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Chapter

ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC
CONTROL

presented by: Dr. Minh-Tuan HO

[email protected]
ME3001 – Hydraulic & Pneumatic Engineering 1

Outlines

1. Introduction to Electro-Pneumatics

2. Components and assemblies of Electrical signal control section

3. Electrically actuated DCVs

4. Relay control systems

5. Developing an electropneumatic control system

6. Sample application: project design of a lifting device

7. Review questions

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1. Introduction to Electro-Pneumatics

 Definitions

 Applications

 Advantages / Disadvantages

Introduction to Electro-Pneumatics
Definitions

▪ Electro-pneumatic term is defined from the words of electro

which means electrical and pneumatic which means pressurized
air.
▪ The electro-pneumatic equipments and system is an integration
of electrical and mechanical components with compressed air
source.
▪ Electro-pneumatics is a pneumatic control system where air
pressure and direction of valve are controlled by an electrical
current.

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Introduction to Electro-Pneumatics

Signal flow of a
Pneumatic power
system

Introduction to Electro-Pneumatics

Signal flow of an
Electro-Pneumatic
power system

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Introduction to Electro-Pneumatics
Pneumatic power section

Solenoid actuated Directional control valves form the interface

between the signal control section (electrical) and the pneumatic
power section in an Electro-pneumatic system.

Introduction to Electro-Pneumatics
Electrical signal control section

Solenoid valve

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Introduction to Electro-Pneumatics
Advantages of using Electro-Pneumatics
E-260
Electrical signal
input
(switch panel)
Push Button

▪ Lesser wear-off parts. Lesser installation jobs, i.e. Electrical

control valve, Electrical switches
▪ Replace tube in pneumatic system to electrical wire in electro-
pneumatic
▪ Less parts are used → Reduce working space.
▪ Sensor and Controller (such as PLC) can be included in the
system

2. Components and assemblies of Electrical signal control section

 Signal input elements (switches)

 Signal processing elements

 Structure of the signal control section

 Electrical symbols

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Basic Electrical Devices

Seven basic electrical devices commonly used in the control of fluid
power systems are
1. Manually actuated push button switches
2. Mechanical Position Sensor (Limit switches)
3. Pressure switches
4. Solenoids
5. Relays
6. Timers
7. Temperature switches

Other devices used in electro pneumatics are

1. Proximity switches
2. Electric counters
3. Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

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Input Element - Push Button Switch

Push buttons are of two types

i) Momentary push button – nút nhấn thả/nhả/tạm thời (return to unactuated position when
release)
ii) Maintained contact or latching push button – nút nhấn (tự) giữ (has a detent mechanism –
chốt/khóa to hold it in the selected position)
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Push Button Switch

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Example :
Normally Open (NO) and Normally Close (NC)
In pneumatic circuit :
For example : 3/2-way Push button (valve)

Normally Open Normally Close

In electrical circuit :
For example : Push button switch

Normally Open Normally Close

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(Mechanical) Limit Switch

(Mechanical) Limit switch

A limit switch is actuated when a machine part component (usually a

piston rod or hydraulic motor shaft or the position of load) or workpiece
is in a certain position. Normally, actuation is effected by a cam.

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(Mechanical) Limit switch

(Pneumatic)
3/2-way N.C valve with roller (Limit switch)

(Electro-Pneumatic)
Mechanical Position sensor (Limit switch)

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Proximity switch
▪ Proximity switch contain a transistor
which conducts and switches (trigger
ON) when something comes near to
the sensors.
▪ Contactless actuated without
external mechanical actuating force,
including
o Magnetic proximity (Reed)
switch
o Inductive proximity switch
o Capacitive proximity switch
o Optical proximity switch

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Proximity Reed switch

(NO)
switch
▪ Magnetic Proximity (Reed)
switches are magnetically
actuated proximity switches.
▪ They consist of two contact reeds
in a glass tube filled with inert
gas.
▪ The field of a magnet causes the
two reeds to close, allowing
current to flow.

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Proximity Inductive proximity switch (NO)

switch

▪ Inductive proximity switches operate on the principle of

electromagnetic induction. When an object approaches the sensor's
electromagnetic field, it induces eddy currents, leading to a change in
the sensor's output.
▪ They can be used for the detection of all good electrical conductors
(materials). In addition to metals, these include, for example,
graphite..
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Proximity Capacitive proximity switch (NO)

switch

▪ Capacitive proximity switches not only react to highly conductive

materials (such as metals) but also to insulators of high dielectric
strength (such as plastics, glass, ceramics, fluids and wood).
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Proximity
switch One-way
▪ Optical proximity switches use light barrier
optical and electronic means
for object detection.
▪ Three different types:
o One-way light barrier
Reflective
o Reflective light barrier light barrier

o Diffuse reflective optical

sensor

Diffuse reflective
optical sensor

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Proximity switch
Types Magnetic Inductive Capacitive Optical
Based on that
Based on
Based on current when an object It consists of a
magnetic field.
induced by bets near the light sensor,
Operation When a magnet is
magnetic fields to sensor, it changes which will be
Principle near the reed
detect nearby the. capacitance triggered by an
switch will be
metal objects between the object.
activated.
sensing elements.
Material
Magnet Metallic only All material All material
supported

Operating
<80mm <50mm <50mm 100mm
distance

Cost Low Low Moderate Moderate

Environm
ental Dust, oil,
Magnets, EMI,
factors Metal Objects Humidity& vapors aspect of
Metals
affecting object
Sensitivity

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Proximity switch

Proximity switch

Question :
1. Name the switch type used for START and STOP button.
2. What is the different between A1 and A2 in Electrical circuit?

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Processing element - Relay

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Processing element - Relay

▪ Relay is an electromagnetically actuated switch, contains a coil

and a contactor / multiples contactors switch
▪ When power is applied to relay coil, the core magnetizes, drawing
the contact assembly in.
▪ This will change the state of all the contacts in the relay (i.e., N.O
contact becomes closed or N.C contact becomes open).
▪ Relay uses small amount of power to control switching
(advantage). The voltage applied to the coil doesn’t have to be the
same as that in control circuit.
▪ Relay is used to allow low voltage control systems to switch large
current/ high voltage

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Relay
Contactor
E-140

Coil

When Toggle switch 1S3 is pressed, power is supplied to Relay K1 coil

which result to the all contactors in relay K1 change their state (open
→ close or close → open). Solenoid valve 1Y1 activate to ON

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N.O and N.C wire / cable connection

Normally Close (N.C)

Example : Pin 21 → 22
Normally Open (N.O)
Example : Pin 41 → 44

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Animation (Relay OFF)

Source : UniKL Electro-Pneumatic Lecture Note, 2008

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Animation (Relay ON)

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More about Relays

▪ Relay has a few functions as a safety device:

o The high voltage output (i.e. 240V) can be switched ON through
a contactor using relay with low voltage (i.e. 24V) supplied to a
coil.
o The high current output can be switched ON through a contactor
using relay with low current supplied to a coil.
o Functioned as Safety control circuit for emergency power cut-
off (EMERGENCY START and STOP button) to the whole
circuit.
▪ Use in automation process → Switching more than one outputs
simultaneously using relay with a coil and multiple contactors.
▪ To control ON and OFF of various outputs sequences using several
Relay.

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Processing element - PLC

▪ Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) are used for processing of

signals in binary control systems. The PLC is particularly suitable for
binary control systems with numerous input and output signals and
requiring
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Processing element - PLC

System components of a PLC

▪ The main element (CCU)is a microprocessor system. Programming of the
microprocessors determines:
o Which control inputs (I1, I24 etc.) are read in which order
o How these signals are associated
o Which outputs (O1, O2 etc.) receive the results of signal processing.
▪ In this way, the behavior of the controller is not determined by the wiring
(hardware), but by the program (software).
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Structure of the signal control section

Signal control section of relay control system

▪ Signal control section of relays control system:
o Signal input: switches 1B1 and 1B2 are connected to the controller inputs (I1,
I2 etc.)
o Signal processing: several relay coils and contacts
o Signal output: solenoid of DCV, actuated via the relay contacts, are connected
to the controller outputs (O1, O2 etc.)
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Structure of the signal control section

Signal control section of PLC control system

▪ Signal control section of PLC control system is similar to that of relay control
system. The only difference is the controller (signal-processing block), in which the
relays are replaced by PLC

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Structure of the signal control section

Applications of relay control systems
in Electro-Pneumatics

▪ The entire signal processing needs of an electropneumatic control

system can be implemented with relays.
▪ Nowadays programmable logic controllers (PLC) are commonly used
for signal processing instead of relay control systems.
▪ Relays are still used in modern control systems, however, for
example in an EMERGENCY STOP switching device.
▪ The principal advantages of relay control systems are the clarity of
their design and the ease of understanding their mode of operation.

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Electrical Symbols
▪ In a circuit diagram the components are represented by graphical
symbols that are standardized according to DIN 40900.

Electrical symbols: basic functions

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Electrical Symbols

Graphical symbols for

contacts: basic
functions & delayed
actuation

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Electrical Symbols
Graphical symbols: manually
operated switching devices

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Electrical
Symbols

Graphical symbols:
electromechanical drives

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Electrical
Symbols

Graphical symbols: relays

& contactors (consolidated
representation)

When a voltage is applied to

the winding termination
marked by *, contact labels
are placed at the positions
of the contact elements
marked by *.
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Electrical Symbols

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Electrical Symbols

Graphical symbols: sensors

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3. Electrically actuated DCVs

 3/2 DCVs

 5/2 DCVs

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Solenoid DCV
▪ Solenoid valve is an electro-mechanical device that built-in with a
coil (solenoid) and a pneumatic Directional control valve.
▪ Directional control valve (DCV) solenoid operated use electrical
signals to control pneumatic valves.
▪ They are used to start, to stop and/or to change the direction of air
flow.
▪ There are 2 types operated of directional control valve using
solenoid:
o Directly operated valve
o Pilot operated valve

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1. Directly operated valve

Flow is releases to the consuming device via armature of the solenoid. In order to
obtain a sufficient cross section of opening, a comparably large armature is required.
This consequently requires a powerful return spring and the solenoid to generate a
high force. It is therefore of a large design with high power consumption.

2. Pilot operated valve

The valve piston is moved via an air duct from pressure port 1. This only requires a
Low flow so that a comparatively small armature with minimal actuating force can
be used. A minimum supply pressure is required in order to actuate the piston
against the spring force. Solenoid can be configured in a small design and the
power consumption and heat emission is thus reduced.

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3/2 DCV single solenoid operated with spring

return

The cross sectional view of 3/2 way single solenoid valve in the normal and
actuated positions are shown in Figure. In the normal position, port 1 is blocked and
port 2 is connected to port 3 via back slot (details shown in the circle) When the
rated voltage is applied to coil, armature is pulled towards the centre of the coil and
in the process the armatures is lifted away from the valve seat. The compressed air
now flows from port 1 to port 2, and ports 3 is blocked. When the voltage to the coil
is removed, the valve returns to the normal position.

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5/2 DCV single pilot operated single solenoid

with spring return
The cross section view of 5/2 way single solenoid in the normal and actuated
positions are shown in Figure. In normal position, port 1 is connected to port
2, port 4 is connected to port 5, and port 3 is blocked. When the rated voltage
is applied to coil 14, the valve is actuated through an internal pilot valve. In
actuated position, port 1 is connected to port 4 , port 2 is connected to port 3,
and port 5 is blocked. The valve returns to the normal position when the
voltage to the armature coil is removed.

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5/2 DCV double pilot operated double solenoid

The cross section view of 5/2 way double solenoid in the normal and actuated
positions are shown in the Figure when the rated voltage is applied to coil 14, the
valve is actuated to a one switch in position with port 1 connected to port 4, port 2
connected to port 3, and port 5 blocked. When the rated voltage is applied to the
coil 12, the valve is actuated to the other switching position with port 1 connected
to port 2, port 4 connected to port 5 and port 3 blocked.

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Various solenoid/pilot actuated valves

3/2 DCV single solenoid with manual

override with spring return

3/2 DCV single pilot operated single

solenoid with manual override with
spring return

5/2 DCV single solenoid with single

manual override with spring return

5/2 DCV double solenoid with double

manual override with spring return

5/2 DCV double pilot operated double

solenoid with double manual override

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Solenoid DCV

5/2-DCV double pilot operated

double solenoid

5/2-DCV Single pilot operated

single solenoid with spring
return

3/2-DCV Single pilot operated

single solenoid with spring
return

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Sample circuit

Pneumatic Power Component --- cylinder

Final Control element --- Solenoid valve

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Symbol in Electrical circuit

Solenoid

When Pushbutton switch SW1 is pressed, power is applied to Solenoid

S1 which then change the electrical signal to pneumatic signal and
allow air flow to Left cylinder (single acting with spring return) for rod
to extend.

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Sample Circuit connection

Red cable is a connection

from 24V line.
Blue cable is a connection to
GND (0 V).

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Supply / Power component

In Electro-Pneumatic system, the supply or power source

component is divided into two, based on the system
component.
1. Pneumatic － Compressor
2. Electrical －AC / DC power supply
Symbol for 24V DC

IEC Standard JIC Standard

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4. Relay control systems

 Direct vs. Indirect control

 Logic operations

 Signal storage

 Delay

 Sequence control with signal storage by double solenoid DCV

 Circuit for evaluating control elements

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Direct control
Direct control is the control of an electro-pneumatic valve without
using intermediate components such as a relay, a contactor or an
industrial computer (PLC). The valve solenoid is connected directly to
electric switch as shown in Figure.

Advantages of direct control

•Simple and easy
•Less wiring
•Cheap.

Disadvantages of direct control

•Remote control is not possible
•Switching more than one valve at a
time is not possible
•Latching is not possible
•Design improvement is not flexible.

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Indirect control
Indirect control is the control of an electro-pneumatic valve using
intermediate components such as relays, contactors or programmable
logic controllers (PLC).
Advantages of indirect control systems
•Remote control is possible
•Switching more than one valve at a time is
possible
•Latching is possible.
•Flexible design improvement and development.
•Incorporating logic operating conditions
(OR, AND conditions)

Disadvantages of direct control

•Complicated
•More wiring
•More cost involved
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Logic operations
It is often necessary to combine signals from several control elements
through logic operations.

S1 S2 1Y1 S1 S2 Piston rod

pressed pressed advances
0 0 0 No No No
1 0 1 Yes No Yes
0 1 1 No Yes Yes
1 1 1 Yes Yes Yes Parallel connection of two contacts
(OR circuit)
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Logic operations
It is often necessary to combine signals from several control elements
through logic operations.

S1 S2 1Y1 S1 S2 Piston rod

pressed pressed advances
0 0 0 No No No
1 0 0 Yes No No
0 1 0 No Yes No
1 1 1 Yes Yes Yes Series connection of two contacts
(AND circuit)
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Signal storage
▪ In the circuits that we have looked at so far, the piston rod only
advances if the input pushbutton is actuated. If the pushbutton is
released during the advancing movement, the piston rod is retracted
immediately, without having reached the forward end position.
▪ In practice, it is usually necessary for the piston rod to be fully
advanced, even if the pushbutton is pressed only briefly. To achieve
this, the DCV must remain in the actuated position when the
pushbutton is released; in other words, actuation of the pushbutton
must be stored.

Signal storage with double solenoid DCV

▪ A double solenoid DCV maintains its switching position even when

the associated solenoid coil is no longer energized. It is used as a
storage element.

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Signal storage

Manual forward and return stroke control with double solenoid DCV

▪ The piston rod of a cylinder is to be controlled by brief actuation of

two pushbuttons (S1: advance, S2: retract).
▪ The double solenoid DCV, i.e. storage element, 1V maintains its
switching position even when the associated pushbutton is released.

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Signal storage

Automatic return stroke control with double solenoid DCV

▪ The aim is for the piston rod of a double-acting cylinder to be
advanced when pushbutton S1 is actuated. When the forward end
position is reached, the piston rod is to return automatically.
▪ Limit switch 1S2 is used as input element to actuate solenoid 1Y2,
when the piston rod reaches the forward-end position.
▪ The prerequisite for the return movement is that pushbutton S1 must
first have been released.
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Signal storage

Oscillating movement control with double solenoid DCV

▪ The piston rod of a cylinder is to advance and retract automatically
as soon as control switch S1 is actuated. When the control switch is
reset, the piston rod is to occupy the retracted end position.
▪ Another limit switch 1S1 is used as input element to actuate solenoid
1Y1, when the piston rod reaches the return-end position.
▪ Provided the contact of S1 remains closed, piston rod automatically
reverses at every stroke end. How about S1 is suddenly opened ?
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Signal storage
▪ So far, the control signal is stored at final control element (position
of DCV position is maintained, even when the corresponding
solenoid is de-actuated) due to the nature of double solenoid DCV.
▪ In addition, the control signal can also be stored at signal processing
element, e. g. relay, using latching circuit.

Signal storage
using latching circuit

▪ Brief press “ON” pushbutton energies the coil K1, thus contact K1 closes.
▪ After “ON” pushbutton is released, relay K1 remains in the actuated position →
“ON” signal is stored at the relay.
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Signal storage

Signal storage
using latching circuit

▪ When the "OFF" pushbutton is pressed the flow of current is

interrupted and the relay is in the unactuated position→ “ON” signal
is cleared by the "OFF" pushbutton.
▪ If the "ON" and "OFF" pushbuttons are both pressed at the same
time: the relay is actuated in Dominant ON circuit while it is not
actuated in Dominant OFF circuit.

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Signal storage

Manual forward and return stroke control via relay with latching function
▪ A relay with latching function combined with spring return DCV is
to be used for signal storage.
▪ When pushbutton S1 is pressed, the relay is latched. The DCV is
actuated via another relay contact and piston rod advances. When the
latching is released by actuation of pushbutton S2, the piston rod
retracts.
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Signal storage
Double solenoid DCV vs. latching circuit for signal storage
▪ Signal storage can be effected in the final control element (interface
between power section and signal control section) by means of a
double solenoid DCV, or alternatively, in the signal processing
element (signal control section) by means of a relay with latching
function.
▪ The various circuits behave differently in response to the
simultaneous presence of a setting and resetting signal, and in the
event of failure of the electrical power supply or a wire break.
Double Latching circuit combined with
Situation solenoid spring-return DCV
DCV Dominant ON Dominant OFF
Setting and resetting Valve position Valve moves to
Valve actuated
signal together unchanged neutral position
Failure of electrical Valve position Valve moves to Valve moves to
power supply unchanged neutral position neutral position

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Delay

Delay automatic-return stroke

(delay switch-on relay, storage by double solenoid DCV)
▪ In many applications, it is necessary for the piston rod of a pneumatic cylinder to
remain at a certain position for a set length of time. For example, a pressing device
presses two workpieces together until the adhesive has set.
▪ When pushbutton S1 is actuated, the piston rod advances. When it reaches the
forward end position, limit switch 1S2 closes. Current flows through coil K2.
Contact K2 remains open until the variable time delay (in this case: 10 seconds) has
elapsed. The contact is then closed, and the piston rod retracts.

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Sequence control with signal storage

by double solenoid DCV
▪ In sequence control systems, the
signal storage is an essential
feature. It can be accomplished by
means of either latching relays or
double solenoid DCVs.
▪ The design of a circuit with signal
storage by double solenoid valves
is explained in the following.
Motion sequences
1A+ 2A+ 1A- 2A-
Application example: Feeding device
▪ The positional sketch of a feeding device is shown in Figure. The end
positions of the two cylinders drives 1A and 2A are detected by the
positive switching inductive proximity switches 1B1 and 2B2.
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Sequence control with signal storage

by double solenoid DCV Motion sequences
1A+ 2A+ 1A- 2A-

Displacement-step diagram
of the feeding device

▪ The program-controlled sequence is triggered when the operator presses the "START"
pushbutton. The sequence comprises the following steps:
o Step 1: The piston rod of cylinder 1A advances.
The workpiece is pushed out of the magazine.
o Step 2: The piston rod of cylinder 2A advances.
The workpiece is fed to the machining station.
o Step 3: The piston rod of cylinder 1A retracts.
o Step 4: The piston rod of cylinder 2A retracts.
▪ The "START" button must be pressed again to trigger another feed operation.
▪ The program-controlled sequence of motions of the feeding device is shown in the
displacement-step diagram. 71

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Sequence control with signal storage

by double solenoid DCV

Pneumatic circuit diagram

of the feeding device
▪ The control system is implemented using double-acting cylinders and
5/2- double solenoid DCV.
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Sequence control with signal storage

by double solenoid DCV
Design of the
relay circuit diagram

(shorten) Procedure for

designing the relay circuit
diagram

▪ A systematic approach should be used when designing the relay

circuit diagram.
▪ It makes sense to plan the circuit diagram for sensor evaluation and
the "START" pushbutton first.
▪ The individual steps in the sequence can then be added to the diagram.
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Sequence control with signal storage

by double solenoid DCV
Sensor evaluation

Electrical circuit diagram

with sensor evaluation

▪ In a relay circuit, the signals are combined with each other by the contacts of control
switches, pushbuttons and relays. The electronic proximity switches used here do
not have contacts; instead, they generate an output signal by means of an electronic
circuit.
▪ Each sensor output signal acts on the coil of a relay, which in turn switches the
necessary contact or contacts.
▪ If proximity switch 1B1 is tripped, for example, current flows through the coil of
relay K1. The related contacts switch to the actuated position. 74

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Sequence control with signal storage

by double solenoid DCV
First sequence step

▪ The following preconditions must be satisfied before the sequence

is started:
o Piston rod of cylinder 1A in retracted end position (proximity
switch 1B1 and relay K1 actuated)
o Piston rod of cylinder 2A in retracted end position (proximity
switch 2B1 and relay K3 actuated)
o START pushbutton (S5) actuated
▪ If all of these conditions are met, relay coil K6 is energised. Closed
contact K6 activate solenoid coil 1Y1, and the piston rod of cylinder
1A advances.

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Sequence control with signal storage

by double solenoid DCV

Electrical circuit diagram with

sensor evaluation & first sequence step
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Sequence control with signal storage

by double solenoid DCV Second sequence step

▪ When the piston rod of cylinder 1A reaches the forward end position, sensor 1B2
responds and contact K2 is closed. The second step of the sequence is activated.
Solenoid coil 2Y1 is actuated, and the piston rod of drive 2A advances.
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Sequence control with signal storage

by double solenoid DCV Third sequence step

▪ When the piston rod of cylinder 2A reaches the forward end position, sensor 2B2
responds and contact K4 is closed. The third step of the sequence is activated.
Solenoid coil 1Y2 is actuated, and the piston rod of drive 1A retracts.
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Sequence control with signal storage

by double solenoid DCV Fourth sequence step

▪ When the piston rod of cylinder 1A reaches the retracted end

position, sensor 1B1 responds and contact K1 is closed. The fourth
step of the sequence is activated. Solenoid coil 2Y2 is actuated, and
the piston rod of drive 2A retracts.
▪ Figure shows the complete electrical circuit diagram of the feeding
device, including contact element tables and current path
designations.

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Sequence control with signal storage

by double solenoid DCV

Electrical circuit diagram

of the feeding device 80

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Circuit for evaluating control elements

▪ Important control elements such as a main switch and EMERGENCY
STOP switch are missing in the above (shorten) procedure.
Procedure for designing a control circuit diagram
▪ A standard circuit for evaluation of the control elements usually
provides the basis for the design of a relay circuit. The standard circuit
is then extended with control-specific functions, such as sequence
control and logic operations.
Relay circuit for evaluating control elements
▪ It is stipulated that control switches (latching-type switches) must be
used for switching on electrical power and for the EMERGENCY
STOP function. All other control elements may take the form of either
pushbuttons (momentary-contact switches) or control switches.
▪ In the Figure below, the control elements for "Manual", "Reset",
"Automatic", "Continuous cycle ON", "Continuous cycle OFF" and
"Single cycle Start" are implemented as pushbuttons, as are the
elements for mode selections. 81

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Circuit for evaluating control elements

Design of a relay control system with selection of operating modes by pushbutton

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Circuit for evaluating control elements

Main switch
▪ When the main switch is closed, relay K1 is energised. Voltage is supplied to the
signal control section and the entire system via contact K1.
EMERGENCY STOP
▪ If the EMERGENCY STOP switch is actuated, relay K2 is de-energized and the
associated contacts switch to the normal position.
▪ The EMERGENCY STOP line is connected to the supply voltage via the normally
closed contact of K2. Warning lamps can be actuated via this line, for example.
▪ The "EMERGENCY STOP released" line is de-energized, causing the voltage
supply to the signal control section to be interrupted. As long as EMERGENCY
STOP applies, all control elements except the main switch are rendered inoperative.
Manual operation
▪ When the "Manual" pushbutton is actuated, relay K4 picks up and latches. The line
marked "Manual" in the circuit diagram is connected to the supply voltage. If relay
K3 is latched, the latching is released. The line marked "Automatic" is disconnected
from the supply voltage.
Reset, setup, individual movements
▪ These functions can only be executed in manual mode. Power is therefore supplied
to the associated contacts and relays via the line marked "Manual". 83

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Circuit for evaluating control elements

Automatic operation
▪ When the "Automatic" pushbutton is actuated, relay K3 is energised and latches.
The line marked "Automatic" in the circuit diagram is connected to the supply
voltage. If relay K4 is latched, the latching is released, and the line marked
"Manual" is disconnected from the supply voltage.
Continuous cycle ON, Continuous cycle OFF, Single cycle Start
▪ These functions are only possible in automatic mode. Electrical power is therefore
supplied to the associated contacts and relays via the line marked "Automatic".
▪ If "Automatic" mode is selected (relay K3 latched) and "Continuous cycle ON" is
active (relay K5 latched), the control system runs in continuous operation. This
means that when one movement cycle is completed, the next one follows
automatically.
▪ Actuating the "Continuous cycle OFF" pushbutton releases the latching of relay K5.
The program-controlled sequence stops as soon as the last step in the sequence is
completed.
▪ When the "Single cycle Start" pushbutton is actuated, the sequence (movement
cycle) is executed once only.
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5. Developing an electropneumatic control system

 Procedure for developing a control system

 Project design procedure

 Implementation procedure

 Documentation

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Procedure for developing a control system

▪ The field of application for electropneumatic controls ranges from
partially automated workstations to fully automated production
facilities with numerous stations.
▪ Accordingly, the design and range of functions of such control
systems varies greatly. Electropneumatic control systems are
therefore developed individually, tailored to a particular project.
▪ Development of a control system entails:
o Project design (preparation of the necessary plans and documents)
o Selection and configuration of the electrical and pneumatic
equipment
o Implementation (setting up and commissioning)
▪ A systematic, step-by-step procedure helps to avoid mistakes. It also
makes it easier to stay within budget and keep to time schedules.

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86

Procedure for
developing a control system

Procedure for development of an

electro-pneumatic control system

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Project design procedure

Procedure of a project design:

1. Formulation of the control task and stipulation of the requirements to
be met by the control system.
2. Conceptual design of the control system and selection of the
necessary components.
3. Graphical representation of the control task.
4. Planning of the control system and preparation of diagrams and parts
lists.

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Project design procedure

Formulation of task definitions
▪ All requirements must be carefully, precisely and clearly defined. The
following aids have proved useful in this work:
o Lists or forms which help to record all requirements quickly and
completely (see example Table)
o Tables listing drive units, valves and sensors
o A positional sketch showing the spatial arrangement of the drive
units
▪ The requirements to be met by the control system must be agreed
upon jointly by the developer and operator of the control system. It is
also of benefit if the developer of the control system familiarizes him-
or herself with the ambient conditions and installation circumstances
on location.

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Project design procedure

Formulation of task definitions

Table specifying requirements to be met

by an electropneumatic control system

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Project design procedure

Stipulation of how to implement control system
Conceptual design of an electropneumatic control system
▪ Electropneumatic control systems can be designed according to
widely differing concepts. Examples include:
o With a PLC or with relays for signal processing
o With separately installed directional control valves or with directional control
valves mounted in a valve terminal
o With standard cylinders or with cylinders featuring auxiliary functions (such as
linear guides, end position cushioning, slots for attachment)
▪ The conceptual design of the control system has a decisive influence
on the expense of further development, i.e. the cost of planning,
setting up and commissioning the control system. Measures to reduce
expenditure include:
o Modular control system design (use of identical circuit and program modules
for different control configurations)
o Using state-of-the-art components and assemblies (such as bus systems and
valve terminals)
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Project design procedure

Stipulation of how to implement control system
Selection of components

▪ Once the overall concept of the control system is in place, the

necessary components can be chosen. These include:
o Pneumatic drive units
o Pneumatic valves
o Control elements
o Proximity switches, pressure switches etc.
o PLC or types of relays to be used

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Project design procedure

Graphical representation of the control task

▪ Before work is started on drawing up the circuit diagrams, certain

points have to be clarified:
o How many steps are needed in the sequence
o Which drives are actuated in each step
o Which sensor signals or what length of waiting time triggers the
next step in the sequence
▪ Clarification and illustration of the sequence is most easily done
using graphical methods, for example, with a displacement-step
diagram, a displacement-time diagram, a function diagram or a
sequential function chart.

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Project design procedure

Design of control system

▪ The last stage of project engineering involves compiling all

documents that are necessary for setting up the control system. These
include:
o Parts list
o Pneumatic circuit diagram
o Electrical circuit diagram
o Terminal diagram
▪ The presentation of circuit and terminal diagrams in accordance with
the relevant standards.

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Implementation Procedure

▪ Implementation of an electropneumatic control system entails:

o Procuring all necessary components
o Installing the control system
o Programming (if a PLC is being used)
o Commissioning the control system

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Implementation Procedure
Procedure for installing the control system

▪ The following items must be available before installing the control

system:
o Complete circuit diagrams and terminal diagrams
o All electrical and pneumatic components in accordance with the
parts list
▪ In order to prevent errors being made in assembly, tube connection
and wiring, the work is carried out in a fixed, invariable sequence.
One possibility, for example, is always to connect the tubing in the
pneumatic power section starting from the power supply via the
valves through to the cylinders.

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Implementation Procedure
Programming a PLC
▪ If a programmable logic controller (PLC) is used, the motion
sequence of the pneumatic drives is determined by the program. The
basis for developing the PLC program is provided by either a
function diagram or a function chart. Program development can be
carried out concurrently with setting up the control system.
▪ Any program errors revealed in translation or during testing must be
corrected. The following program development steps must
subsequently be run through again. This process must be repeated
until all detectable errors have been eliminated.
▪ The final functional test for the program cannot be carried out until
the electropneumatic control system as a whole is commissioned.
When installation of the control system and program development is
completed, the program is loaded into the main memory of the PLC.
The electropneumatic control system is then prepared for
commissioning. 97

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Implementation Procedure
Programming a PLC

Development steps of a PLC program

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Implementation Procedure
Commissioning
▪ Commissioning has three main purposes:
o Testing operation of the control system under all conditions occurring in
practice
o Carrying out the necessary settings on the control system (adjustment of
proximity switches, setting of throttles etc.)
o Correcting errors in the control system
▪ The pneumatic power section should initially be operated with
reduced supply pressure. This reduces the risk of personnel coming to
harm and/or the installation being damaged (for example if two piston
rods collide) if there are faults in the control system.
▪ To complete the commissioning procedure, the documentation must
be updated. This means:
o Entering current setting values
o Correcting circuit diagrams and terminal diagrams where appropriate
o If necessary, printing out the revised PLC program
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Implementation Procedure
Commissioning
Preparation for acceptance test certificate

▪ Once the control system is working faultlessly and the operator of the
control system is convinced that it is functioning properly,
development is completed. Handover of the control system from the
developer to the operator involves the following:
o The declaration of conformity
o Familiarization of maintenance and operating staff
o Handover to maintenance staff of the documents necessary for
maintenance, service and repair (see following Figure)
o Preparation of an acceptance test certificate to be countersigned by
the responsible developer and the operator of the control system

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Implementation Procedure
Commissioning
Preparation for acceptance test certificate

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Implementation Procedure
Commissioning
Maintenance, service and repair

▪ Malfunctions and failures in a control system prove very expensive

because production or parts of production are at a standstill for the
duration of the failure.
▪ In order to avert failure, maintenance and service work is carried out
at specified intervals. Components susceptible to wear are replaced as
a preventive measure. If faults occur despite this action, the failed
components have to be repaired or replaced.
▪ Maintenance, service, troubleshooting and repair are made easier if
all components of the control system are arranged in a clear, easily
accessible layout.

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Documentation
▪ The set of documentation for an electropneumatic control system
comprises a range of documents:
o Function diagram or function chart (representation of the control
sequence)
o Pneumatic and electrical circuit diagram (representation of the
interaction of all components)
o Terminal allocation list (representation of the wiring allocation
of terminal strips in switchboxes and terminal boxes)
o Parts lists
o Positional sketch
▪ It is essential for the circuit diagrams and terminal diagram to be
available to the maintenance staff so that malfunctions and faults
can be quickly located and corrected. In many cases troubleshooting
is made easier if a function diagram or function chart, positional
sketch and parts lists are available. These records should therefore
be included with the documentation of each control system. 103

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Documentation Function diagram

▪ Four steps are required for the bending
operation:
o Step 1: Advance piston rod of
cylinder 1A (clamp workpiece)
o Step 2: Advance piston rod of
cylinder 2A (bend metal sheet)
o Step 3: Retract piston rod of
cylinder 2A (retract bending
fixture)
Positional sketch o Step 4: Retract piston rod of
cylinder 1A (release workpiece)
▪ A sheet-metal bending device has two double-acting pneumatic cylinder drives
that are actuated with spring-return 5/2-way valves.
o Cylinder 1A is used to clamp the workpiece. Proximity switches 1B2 (forward
end position) and 1B1 (retracted end position) and a 5/2-way valve with
solenoid coil 1Y1 are assigned to this cylinder.
o Cylinder 2A (forward end position: proximity switch 2B2, rear end position:
proximity switch 2B1, 5/2-way valve with solenoid coil 2Y1) executes the
bending process. 104

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Documentation Function diagram

Motion sequences
1A+ 2A+ 2A- 1A-
▪ The sequence
of motions of
an
electropneumat
ic control
system is
illustrated in
graphical form
by means of a
Function
diagram.
Displacement-step diagram
▪ The movements of the piston rods are shown in the displacement-
step diagram. The individual movement steps are numbered
consecutively from left to right. If there is more than one power
component, the movements of the piston rods are plotted one below
the other.
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Documentation Function diagram

Motion sequences
1A+ 2A+ 2A- 1A-

Displacement-time diagram
▪ In a displacement-time diagram the movements of the piston rods are plotted as a
function of time. This form of representation highlights the different lengths of
time needed for individual steps.
▪ The displacement-time diagram for the sheet-metal bending device shows that
advancing the piston rod of cylinder 2A (step 2) takes considerably longer than
retracting it (step 3). 106

106

Documentation
Function diagram
Advantages and Disadvantages

▪ Although Function diagrams are no longer standardized, they are

still frequently used in practice.
▪ They are predominantly suited to simple control systems with few
control chains.
▪ The mode of operation of an electropneumatic control system can be
represented very vividly with a function diagram. Logical
associations and mutual influencing of the various control chains can
be represented by signal lines in the function diagram.
▪ For the application examined here it is more appropriate to represent
only the drive movements in a displacement-step or displacement-
time diagram.
▪ The sequence and signal logic are better documented by other
means, for example a sequential function chart.
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Documentation
Sequential Function Chart (SFC)
(GRAFCET)

▪ A Sequential Function Chart (SFC) in accordance with DIN/EN

40719/6 can be used for graphical representation of a control system
irrespective of the technology used.
▪ Function charts are used in many fields of automation for planning
and documenting sequence controls, for example in power stations,
industrial process engineering facilities or material flow systems.
▪ The SFC standard is based on GRAphe Fonctionnel de Commande
Étape Transition (GRAFCET)

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108

Documentation
Structure of a SFC

▪ SFC has a sequence-oriented structure. It comprises the following:

o Representation of the steps in the sequence by step fields and command fields
o Representation of transitions by connection lines and transition conditions
▪ Each step field is numbered in accordance with the sequence. The initial state of
the sequence (basic setting of the control system) is identified by a step field with
a double frame 109

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Documentation
Structure of a SFC

▪ Each command field identifies an operation that is executed in a particular step,

and is sub-divided into three parts.:
o The type of the command is shown in the left-hand part. Non-storing (N), for
example, means that the output is actuated for this step only. Table below
gives an overview of the possible types of commands.
o The effect of the command, for example to advance a cylinder drive, is shown
in the central part.
o The feedback signal acknowledging execution of the command is entered in
the right-hand part (for example in the form of a number or by specifying the
corresponding sensor).
▪ If more than one operation is executed in one step, there will be more than one
command field associated with the step.
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110

Documentation
Structure of a SFC

Types of commands in a SFC

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Documentation
Structure of a SFC

A transition in a SFC
▪ Transition from one step to the next does not take place until the
associated transition condition has been satisfied.
▪ In order to improve the overall clarity of the SFC, the transition
conditions are numbered. The numbering refers to the step and the
command whose acknowledgement is evaluated.
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112

Documentation
Structure of a SFC

Means of representing transition conditions in a SFC

▪ Logical associations between transition conditions can be
represented by text, Boolean expressions, logic symbols or
standardized circuit symbols.
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Documentation
Structure of a SFC

Parallel branching and parallel union in a SFC

▪ Parallel branching and parallel union are used in function charts
when more than two or more part sequences have to be executed in
parallel.
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Documentation
Structure of a SFC

Sequence selection and convergence in a SFC

▪ If it is necessary to process different sequences depending on the state of the
control system, this is represented in the SFC by sequence selection and sequence
convergence.
▪ In the example Figure, if transition condition 2 is met after completion of step 36,
only the right-hand branch is executed. As soon as step 57 has been processed and
transition condition 4 is met, the sequence is continued with step 60 following
convergence. 115

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Documentation
Structure of a SFC

SFC for the bending device

▪ The (right) Figure shows the SFC for the sheet-metal bending device
(left Figure). Four sequence steps are executed during one movement
cycle.

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Documentation
SFC
Advantages and Disadvantages
▪ As an aid to planning and troubleshooting, the SFC has the
following advantages:
o The mode of operation of the signal control section can be documented down
to the last detail.
o The key characteristics of a control system can be visualized in graphical form
(important especially when planning and documenting large control systems).
o The sequence-oriented structure makes it easy to determine when which step
enabling conditions are necessary and when which output signals are set.
o The finalized control system can be implemented at relatively low cost on the
basis of a detailed function chart.
▪ In relation to electropneumatic control systems, the major
disadvantage of SFCs is that the movement pattern of the drives is
not represented in graphical form. As a result, a SFC is less visually
clear than a function diagram. It is therefore often useful to prepare a
displacement-step or displacement-time diagram in addition to a
SFC. 117

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Documentation Pneumatic circuit diagram

▪ The pneumatic circuit diagram of a control system shows how the

various pneumatic components are connected to each other and how
they interact. The graphical symbols representing the components are
arranged so as to obtain a clear circuit diagram in which there is as
little crossing of lines as possible. A pneumatic circuit diagram
therefore does not reveal the actual spatial arrangement of the
components.
▪ In a pneumatic circuit diagram the components are represented by
graphical (circuit) symbols, which are standardized according to
DIN/ISO 1219-1. It must be possible to recognize the following
characteristics from a graphical symbol:
o Type of actuation
o Number of ports and their designations
o Number of switching positions
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Documentation Pneumatic circuit diagram

Circuit layouts

▪ The layout of a pneumatic circuit diagram, the arrangement of the

graphical symbols and the identification and numbering of the
components are standardized according to DIN/ISO 1219-2. In the
case of an electropneumatic control system, the symbols are arranged
in the circuit diagram as follows:
o Power components at the top
o Beneath those, valves with an influence on speed (such as flow
control valves, non-return valves)
o Beneath those, control elements (directional control valves)
o Power supply at the bottom left
▪ For control systems with several power components, the symbols for
the various drive units are drawn alongside each other. The symbols
for the associated valves are arranged beneath each drive symbol.

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Documentation Pneumatic circuit diagram

States / positions of cylinders and DCVs

▪ All components in a pneumatic circuit diagram are represented as if

the electrical signal control section is in the de-energized condition.
This means:
o The solenoid coils of the directional control valves are not
actuated.
o The cylinder drives are in the initial position.

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130

Documentation Pneumatic circuit diagram

Pneumatic circuit diagram

of an electropneumatic control system
with three control chains
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Documentation Pneumatic circuit diagram

Identification code for components

▪ Every component (apart from connection lines and connecting tubes) is identified by
identification code, enclosed within a frame, contains the following information:
o Unit number (digit; may be omitted if the entire circuit consists of one unit)
o Circuit number (digit, mandatory)
o Component identification (letter, mandatory)
o Component number (digit, mandatory)
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Documentation Pneumatic circuit diagram

Unit number

▪ If there are several units and electropneumatic control systems in a

particular plant, the unit number (or installation number) helps to
clarify the assignment between circuit diagrams and control systems.
▪ All pneumatic components of a control system (unit) are identified by
the same unit number.
▪ In the (above) example circuit diagram the unit number is not shown
in the identification code.

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Documentation Pneumatic circuit diagram

Circuit number

▪ Preferably all components belonging to the power supply should be

identified by circuit number 0. The other circuit numbers are then
assigned to the various control chains (= circuits). The following
assignments apply to the control system shown in the above Figure:
o Power supply and main switch: number 0
o Control chain "Insertion/clamping": circuit number 1
o Control chain "Drilling": circuit number 2
o Control chain "Sliding table": circuit number 3

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Documentation Pneumatic circuit diagram

Component identification and component number
▪ Every component in an electropneumatic
control system is assigned a component Component Identifica
identification and a component number in tion code
the circuit diagram. Compressor P
▪ Within each circuit, components with the
Power component A
same component identification are
numbered consecutively from the bottom to Drive motor M
the top and from left to right. Sensor S
▪ The valves in the "Insertion/clamping" Valve V
control chain (circuit 1 in the circuit
Valve coil Y*
diagram) are therefore identified as
follows: Other components Z**
o Directional control valve: 1V1 (circuit * national supplement in German
number 1, component identification V, standard
component number 1)
** or any other letter not included
o One-way flow control valve: 1V2 in the list
(circuit number 1, component
identification V, component number 2)
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Documentation Pneumatic circuit diagram

Technical information

▪ In order to facilitate assembly of a control system and the

replacement of components when carrying out maintenance, certain
components in a pneumatic circuit diagram are identified by
additional information:
o Cylinders: piston diameter, stroke and function (such as
"Insertion/clamping")
o Compressed air supply: supply pressure range in 𝜇𝑚 or 𝑏𝑎𝑟, rated
volumetric flow rate in 𝑙/𝑚𝑖𝑛
o Filters: nominal size in 𝜇𝑚
o Tubes: nominal internal diameter in 𝑚𝑚
o Pressure gauges: pressure range in 𝜇𝑚 or 𝑏𝑎𝑟

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Documentation
Electrical circuit diagram

▪ The electrical circuit diagram of a control system shows how the

electrical control components are interconnected and how they
interact. Depending on the task definition, the following types of
circuit diagram are used in compliance with DIN/EN 61082-2:
o Overview diagram
o Function diagram
o Circuit diagram

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Documentation
Electrical circuit diagram
▪ An overview diagram provides an overview of the electrical
apparatus of a relatively large system, for example a packing machine
or an assembly unit. It shows only the most important
interdependencies. The various subsystems are shown in greater
detail in other diagrams.
▪ A function diagram illustrates the individual functions of a system.
No account is taken of how these functions are executed.
▪ A circuit diagram shows the details of the design of systems,
installations, apparatus etc. It contains:
o Graphical symbols for the items of equipment
o Connections between these items
o Equipment identifiers
o Terminal identifiers
o Other details necessary for tracing the paths (signal identifiers, notes on the
representation location)
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Documentation
Electrical circuit diagram

Consolidated an distributed representation

in a circuit diagram

▪ If consolidated representation is used for a circuit diagram, each

device is represented as a single coherent symbol, i.e. for example
even a relay that has more than one normally open and normally
closed contact.
▪ If distributed representation is used for a circuit diagram, the various
components of a device may be drawn at different locations. They are
arranged in such a way as to obtain a clear representation with
straight lines and few line intersections. The normally closed and
normally open contacts of a relay, for example, can be distributed
throughout the circuit diagram as appropriate.

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Documentation
Electrical circuit diagram

Electrical circuit diagram

of an electro-pneumatic control system
▪ A circuit diagram with distributed representation is used to represent
the signal control section in electro-pneumatics. It is only if control
systems are very large that an overview diagram or function diagram
is prepared in addition.
▪ In practice, the term "electrical circuit diagram of a electropneumatic
control system" always refers to the circuit diagram within the
meaning of DIN/EN 61082-2.

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Documentation
Electrical circuit diagram
Electrical circuit diagram
of an electro-pneumatic control system
▪ In the circuit diagram of an electropneumatic control system the
graphical symbols of the components required to implement logic
circuits and sequences are entered consecutively from the top to the
bottom and from left to right. Relay coils and valve coils are always
drawn beneath the contacts.
▪ Other measures to ensure that a circuit diagram is easy to read
include:
o Division into individual current paths
o Identification of devices and contacts by letters and numbers
o Subdivision into a control circuit and main circuit
o Preparation of tables of contact elements

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Documentation Electrical circuit diagram

Electrical circuit diagram S1 = Main switch
of an electro-pneumatic control system S2 = Start switch
S3 = Acknowledgement switch
1S1/1S2 = Limit switch
1B1 = Pressure switch

All relay contacts are

changeover contacts 142

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Documentation
Electrical circuit diagram
Electrical circuit diagram
of an electro-pneumatic control system

▪ The individual current paths of an electropneumatic control system

are drawn alongside each other in the circuit diagram and numbered
consecutively.
▪ The circuit diagram of an electropneumatic control system shown in
the Figure has 10 current paths.
o Current paths 1 to 8 belong to the control circuit.
o Current paths 9 and 10 to the main circuit.

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Documentation Electrical circuit diagram

▪ The components in the circuit
diagram of a control system are Identification of components
identified by a letter. Components
with identical identifying letters are Component Identifica
assigned consecutive numbers (for tion code
example 1S1, 1S2 etc.).
Limit switch S
▪ Sensors and valve coils must be
represented both in the pneumatic Manually operated
S
circuit diagram and the electrical pushbutton, input elements
circuit diagram. To ensure that Reed switch B
there is no ambiguity and that the Electronic proximity switch B
diagrams are easy to read, the
symbols in both types of diagram Pressure switch B
should be identified and numbered Indicator H
in the same way. For example, if a Relay K
certain limit switch is designated
Contactor K
1S1 in the pneumatic circuit
diagram, the same identification Solenoid coil of a valve Y
should also be used in the electrical
circuit diagram.
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Documentation Electrical circuit diagram

Identification of components

▪ The components shown in the circuit diagram (example Figure) are

identified as follows:
o Manually operated switches S1, S2 and S3
o Limit switches 1S1 and 1S2
o Pressure switch 1B1
o Relays K1, K2, K3 and K4
o Solenoid coil 1Y1
o Lamp H1

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Documentation Electrical circuit diagram

▪ In order to ensure error-free wiring Terminal designations
of contacts, all connections on a of contacts and relays
component and in the circuit Contact type Function
diagram are identified in the same number
way.
Normally closed contact 1, 2
▪ Each connection of a contact is
assigned a function number. The Normally open contact 3, 4
function numbers for different types Normally closed contact, delayed 5, 6
of contact are listed in Table. Normally open contact, delayed 7, 8
▪ If a switch, relay or contactor has Changeover contact 1, 2, 4
more than one contact, they are
numbered by means of sequence Changeover contact, delayed 5, 6, 8
numbers prefixed to the function
number as in the Figure.

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Documentation Electrical circuit diagram

Graphical symbols
and terminal designations
for a relay

▪ The Figure shows a sectional view of a relay with its associated

terminal designations. The terminals of a relay coil are designated A1
and A2. 147

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Documentation Electrical circuit diagram

Terminal designations
of contacts and relays

▪ In the circuit diagram in the example Figure, the terminals of relay

K1 are identified as follows:
o Coil (current path 2): A1, A2
o Normally open contact (current path 3): 11, 14
o Normally open contact (current path 10): 21, 24

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Documentation
Electrical circuit diagram
Contact element table

▪ All contacts actuated by a relay coil or contactor coil are listed in a

contact element table. The contact element table is placed beneath the
current path containing the relay coil. Contact element tables may be
shown in either simplified or detailed form.
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Documentation
Electrical circuit diagram
Contact element table

▪ There are a total of 4 contact element tables in the circuit diagram in

the example Figure:
o Current path 2: contact element table for relay K1
o Current path 4: contact element table for relay K2
o Current path 5: contact element table for relay K3
o Current path 8: contact element table for relay K4

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Documentation
Electrical circuit diagram
Actuated contacts and sensors

▪ The electrical circuit diagram is shown in the de-energized state

(electric power supply switched off). If limit switches are actuated in
this position, they are identified by an arrow. The associated contacts
are also shown in the actuated position.
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6. Sample application: project design of a lifting device

 Task definitions

 Conceptual design and component selections

 Graphical representation of control system

 Design of control system

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Sample application: project design of a lifting device

Positional sketch
▪ A lifting device transfers
workpieces from one
roller conveyor to another
at a different height.
▪ The task is to carry out
the project engineering
for the associated
electropneumatic control
system.

o Drive 1A lifts the workpieces.

o Drive 2A pushes the workpieces onto the
Motion sequences upper roller conveyor.
3A- 3A+ 2A+ 2A-
o Drive 3A is used as a stopper, for releasing
1A+ 1A-
and interrupting the supply of workpieces.
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7. Review questions

 Objective type questions

 Closed-ended questions

 Open-ended questions

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References
1. A. Esposito, Fluid power with applications, 7e, Pearson, 2014
2. P. Chapple, Principle of hydraulic systems design, 2e,
Momentum Press, 2015
3. Festo Didactic GmbH & Co
4. M.M. Abootorabi, Hydraulics & Pneumatics, Yazd University

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