the asthenosphere. The
asthenosphere is a weak, plastic layer
that facilitates the movement of the
lithosphere. Each tectonic plate is Active margin
bounded by plate boundaries, where
- is characterized by significant tectonic
various tectonic activities occur, such
activity, particularly in areas where
as earthquakes, volcanic activity, and
subduction occurs. These margins are
other tectonic-related phenomena.
typically located at or near plate boundaries,
➔ The Earth's tectonic plates can be
where the interaction between tectonic
classified into three categories: major
plates leads to the formation of geological
features such as trenches, active volcanoes, classifying it as a passive margin. It is
and thrust earthquakes. In active margins, situated far from active tectonic zones.)
tectonic processes are ongoing, resulting in a
dynamic environment with frequent seismic
activity. For example, the western coast of
North America, including California and
Washington, is classified as an active margin
due to its exposure to various tectonic events
and volcanic activity.
Passive margin
- refers to a coastal area that is situated far Mantle Convection
from plate boundaries. These margins are
characterized by a broad continental shelf Mantle convection is a heat transfer process
and generally exhibit minimal tectonic occurring within the Earth, distinct from
activity. Although there may be some conduction and radiation. While conduction
seismic events, they are typically low in transfers heat between materials and
magnitude, with earthquakes often reaching radiation involves heat emission from a
a maximum magnitude of around 3 to 4. A source, convection refers specifically to the
prime example of a passive margin is the circulation of heat within a fluid, such as the
eastern coast of North America, including semi-fluid material of the mantle.
regions such as New York and Florida. In
these areas, geological stability prevails, and Mechanism: In mantle convection, hot, less
the lack of significant tectonic processes dense material rises toward the Earth's crust,
differentiates them from the more dynamic cools, and then sinks back down, creating a
active margins cyclical motion. This process involves both
the mantle and the core, with heat being
( In the context of the Philippines, there generated in the Earth's core and transferred
are also classifications for both active and to the mantle.
passive margins. The active margins are
● Heat Generation: The Earth's core,
located along active trenches, such as the
the hottest part of the planet,
Manila Trench, Philippine Trench, Negros
generates heat through particle
Trench, Cotabato Trench, and Sulu Trench.
movement and radioactive decay.
These areas exhibit significant tectonic
This heat is then transferred to the
activity. In contrast, an example of a passive
mantle, causing mantle material to
margin in the Philippines is the
rise.
Palawan-Negros Trench. This region is
considered a stable landmass, resulting in
minimal seismic and volcanic activity, thus
Effects on Tectonic Plates: The movement ● Exotic Terrane - a terrane that had a
of rising mantle material plays a crucial role geologic history initially independent
in the motion of the continental crust: of that of the continent (An example
of an exotic terrain is the Palawan
● Ridge Push: As hot mantle material microcontinental block, which is
rises, it pushes continents apart, known to originate from southern
creating a divergence at the China.)
boundaries between tectonic plates, ● Suspect Terrane - a terrain with
known as ridge push. uncertain geologic history
● Subduction: As mantle material (Zamboanga Peninsula is an
cools, it becomes denser and sinks. example of a suspect terrain. Its
This process drags down the oceanic geological history is uncertain, and
lithosphere, leading to subduction. it is inferred not to be originally part
Over time, the subducted lithosphere of the Philippine mobile belt,
becomes part of the mantle, possibly correlating with the
contributing to the cycle of rising Palawan microcontinental block.)
and sinking mantle material. ● Composite Terrane - A terrane
formed from identifiable terranes
Impact on Plate Movement: Mantle
●
convection is the driving force
Two other Types of Terrain
behind tectonic plate movement. The
denser oceanic lithosphere subducts Autochthonous terrain - refers to terrains
beneath the less dense continental that are native or originate from the main
lithosphere, resulting in continental landmass where they are located. These
migration. When two continental terrains have a similar geological
lithospheres collide, this process composition to the landmass they broke
leads to the formation of various away from. Essentially, they are part of the
terrains and geological features. original landmass but may have been
separated due to tectonic activity.
➢
Example:
- Tectonic forces drive the movement and Together, these forces play a crucial role in
deformation of the Earth's crust, influencing shaping the Earth's surface through various
various geological processes. These forces tectonic activities, including the formation
are categorized into three main groups: of mountains, continents, and volcanic
landforms. All these processes occur along
1. Diastrophic Forces – These forces plate boundaries, which serve as zones
are responsible for the deformation where the Earth's plates interact, leading to
of the Earth's crust through folding, tectonic phenomena such as accretion,
faulting, uplift, and subsidence. subduction, and orogeny.
a. Orogeny: The process of
mountain formation due to
the collision of tectonic
plates. A well-known
example is the collision
between India and Eurasia,
which formed the Himalayan
mountain range.
b. Epeirogeny: Refers to the
broad, gentle uplift or
subsidence of large portions
of the Earth's crust, resulting
There are three types of plate boundaries:
in the formation of
divergent, convergent, and transform
continents. The addition of
boundaries:
terrains to continents may
cause parts of the continent to ➔ Divergent Plate Boundary:
uplift or subside, depending ◆ This occurs when two
on the collision rate. tectonic plates move away
2. Volcanic Forces – These refer to the from each other, creating a
movement of molten material gap between them.
(magma) from the mantle to the ◆ Mantle material rises,
Earth's surface, either extruding as creating new crust as it cools.
This process leads to the Triple Junction and aulacogen
formation of ocean basins.
◆ Examples: The - A triple junction is a point where three
Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the tectonic plates meet. In the East African
East African Rift. Rift, the three rift zones are the Red Sea, the
◆ In the case of the East Gulf of Aden, and the East African Rift.
African Rift, this is the initial
○ It is uncommon for all three
stage of divergence where the
rift zones to be active at the
African plate is separating
same time, so one of them
from the East African plate,
usually becomes inactive.
eventually leading to the
○ The inactive rift zone is
formation of a new ocean.
called an aulacogen. In this
➔ Convergent Plate Boundary:
case, the Gulf of Aden has
◆ Here, two plates collide, and
become the inactive rift zone,
the denser plate is subducted
while the Red Sea and East
beneath the lighter one.
African Rift continue to be
◆ This process occurs along an
active.
active trench, leading to
volcanic and ( Clarification: At a triple junction, the
mountain-building activity. rifting process doesn't progress evenly
◆ Example: The collision across all three rift zones. One zone
between the Indian and typically becomes extinct (inactive), as seen
Eurasian plates, which with the Gulf of Aden. The remaining two
formed the Himalayas. zones continue the active rifting process,
➔ Transform Plate Boundary: which leads to further separation of the
◆ In this type of boundary, two plates.)
plates slide past each other
without significant vertical
movement.
◆ Example: The San Andreas Volcanic and Plutonic Forces
Fault in California.
- Lead the extrusion of magma onto Earth's These processes explain why volcanoes
surface as lava and to minor intrusion (e.g. are common at both divergent and
dykes and sills) into other rocks that convergent plate boundaries, as well as
originate deep in the earth, produce major volcanic hotspots that form within plates,
intrusion (plutons) and associated veins. like the Hawaiian Islands.
Key Terms
3. Volcanic Arcs
Volcanic arcs are chains of volcanoes that
form above subduction zones, where one
tectonic plate moves under another, leading
to volcanic activity.
Example: Example:
The Japanese archipelago is formed The Aleutian Islands in Alaska are formed
through the collision of surrounding oceanic from the collision of the Pacific Plate with
plates with the continental landmass, leading the North American Plate, resulting in a
to volcanic arcs such as Mount Fuji. series of active volcanoes along the island
arc.
3. Continental-Island Arc Collision
- This type of collision occurs when a
continental plate collides with an oceanic
island arc, resulting in the subduction of the
oceanic plate beneath the continental plate.
forces combine with lateral movement along
a fault, typically at a restraining bend. This
process causes the land to be pushed
together, resulting in the uplift of land and
the formation of mountain ranges.
● In reverse faults, the hanging wall ● In strike-slip faults, the blocks slide
moves upward relative to the foot past each other horizontally, with
wall, typically due to compressive little to no vertical movement,
forces. caused by shear stress.
● Landforms: ● Landforms:
○ Thrust Faults: A type of ○ Shutter Ridges: Ridges
reverse fault with a low-angle formed as a result of lateral
inclination. movement along the fault,
○ Cliff: A steep face of rock creating offsets in the
formed by the upward landscape.
○ Fault Scarps: Exposed faces
along the fault line where the
fault has displaced the land.
○ Offset Drainage Patterns:
Streams and rivers that have
been displaced or shifted due
to fault movement, leading to
altered flow patterns.
○ Beheaded Streams: Streams
that have been abruptly cut
off or "beheaded" due to
faulting, resulting in
disconnected water bodies.