Tectonic Geomorphology plates, minor plates, and microplates.

• It is the study of the interplay between Major plates are large tectonic plates
tectonic and surface processes that shape the with an area of around or greater
landscape in regions of active deformation than 100 million square kilometers.
and at time scales ranging from days to There are seven major tectonic
million of years plates, including the North American
• It investigates the effects of active tectonic Plate, Eurasian Plate, African Plate,
processes - faulting, tilting, folding, uplift, South American Plate, and Pacific
and subsidence - upon landforms. Plate. Minor plates, on the other
• It utilize techniques and data derived from hand, are smaller tectonic plates that
studies of geomorphology, seismology, have an area ranging from 1 to 100
geochronology, structure, geodesy, million square kilometers. Lastly,
stratigraphy, meteorology, and Quaternary microplates are tectonic plates that
Science are less than 1 to 10 million square
kilometers in size. Examples of
microplates include the Arabian
Plate, the Juan de Fuca Plate, the
Nazca Plate, the Scotia Plate, and the
Philippine Plate. Although there are
various microplates, they are often
not easily visible in geological
figures.

Tectonic Plates
➔ Tectonic plates refer to solid, rigid
layers of the Earth that make up the
lithosphere. The lithosphere is a solid
layer composed of the crust and the
upper part of the mantle, floating on
top of the asthenosphere. The
asthenosphere is a weak, plastic layer
that facilitates the movement of the
lithosphere. Each tectonic plate is Active margin
bounded by plate boundaries, where
- is characterized by significant tectonic
various tectonic activities occur, such
activity, particularly in areas where
as earthquakes, volcanic activity, and
subduction occurs. These margins are
other tectonic-related phenomena.
typically located at or near plate boundaries,
➔ The Earth's tectonic plates can be
where the interaction between tectonic
classified into three categories: major
plates leads to the formation of geological
features such as trenches, active volcanoes, classifying it as a passive margin. It is
and thrust earthquakes. In active margins, situated far from active tectonic zones.)
tectonic processes are ongoing, resulting in a
dynamic environment with frequent seismic
activity. For example, the western coast of
North America, including California and
Washington, is classified as an active margin
due to its exposure to various tectonic events
and volcanic activity.

Passive margin
- refers to a coastal area that is situated far Mantle Convection
from plate boundaries. These margins are
characterized by a broad continental shelf Mantle convection is a heat transfer process
and generally exhibit minimal tectonic occurring within the Earth, distinct from
activity. Although there may be some conduction and radiation. While conduction
seismic events, they are typically low in transfers heat between materials and
magnitude, with earthquakes often reaching radiation involves heat emission from a
a maximum magnitude of around 3 to 4. A source, convection refers specifically to the
prime example of a passive margin is the circulation of heat within a fluid, such as the
eastern coast of North America, including semi-fluid material of the mantle.
regions such as New York and Florida. In
these areas, geological stability prevails, and Mechanism: In mantle convection, hot, less
the lack of significant tectonic processes dense material rises toward the Earth's crust,
differentiates them from the more dynamic cools, and then sinks back down, creating a
active margins cyclical motion. This process involves both
the mantle and the core, with heat being
( In the context of the Philippines, there generated in the Earth's core and transferred
are also classifications for both active and to the mantle.
passive margins. The active margins are
● Heat Generation: The Earth's core,
located along active trenches, such as the
the hottest part of the planet,
Manila Trench, Philippine Trench, Negros
generates heat through particle
Trench, Cotabato Trench, and Sulu Trench.
movement and radioactive decay.
These areas exhibit significant tectonic
This heat is then transferred to the
activity. In contrast, an example of a passive
mantle, causing mantle material to
margin in the Philippines is the
rise.
Palawan-Negros Trench. This region is
considered a stable landmass, resulting in
minimal seismic and volcanic activity, thus
Effects on Tectonic Plates: The movement ● Exotic Terrane - a terrane that had a
of rising mantle material plays a crucial role geologic history initially independent
in the motion of the continental crust: of that of the continent (An example
of an exotic terrain is the Palawan
● Ridge Push: As hot mantle material microcontinental block, which is
rises, it pushes continents apart, known to originate from southern
creating a divergence at the China.)
boundaries between tectonic plates, ● Suspect Terrane - a terrain with
known as ridge push. uncertain geologic history
● Subduction: As mantle material (Zamboanga Peninsula is an
cools, it becomes denser and sinks. example of a suspect terrain. Its
This process drags down the oceanic geological history is uncertain, and
lithosphere, leading to subduction. it is inferred not to be originally part
Over time, the subducted lithosphere of the Philippine mobile belt,
becomes part of the mantle, possibly correlating with the
contributing to the cycle of rising Palawan microcontinental block.)
and sinking mantle material. ● Composite Terrane - A terrane
formed from identifiable terranes
Impact on Plate Movement: Mantle
●
convection is the driving force
Two other Types of Terrain
behind tectonic plate movement. The
denser oceanic lithosphere subducts Autochthonous terrain - refers to terrains
beneath the less dense continental that are native or originate from the main
lithosphere, resulting in continental landmass where they are located. These
migration. When two continental terrains have a similar geological
lithospheres collide, this process composition to the landmass they broke
leads to the formation of various away from. Essentially, they are part of the
terrains and geological features. original landmass but may have been
separated due to tectonic activity.
➢
Example:

1. In the Philippines, the igneous rocks

in Ilocos Norte are considered part
of the Zambales region's geology.
These rocks share a similar
composition to the Philippine mobile
belt, making them an example of
autochthonous terrain.
Terrane: Small fragments of continents 2. The East African Rift is an example
of autochthonous terrain. As the East
 African Rift separates from the main Accretion (Docking) - It describes the
African landmass, it remains process by which fragments of tectonic
geologically consistent with the plates are added to the continent at plate
composition of the African tectonic boundary
continent.
Suture - it marks zone which oceanic
Allochthonous terrain - refers to terrains lithosphere has been totally subducted
that have migrated from other regions and
collided or attached to a different landmass Lyrics from sir blase:
due to tectonic movements. These terrains
❖ Accretion is the process by which a
have different geological origins from the
landmass (terrain) collides and
landmass they are part of now.
attaches to a continent or a larger
Example: landmass. This occurs when the
oceanic lithosphere between the
1. In the Philippines, the terrain and the continent gradually
Palawan microcontinental subducts, as driven by mantle
block is an allochthonous convection. Over time, the oceanic
terrain because it is not part lithosphere is completely subducted,
of the Philippine mobile belt and the terrain finally collides with
and is believed to have the continent. This collision marks
originated from southern the accretion, a process where the
China. terrain "docks" onto the continent.
2. The collision of India with ❖ Suture is the boundary between two
Eurasia is a classic example colliding terrains or landmasses. It is
of allochthonous terrain. the line where the oceanic
India was originally a lithosphere has been fully subducted,
separate landmass and only effectively stitching the terrains
collided with the Eurasian together. This geological feature
continent due to tectonic often serves as evidence of past
plate movements. tectonic collisions and is where the
two previously separate terrains are
now connected.
 lava or intruding into the crust as
plutons.
3. Plutonic Forces – Plutonic forces
involve the movement and intrusion
of magma deep within the Earth's
crust, forming large bodies of
igneous rocks called plutons, without
reaching the surface.

- Tectonic forces drive the movement and Together, these forces play a crucial role in
deformation of the Earth's crust, influencing shaping the Earth's surface through various
various geological processes. These forces tectonic activities, including the formation
are categorized into three main groups: of mountains, continents, and volcanic
landforms. All these processes occur along
1. Diastrophic Forces – These forces plate boundaries, which serve as zones
are responsible for the deformation where the Earth's plates interact, leading to
of the Earth's crust through folding, tectonic phenomena such as accretion,
faulting, uplift, and subsidence. subduction, and orogeny.
a. Orogeny: The process of
mountain formation due to
the collision of tectonic
plates. A well-known
example is the collision
between India and Eurasia,
which formed the Himalayan
mountain range.
b. Epeirogeny: Refers to the
broad, gentle uplift or
subsidence of large portions
of the Earth's crust, resulting
There are three types of plate boundaries:
in the formation of
divergent, convergent, and transform
continents. The addition of
boundaries:
terrains to continents may
cause parts of the continent to ➔ Divergent Plate Boundary:
uplift or subside, depending ◆ This occurs when two
on the collision rate. tectonic plates move away
2. Volcanic Forces – These refer to the from each other, creating a
movement of molten material gap between them.
(magma) from the mantle to the ◆ Mantle material rises,
Earth's surface, either extruding as creating new crust as it cools.
 This process leads to the Triple Junction and aulacogen
formation of ocean basins.
◆ Examples: The - A triple junction is a point where three
Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the tectonic plates meet. In the East African
East African Rift. Rift, the three rift zones are the Red Sea, the
◆ In the case of the East Gulf of Aden, and the East African Rift.
African Rift, this is the initial
○ It is uncommon for all three
stage of divergence where the
rift zones to be active at the
African plate is separating
same time, so one of them
from the East African plate,
usually becomes inactive.
eventually leading to the
○ The inactive rift zone is
formation of a new ocean.
called an aulacogen. In this
➔ Convergent Plate Boundary:
case, the Gulf of Aden has
◆ Here, two plates collide, and
become the inactive rift zone,
the denser plate is subducted
while the Red Sea and East
beneath the lighter one.
African Rift continue to be
◆ This process occurs along an
active.
active trench, leading to
volcanic and ( Clarification: At a triple junction, the
mountain-building activity. rifting process doesn't progress evenly
◆ Example: The collision across all three rift zones. One zone
between the Indian and typically becomes extinct (inactive), as seen
Eurasian plates, which with the Gulf of Aden. The remaining two
formed the Himalayas. zones continue the active rifting process,
➔ Transform Plate Boundary: which leads to further separation of the
◆ In this type of boundary, two plates.)
plates slide past each other
without significant vertical
movement.
◆ Example: The San Andreas Volcanic and Plutonic Forces
Fault in California.
- Lead the extrusion of magma onto Earth's These processes explain why volcanoes
surface as lava and to minor intrusion (e.g. are common at both divergent and
dykes and sills) into other rocks that convergent plate boundaries, as well as
originate deep in the earth, produce major volcanic hotspots that form within plates,
intrusion (plutons) and associated veins. like the Hawaiian Islands.

Intrusive processes : Found within the

lithosphere

Extrusive processes: Occur at the very top

of the lithosphere and lead to exhalations,
eruptions, and explosion of materials
through volcanic vents

- Volcanic forces can be found in various

settings, typically at plate boundaries and
sometimes within tectonic plates
themselves. These forces are responsible for
the rising of magma, which occurs through
two primary mechanisms: Hotspot volcanism

1. Decompression Melting: This refers to volcanic activity that occurs

process occurs mainly at divergent within tectonic plates, away from plate
plate boundaries and hotspots. As boundaries. This is caused by mantle
tectonic plates pull apart, pressure plumes, which are columns of hot, buoyant
decreases in the mantle below, material rising from deep within the Earth's
causing the solid mantle to melt and mantle, possibly from the mantle-core
form magma. This magma rises boundary. As the mantle plume rises,
through the gaps, eventually leading pressure decreases, causing the mantle
to volcanic activity. material to partially melt and form magma.
2. Flux Melting: This occurs at This magma eventually reaches the surface,
convergent plate boundaries, creating volcanic activity.
specifically in subduction zones. As
One of the key products of hotspot
one plate subducts beneath another,
volcanism is flood basalts, which are
water and other volatiles from the
extensive flows of basaltic lava that can
oceanic plate are released into the
cover large areas of land or ocean floor.
mantle. These volatiles lower the
When magma rises through fractures or
melting point of the mantle, causing
fissures in the Earth's crust, it spreads over
it to melt and form magma, which
wide regions, creating a large igneous
can rise and create volcanic
province. These flood basalts can occur
eruptions.
both on oceanic lithosphere and and capable of traveling long
continental lithosphere. distances when it erupts.
➢ Flood Basalts: Large-volume
➔ An example of oceanic hotspot eruptions of basaltic lava that cover
volcanism is the Hawaiian Islands. extensive areas, forming thick lava
The Hawaiian hotspot is located in plateaus.
the middle of the Pacific plate. As ➢ Large Igneous Provinces (LIPs):
the plate moves over the stationary Regions where large amounts of
hotspot, a chain of volcanic islands is magma have erupted over a
formed, tracing the direction of plate relatively short period of geological
movement. The Emperor Seamount time, resulting in extensive basalt
Chain is a remnant of this volcanic flows.
activity, showing how the Pacific ➢ Subduction Zones: Areas where one
plate has shifted over time. tectonic plate is forced under
➔ On land, hotspot volcanism can another, often leading to flux melting
produce massive continental flood and volcanic activity.
basalts. A well-known example is
the Yellowstone hotspot in the
United States. Another example is
the Deccan Traps in India, where
extensive lava flows covered large
areas during a major volcanic event.

Key Terms

➢ Mantle Plume: A column of hot,

less dense rock rising from the deep ● Mantle Plume : It is a buoyant mass
mantle, which can cause melting of of material in the Earth's mantle rises
the lithosphere above and lead to due to its buoyancy
hotspot volcanism. ● The may involve rising plumes or
➢ Decompression Melting: The liquid metal and light elements
process where hot, solid mantle pumping latent heat outwards from
material rises and experiences a drop the inner-core boundary by
in pressure, causing it to melt and compositional onconvection
form magma.
➢ Basaltic Magma: Magma that is rich
in iron and magnesium, typically low
in silica, which makes it more fluid
 Plate), Rocky Mountains (formed
through various tectonic processes).

3. Volcanic Arcs
Volcanic arcs are chains of volcanoes that
form above subduction zones, where one
tectonic plate moves under another, leading
to volcanic activity.

1. Cratons - Cratons are stable, ancient ➢ Examples: Philippine Mobile Belt

interior parts of continents that form the (Philippines), Japanese Archipelago
foundational crust. They consist of two (formed by the subduction of the
primary types: Pacific Plate beneath the North
American Plate), Indonesian
❖ Shield: Areas where ancient Archipelago (resulting from complex
crystalline rocks are exposed at the subduction processes), Aleutian
surface, typically featuring little to Islands (formed by the subduction of
no sedimentary cover. the Pacific Plate beneath the North
➢ Examples: Canadian Shield American Plate).
(North America), Baltic
Shield (Europe).
❖ Platform: Regions where ancient
rocks are covered by relatively flat or
gently sloping sedimentary strata.
➢ Examples: Australian Craton
(Australia), West Siberian
Craton (Russia).

2. Orogeny - Orogeny are mountain ranges

formed by the collision of tectonic plates,
resulting in uplift and deformation. These
1. Continental Collision
belts of mountains are typically younger
- occurs when two continental plates
than cratons and reflect dynamic geological
converge. This process results in the
processes.
formation of mountain ranges and
➢ Examples: Himalayas (formed by significant geological activity, as neither
the collision of the Indian Plate and plate is subducted due to their similar
the Eurasian Plate), Andes (resulting densities.
from the subduction of the Nazca
Plate beneath the South American
 ➢ Mountain Range Formation: The ➢ Volcanic Activity: The subduction
collision leads to the uplift of land, generates magma, leading to
creating extensive mountain ranges. volcanic activity on the continent,
➢ Geological Activity: High pressure which can form volcanic mountain
and stress from the collision can ranges.
result in seismic activity, including
earthquakes. Example:
The Andes Mountains in South America
Example: were formed by the collision of the Nazca
The Himalayas were formed from the Plate (oceanic) with the South American
collision of the Indian Plate with the Plate (continental). The ongoing subduction
Eurasian Plate. This ongoing tectonic of the Nazca Plate generates significant
activity continues to shape and elevate this volcanic activity, contributing to the
mountain range. mountain range’s elevation.

2. Island Arc-Continent Collision 4. Island Arc Collision

- Island arc-continent collision occurs when
an oceanic island arc collides with a - Island arc collision refers to the
continental landmass. This interaction convergence of two oceanic plates, leading
usually results in the subduction of the to the formation of an island arc through
oceanic plate and the uplift of the volcanic activity.
continental plate.
➢ Volcanic Arc Formation: When two
➢ Subduction Zone Creation: The oceanic plates converge, one may be
oceanic plate beneath the island arc subducted beneath the other, forming
is subducted under the continental a volcanic island arc, which
plate, forming a trench and initiating generates significant volcanic
volcanic activity. activity and creates chains of islands.

Example: Example:
The Japanese archipelago is formed The Aleutian Islands in Alaska are formed
through the collision of surrounding oceanic from the collision of the Pacific Plate with
plates with the continental landmass, leading the North American Plate, resulting in a
to volcanic arcs such as Mount Fuji. series of active volcanoes along the island
arc.
3. Continental-Island Arc Collision
- This type of collision occurs when a
continental plate collides with an oceanic
island arc, resulting in the subduction of the
oceanic plate beneath the continental plate.
 forces combine with lateral movement along
a fault, typically at a restraining bend. This
process causes the land to be pushed
together, resulting in the uplift of land and
the formation of mountain ranges.

➢ Restraining Bend: In contrast to

releasing bends, restraining bends in
strike-slip faults create zones of
1. Transtension (Pull-Apart Basin compression. As the plates push
Formation)- Transtension occurs when against each other, the land is forced
there is both tension (pulling apart) and upward, leading to the creation of
lateral movement along a fault. This often mountain belts.
happens when there is a releasing bend in a ➢ Transpression Forces: These forces
strike-slip or transform fault, where the fault are responsible for the formation of
is stepping in such a way that it causes the mountain ranges (orogens) when two
land to pull apart, forming a depression or land masses are squeezed together
basin. along a fault.

➢ Releasing Bend: This is a key Example:

feature in transtension. It happens The formation of transverse orogens or
when the direction of movement mountain ranges due to transpression can be
along the fault causes the land to seen in certain regions affected by
spread or pull apart, creating space restraining bends in strike-slip faults,
for a depression. although no specific example in the
➢ Strike-Slip Fault Interaction: Philippines is mentioned here.
Right-lateral and left-lateral
movements can create zones of Flower Structures - In areas where
transtension, depending on how the strike-slip faults interact with bending, a
fault bends or steps. unique structural feature called flower
structures can form. These structures come
Example: in two types:
In the Philippines, Lake Mainit in Surigao
is a prime example of a pull-apart basin. It ● Positive Flower Structure: Uplift
was formed due to the left-stepping, occurs, causing the fault blocks to
left-lateral movement of the Philippine rise.
Fault, which caused transtension in the area ● Negative Flower Structure: The
and formed the lake as a depression. fault blocks subside, creating
depressions.
2. Transpression (Transverse Orogen
(note:These features are commonly seen in
Formation) - occurs when compressional
complex fault systems where bending and
lateral movement occur in multiple horizontally and creates a
directions.) mushroom-like structure.
4. Lopolith
A lopolith is a saucer-shaped
intrusion that forms when magma
spreads downward rather than
upward. Like the laccolith, it is
confined by resistant overlying rock
layers, but it bows downward,
creating a concave structure.
5. Phacolith
A phacolith is a lens-shaped
intrusion found along the crest and
trough of folded strata. It forms as
Volcanic Landforms Based on Intrusive
magma intrudes into the curvatures
Structures
of folded rocks, fitting the shape of
1. Sill the folds.
A sill is a concordant igneous 6. Massive Intrusions
intrusion, meaning it forms parallel These include large-scale igneous
to the sedimentary layers (strata). bodies that do not follow specific
Molten material intrudes horizontally layering:
between these layers without cutting a. Batholith: A batholith is a
across them. This results in a massive intrusion with an
horizontal formation within the area greater than 100 km². It
Earth's crust. is typically the core of large
2. Dike magma chambers and forms
A dike is a discordant igneous deep within the Earth.
intrusion, cutting across the b. Stock: A stock is similar to a
sedimentary layers at a steep angle or batholith but smaller, with an
vertically. It forms when magma area of less than 100 km².
forces its way through cracks or c. Boss: The boss is the smallest
fractures in the rock, creating a of the massive intrusions,
vertical or slanted structure. representing a small,
3. Laccolith
A laccolith is a dome-shaped Volcanic Landforms: Pyroclastic
intrusion caused by magma Materials and Lava Flows
accumulating between layers of rock.
1. Pyroclastic Rocks (Tephra)
Due to resistance from the overlying
○ Tephra is a general term for
strata, the magma spreads
fragmental material ejected
 during volcanic eruptions, rapid cooling from the
including: surrounding water leads to
■ Blocks: Large, solid rounded, pillow-like
pieces of volcanic structures instead of the
rock expelled during a blocky appearance typical of
violent eruption. A'a flows. This occurs
■ Bombs: Molten or because the molten material
semi-molten blobs of interacts with the water,
lava that solidify as causing it to cool rapidly and
they are ejected. form rounded shapes.
■ Lapilli: Small 4. Flat Basalts and Oceanic Plateaus
volcanic fragments, ○ Flat Basalts are found on
typically less than 25 continental landmasses,
cm in diameter, formed from the extrusion of
consisting of debris basaltic magma.
from blocks or d. Oceanic Plateaus are
bombs. basaltic plateaus found in
■ Ash: The smallest oceanic regions, resulting
pyroclastic material, from similar extrusion
comprising fine processes along hotspots and
particles released underwater
during eruptions. volcanoes.dome-like igneous
2. Lava Flows body.
○ A'a: Refers to blocky or
rough lava flows that are
cooler and have a jagged
texture. They form from
more viscous lava.
○ Pahoehoe: Describes
smooth, rope-like lava flows
that are high-temperature and
less viscous. This fluidity
results in a smoother texture
and the characteristic
rope-like structures. Types of Volcanic Landforms
3. Pillow Basalts (Pillow Lavas)
○ Pillow lavas are formed 1. Shield Volcanoes
when lava extrudes ○ Broad, gently sloping
underwater, particularly landforms.
along oceanic ridges. The
 ○ Composition: Primarily producing pyroclastic flows
composed of basaltic lava, and ash fall.
which is high-temperature 4. Calderas
and less viscous, allowing it ○ Large depressions formed
to flow over long distances, when a volcano collapses
resulting in a shield-like after a violent eruption.
shape. ○ Formation: Occurs when the
○ Eruption Type: Typically magma chamber beneath a
exhibits effusive eruptions, volcano empties during an
meaning lava flows steadily explosive eruption, leading to
rather than explosively. the collapse of the volcanic
2. Cinder Cone Volcanoes structure. This results in a
○ Steep, conical-shaped depression that can collect
landforms with large craters. water and form lakes.
○ Composition: Comprised of ○ Example: Mount Pinatubo is
pyroclastic materials, a notable example of a
specifically larger cinders caldera formed after a
that accumulate around the significant eruption.
vent during eruptions. 5. Types of Cinder Cones
○ Eruption Type: Known for ○ Cinder cones are a variety of
explosive eruptions, volcanic landforms that can
resulting from the buildup of be further classified into
gas pressure that forces lava specific types such as Skoria
and rock fragments into the Cone, Tuff Cone, and Maar.
air. ○ Characteristics: These
3. Composite Volcanoes variations differ based on the
(Stratovolcanoes) size of their craters and the
○ Tall, steep cones locations of eruptions. For
characterized by alternating example:
layers of lava flow and ■ Tuff: Refers to the
pyroclastic material. pyroclastic rocks
○ Composition: Composed of formed from volcanic
both basaltic and ash deposits.
intermediate lavas, creating
a complex structure due to
the layering process.
○ Eruption Type: These
volcanoes can exhibit
explosive eruptions, often
 3. Mesa
○ Small steep-sided, flat-topped
plateau (Smaller versions of
plateaus with a flat top and
steep sides).
○ Formation: Typically formed
through erosion, particularly
influenced by river activity.
4. Butte
○ Small steep-sided, flat-topped
plateau (Even smaller than
mesas, buttes are isolated
hills with steep sides and a
flat top, often resembling
towers).
5. Monuments
Tectonic Landforms Associated with ○ Tower-like landforms that are
Folding smaller than buttes,
characterized by steep sides
1. Sediplain but lacking a flat top.
○ Large sedimentary plain, 6. Cuesta
Formed from the folding of ○ Ridge formed in gently
strata due to compression, dripping strata with an
resulting in a depression asymmetrical cross-section of
between two elevated areas. escarpment and dip-slope.
○ Formation: Commonly 7. Homocline
occurs when the beds are ○ Ridged formed in moderately
horizontal or have a dripping strata with just about
zero-degree angle of asymmetrical cross-section.
inclination, leading to large
sedimentary plains.
2. Plateaus
○ Extensive flat area formed on
caprock , surrounded by
lower land, and flanked by
scarps
○ Example: An isolated
landform with a flat top
known as caprock, which will
be discussed in detail in the
next session.
 significant amount of
compression.
7. Domes
○ Elevated structures that
create a large elliptical shape,
often formed by upward
folding.
8. Basins
○ Low-lying areas formed by
Types of Folds downward folding, creating a
depression.
1. Anticlines
○ Upward folds where older
strata are located on the
inside (center) and younger
strata on the outside, creating
a convex shape.
2. Synclines
○ Downward folds where
younger strata are located at
the center, forming a
U-shape. Landforms Associated with Faulting
3. Asymmetrical Folds
○ Folds with limbs that have
unequal angles, leading to an
irregular shape.
4. Monoclines
○ Composed of a single limb or
half-fold, typically associated
with deeper underlying
structures.
5. Isoclines
○ Folds with two limbs that 1. Normal Faults
have parallel dipping strata,
forming a U-shape with equal ● In normal faults, the hanging wall
angles of dip. moves downward relative to the foot
6. Recumbent Folds wall due to extensional forces.
○ Folds with limbs that are ● Landforms:
nearly horizontal, close to ○ Horst and Graben
180 degrees, indicating a Structures:
 ■ Horst: An elevated movement of the hanging
block of crust wall.
between two grabens, ○ Window (or Fencer): A
characterized by section of the foot wall
uplift. exposed within the hanging
■ Graben: A depressed wall block, providing insights
block of crust that has into the underlying geology.
dropped down relative ○ Allochthonous Block: A
to the horst. These block of rock that has moved
features often occur in from its original position due
parallel structures. to faulting (associated with
○ Half-Graben Structures: the hanging wall).
These structures occur when ○ Autochthonous Block: A
one side of the fault has block of rock that remains in
dropped down while the other its original position
side remains relatively stable, (associated with the foot
resulting in a tilted landform. wall).

2. Reverse Faults 3. Strike-Slip Faults

● In reverse faults, the hanging wall ● In strike-slip faults, the blocks slide
moves upward relative to the foot past each other horizontally, with
wall, typically due to compressive little to no vertical movement,
forces. caused by shear stress.
● Landforms: ● Landforms:
○ Thrust Faults: A type of ○ Shutter Ridges: Ridges
reverse fault with a low-angle formed as a result of lateral
inclination. movement along the fault,
○ Cliff: A steep face of rock creating offsets in the
formed by the upward landscape.
○ Fault Scarps: Exposed faces
along the fault line where the
fault has displaced the land.
○ Offset Drainage Patterns:
Streams and rivers that have
been displaced or shifted due
to fault movement, leading to
altered flow patterns.
○ Beheaded Streams: Streams
that have been abruptly cut
off or "beheaded" due to
faulting, resulting in
disconnected water bodies.