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Control Systems
Second Edition
BSP BS Publications
4-4-309, Giriraj Lane, Sultan Bazar,
Hyderabad - 500 095 - A.P.
Phone: 040-23445605,23445688
Copyright © 2008 by Publisher
All rights reserved
No part of this book or parts thereof may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any language or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publishers.
Published by :
SSP BS Publications
4-4-309, Giriraj Lane, Sultan Bazar,
Hyderabad - 500 095 - A.P.
Phone: 040-23445605,23445688
e-mail: [email protected]
www.bspublications.net
Printed at
Adithya Art Printers
Hyderabad
1 Introduction 1
1. 1 Why Automatic Control ? .................................................................... 1
1.2 Open Loop and Closed Loop Control Systems ................................ 2
1.3 Open Loop Vs Closed Loop Control Systems ................................... 3
1.4 Feedback Control Systems ................................................................ 4
1.5 Classification of Control Systems ...................................................... 4
1.5.1 Continuous Time Feedback Control Systems ..................... 5
1.5.2 Discrete Data Feedback Control Systems .......................... 5
1.5.3 Linear Control Systems ........................................................ 6
1.5.4 Non-Linear Control Systems ................................................ 6
,
6 Frequency Response of Control Systems 190
6.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 190
6.2 Time Domain AnalysiS Vs Frequency Domain Analysis ................ 190
6.3 Frequency Response of a Control System ................................... 191
6.4 Correlation Between Time Response and
Frequency Response ..................................................................... 194
Contents
-djJ-
"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"
1 Introduction
The first automatic control was invented by James Watt. He employed a centrifugal or fly ball
governor for the speed control of a steam engine in 1770. But much of the advances had to wait for
more than a hundred years, until Minorsky, Hazen and Nyquist contributed significantly in the
development of control system theory. Hazen coined the word "servo mechanisms" to describe feedback
control systems in which the variable to be controlled is a mechanical position, velocity or acceleration
of a given object. During 1940s, frequency response methods and root 'locus techniques were developed
to design linear, stable, closed loop control systems with given performance measures. In later part
of 1950s, much emphasis was given in designing systems, which not only satisfied given performance
measures, but also provided optimum design in a given sense. As the systems became more and more
complex with more number of inputs and outputs and with the advent of digital computers, modern
control theory r~\lerted back to methods based on time domain analysis and synthesis using state
variable representations.
In the period between 1960 and 1980, to cope up with the complexity and stringent requirements
on accuracy, speed and cost adaptive control was developed. Both deterministic and stochastic systems
were considered and controllers were designed which were optimal, adaptive and robust. The principles
developed in automatic control theory were not only used in engineering applications, but also in non
engineering systems like economic, socio economic systems and biological systems.
Feedback b(t)
signal
Input I
r(t) ----I.~ Controller
I u(t) ~I
....
Plant I
.
Outpu.:. c(t)
...
Sampler
c(t)
A further classification of control systems can be made depending on the nature of the systems,
namely,
1. Linear control systems
2. Non-linear control systems
1.5.3 Linear Control Systems
If a system obeys superposition principle, the system is said to be a linear system. Let xl (t) and x2(t)
be two inputs to a system and Yl(t) and Yit) be the corresponding outputs. For arbitrary real constants
kl and~, and for input kl xl(t) + ~ x 2(t), if the output of the system is given by kl Yl(t) + k2 Y2(t),
then the system is said to be a linear system. There are several simple techniques available for the
analysis and design of linear control systems.
x(t) _ _..J~~ System 1----.. y(t) x (t- T) ----.!~ System 1----.. Y (t-' T)
(a) (b)
On the other hand, if the output is dependent on the time of application of the input, the system is
said to be a time varying system. Like non-linear systems, time varying systems also are more
complicated for analysis. In this text we will be dealing with linear time invariant continuous systems
only.
The layout of this book is as follows:
The mathematical modelling of processes suitable for analysis and design of controllers is discussed
in Chapter 2. Typical examples from electrical, mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic systems are
given. The transfer function of the overall system is obtained by block diagram and signal flow graph
representation of the systems. The effects of feedback on the performance of the system are also
discussed. .
In chapter 3, time domain specifications of the control system are defined with respect to the
response of a typical second order system, for unit step input. Steady state errors are defined and the
use of PID controllers is discussed to satisfy the design specifications of a control system. In chapter
4, the stability aspects of the system are discussed and algebraic criteria for obtaining the stability of
the system are developed.
Introduction 7
The roots of the characteristic equation of the system determine the behaviour and stability of a
control system. The roots change as the parameters are changed. The concept of the locus of these
roots as one of the parameters, usually the gain of the amplifier, is changed from 0 to 00 is discussed
in chapter 5. The design of a control system is rendered very easy by considering the response of the
system to sinusoidal signals. Frequency domain analysis and development of frequency domain
specifications are discussed in chapter 6.
Relative stability aspects are considered in chapter 7. Nyquist stability criterion is developed and
measures of relative stability, viz, gain margin on phase margin are dermed.
In chapter 8, design of compensating RC networks to satisfy the design specifications of a control
system in frequency domain is discussed. In chapter 9, state space representation of control systems
is developed, which enables modern techniques to be used in the design of control systems.
-~-
2 Mathematical Modelling of
Physical Systems
2.1 Introduction
Whenever a task is to be performed, a set of physical objects are connected together and a suitable
input is given to them, to obtain the desired output. This group of objects is usually termed as the
'system'. The system may consist of physical objects and it may contain components, biological
economical or managerial in nature. In order to analyse, design or synthesise a complex system, a
physical model has to be obtained. This physical model may be a simplified version of the more
complex system. Certain assumptions are made to describe the nature of the system. Usually all
physical systems in the world are nonlinear in nature. But under certain conditions these systems may
be approximated by linear systems. Hence for certain purposes, a linear model may be adequate. But
if stringent accuracy conditions are to be satisfied, linear model may not be suitable. Similarly, the
parameters of the system may be functions of time. But if they are varying very slowly, they may be
assumed to be constant. In many engineering systems the elements are considered to be lumped and
their behaviour is described by considering the effect at its end points called terminals. Long lines
transmitting electrical signals, may not be adequately represented by lumped elements. A distributed
parameter representation may be called for in this case. Hence depending on the requirements of a
given job, suitable assumptions have to be made and a 'physical model' has to be first defined. The
behaviour of this physical model is then described in terms of a mathematica~ model so that known
techniques of mathematical analysis can be applied to the given system.
x,(t)
• •
I LInear element
An element is said to be 'lumped' if the physical dimensions or spacial distribution of the element
does not alter the signal passing through it. The behaviour of such elements are adequately represented
by the effects at the end points called terminals. The temperature of a body may be treated as same,
at all points of the body under certain conditions. Similarly the mass of a body may be considered as
concentrated at a point. A rotating shaft may be considered as rigid. An electrical resistor may be
represented by a lumped element, since the current entering at one terminal leaves the other terminal
without undergoing any change. The voltage distribution in the physical body of the resistor is not
considered. Only the voltage across its terminals is taken for analysis. These are some examples of
lumped elements.
If the parameters representing the elements are not changing with respect to time, the element is
said to be time invariant. Thus if a system is composed of linear, lumped and time invariant
elements, its behaviour can be modelled by either linear algebraic equations or linear differential
equations with constant coefficients. If the input output relations are algebraic, the system is said to
be a static system. On the other hand, if the relations are described by differential equations, the
system is said to be a dynamic system. We are mostly concerned with dynamic response of the
systems and therefore, one ofthe ways by which a system is mathematically modelled is by differential
equations. Another most useful and common mathematical model is the Transfer function' of the
system. It is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of the output to the Laplace transform of the
input. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.2.
C
R (s) .LI__T_(_S)_---If----(.!)
Fig. 2.2 Transfer function of a system
In defining the transfer function, it is assumed that all initial conditions in the system are zero.
Having defined the two common ways of describing linear systems, let us obtain the
mathematical models of some commonly occuring Electrical, Mechanical, Thermal, Fluid, Hydraulic
systems etc.
2.2.1 Electrical Systems
Most of the electrical systems can be modelled by three basic elements : Resistor, inductor, and
capacitor. Circuits consisting of these three elements are analysed by using Kirchhoff's Voltage law
and Current law.
10 Control Systems
(a) Resistor: The circuit model of resistor is shown in Fig. 2.3 (a)
i(t) R
?~.WJ.Nv-~
~~----- v(t) ----~J
Fig. 2.3(a) Circuit model of resistor
vt - L diet)
( ) - -- ..... (2.3)
dt
I
or i(t) = - Jvdt ..... (2.4)
L
+ • • +
di
In Fig. 2.3(c), v (t) = M _1 ..... (2.6)
2 dt
(c) Capacitor: The circuit symbol of a capacitor is given in Fig. 2.3 (d).
~~
L-V(t)---J
Fig. 2.3(d) Circuit symbol of a capacitor
+ • • +
Example 2.1
Consider the network in Fig. 2.5. Obtain the relation between the applied voltage and the current
in the form of (a) Differential equation (b) Transfer function
i
v~' :£}c
Fig. 2.5 An R. L. C series circuit excited by a voltage source.
12 Control Systems
Solution:
(a) Writing down the Kirchhoff's voltage law equation for the loop, we have
diet) 1 t
R i(t) + L - - + - f i (t) dt = v ..... (2.12)
dt C -00
t
Denoting f i(t) d(t) by q(t), we can also write eqn. (2.8) as
-00
2
L d q(t) + R dq(t) + q(t) = v
..... (2.13)
dt 2 dt C
This is a 2 nd order linear differential equation with constant coefficients.
Q(s) C
.... (2.15)
2
Yes) Ls+Rs+l LCs +RCs+l
C
This is the transfer function of the system, if q(t) is considered as output. Instead, if i(t) is
considered as the output, taking Laplace transform of eqn. (2.12), we have,
I(s)
R I(s) + Ls I(s) + Cs = Yes) ..... (2.16)
I(s) Cs
=----,-=----;;;----
2
..... (2.17)
yes) Ls + R + _1 LCs + RCs + 1
Cs
Example 2.2
Consider the parallel RLC network excited by a current source (Fig. 2.6). Find the (a) differential
equation representation and (b) transfer function representation of the system.
vet)
i(t) i c
Solution:
(a) Applying Kirchhoff's current law at the node,
vet) Cdv(t) 1 .
- + - - + - Jvdt =: let) ..... (2.18)
R dt L
Replacing J v dt by qJ(t), the flux linkages, we have,
qJ(s)
I(s) 2 S 1
Cs +-+-
R L
L
2
..... (2.20)
LCs +LGs+l
If the voltage is taken as the output, taking Laplace transform of eqn. (2.18), we get
1
GV(s) + CsV(s) + Ls Yes) =: I(s)
Solution:
Writing the loop equations
(3 + s) 11(s) - (s + 2) 12 (s) = Yes) ..... (1)
- (2 + s) 11(s) + (3 + 2s) 12 (s) - s.l(s) =0 ..... (2)
..... (3)
s(s + 2) V(s).2s
I(s) - ----'-:----'--:;-'--'-----;:----
- -(s+3)(4s 4 + 12s3 +9s 2 +4s+1)
I(s) _ 2S2(S+2)
Yes) - - (s+3)(4s4 + 12s3 t9s 2 +4s+1)
The two networks, are entirely dissimilar topologically, but their equations are identical. If the
solution of one equation is known, the solution of the other is also known.
Thus the two networks in Fig. 2.5 and 2.6 are known as dual networks. Given any planar
network, a dual network can always be obtained using Table 2.1.
1. Mass: This represents an element which resists the motion due to inertia. According to
Newton's second law of motion, the inertia force is equal to mass times acceleration.
dv d2x
f, =Ma=M.- = M - ..... (2.22)
M ~ ~2
Where a, v and x denote acceleration, velocity and displacement of the body respectively.
Symbolically, this element is represented by a block as shown in Fig. 2.8(a).
Fig. 2.8 Passive linear elements of translational motion (a) Mass (b) Dash pot (c) Spring.
2. Dash pot: This is an element which opposes motion due to friction. If the friction is viscous
friction, the frictional force is proportional to velocity. This force is also known as damp ling
force. Thus we can write
dx
f =Bv=B- ..... (2.23)
B dt
Where B is the damping coefficient. This element is called as dash pot and is symbolically
represented as in Fig. 2.8(b).
3. Spring: The third element which opposes motion is the spring. The restoring force of a spring
is proportional to the displacement. Thus
fK = Kx ..... (2.24)
Where K is known as the stiffness of the spring or simply spring constant. The symbol used
for this element is shown in Fig. 2.8(c).
16 Control Systems
(b) Rotational systems: Corresponding to the three basic elements of translation systems, there are
three basic elements representing rotational systems.
1. Moment of Inertia: This element opposes the rotational motion due to Moment oflnertia. The
opposing inertia torque is given by,
dro d2 e
T =Ja=J - =J- ..... (2.25)
I dt dt 2
Where a, OJ and () are the angular acceleration, angular velocity and angular displacement
respectively. J is known as the moment of inertia of the body.
2. Friction: The damping or frictional torque which opposes the rotational motion is given by,
de
T =Bro=B- ..... (2.26)
B dt
Where B is the rotational frictional coefficient.
3. Spring: The restoring torque of a spring is proportional to the angular displacement () and is
given by,
..... (2.27)
Where K is the torsimal stiffness of the spring. The three elements defined above are shown
in Fig. 2.9.
Since the three elements ofrotational systems are similar in nature to those of translational systems
no separate symbols are necessary to represent these elements.
Having defined the basic elements of mechanical systems, we must now be able to write differential
equations for the system when these mechanical systems are subjected to external forces. This is
done by using the D' Alembert's principle which is similar to the Kirchhoff's laws in Electrical
Networks. Also, this principle is a modified version of Newton's second law of motion. The
D' Alembert's principle states that,
"For any body, the algebraic sum ofexternally applied forces and the forces opposing the motion
in any given direction is zero".
To apply this principle to any body, a reference direction of motion is first chosen. All forces
acting in this direction are taken positive and those against this direction are taken as negative. Let us
apply this principle to a mechanical translation system shown in Fig. 2.10.
A mass M is fixed to a wall with a spring K and the mass moves on the floor with a viscous
friction. An external force f is applied to the mass. Let us obtain the differential equation governing
the motion of the body.
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