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 Police Practice and Research
An International Journal

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gppr20

Diagnosing factors behind officers’ performance in

the Philippine National Police

Ronald U. Mendoza, Emerald Jay D. Ilac, Ariza T. Francisco & Jelo Michael S.
Casilao

To cite this article: Ronald U. Mendoza, Emerald Jay D. Ilac, Ariza T. Francisco & Jelo Michael S.
Casilao (2021) Diagnosing factors behind officers’ performance in the Philippine National Police,
Police Practice and Research, 22:4, 1408-1424, DOI: 10.1080/15614263.2020.1795860

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POLICE PRACTICE AND RESEARCH
2021, VOL. 22, NO. 4, 1408–1424
https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2020.1795860

ARTICLE

Diagnosing factors behind officers’ performance in the Philippine

National Police
Ronald U. Mendozaa, Emerald Jay D. Ilacb, Ariza T. Franciscoa and Jelo Michael S. Casilaoa
a
School of Government, Ateneo de Manila University, Quezon City, Philippines; bSchool of Social Sciences, Ateneo
de Manila University, Quezon City, Philippines

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The Philippine National Police (PNP) faces myriad challenges, spanning Received 14 February 2020
governance, corruption and national security threats. Hence, securing Accepted 4 July 2020
a strong leadership pipeline equipped not only to face these challenges, KEYWORDS
but also to strengthen policing effectiveness and over-all security sector Police performance;
reforms is crucial. This study aims to map out some of the main factors Philippine National Police;
that both build or erode key leadership qualities and performance in the personality; organizational
PNP. Using quantitative and qualitative methods, and leveraging culture
a comprehensive dataset of police officers in the National Capital Region
(NCR), the study examines four main factors, namely personality traits,
organizational culture, demographic profile and professional history. The
results show that personality facets of openness, agreeableness and neu­
roticism, as well as number of transfers, area of assignment, training on
managerial skills, age and education level are all factors for good perfor­
mance for officers in the PNP National Capital Region Police Office. These
findings emphasize the importance of training and mentoring compo­
nents in preparing young officers and recruits for the rigors of service. It
also underscores the need for a deeper analysis of recruitment and selec­
tion policies, to ensure that the PNP successfully attracts the strongest
candidates with the right leadership characteristics and building blocks
for service.

Introduction
Successfully recruiting and developing its leaders is a core challenge in many public and private
organizations. On top of this, for security sector organizations worldwide, governance and anti-
corruption challenges are often part and parcel of ongoing reforms to strengthen policing effec­
tiveness and over-all security sector reforms. For the Philippine National Police (PNP), these
aforementioned challenges are amplified for several reasons. For example, there are longstanding
governance challenges related to the promotion of personnel in the police force. While objective
criteria for promotion are present,1 it is a reality that various groups could have powerful influence
in promoting and shaping the careers of officers in the PNP. These include senior officers
themselves trying to take care of the careers of junior officers who have worked with them, as
well as local government officials who have worked extensively with these officers.2
These influences could be corrosive to the public good, if the senior officers and local govern­
ments are crippled by malgovernance, corruption, and poor leadership.3 Young officers and new
recruits assigned to work in badly governed local jurisdictions and police units can quickly be

CONTACT Ariza T. Francisco [email protected] Ateneo de Manila University, School of Government, Quezon City
1108, Philippines
© 2020 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
 POLICE PRACTICE AND RESEARCH 1409

compromised, and pick up bad habits and practices (Batalla, 2019). In fact, the PNP is ‘captured’ in
some local jurisdictions where local politicians have in fact co-opted them to serve in their private
armed groups.4 A recent study found that election years are crucial turning points for fatal police
violence in several provinces and cities in the Philippines, which further suggests that local
politicians play an important role in shaping police behaviors (Kreuzer, 2018).
Combined with the challenges of modern community policing which requires not only political
savviness but adaptability to new technologies that could enhance security and police work, the
PNP also faces the persistent national security risks linked to factionalization and rebellion, and
threats of terrorism and violent extremism. Clearly, the institution faces myriad challenges in the
Philippine context, emphasizing even further the importance of strong integrity and skills in its
leadership pipeline.
The study aims to map out some of the main factors that affect ‘strong’ and ‘poor’ performance
in the PNP. Specifically, the diagnosis will examine:

(a) The personality factors influential in police performance;

(b) The characteristics of organization culture relevant in police performance;
(c) The demographic facets connected to police performance;
(d) The relation of professional history to police performance; and,
(e) The combination of these factors leading to police performance.

This study will use quantitative and qualitative methods to examine the abovementioned links; and
it will draw on a comprehensive dataset of police officers in the National Capital Region (NCR). To
the best of our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive empirical assessment of performance of
officers in the PNP. The goal is to build on this first study in advancing continued governance and
evidence-based institutional reforms for the organization.
We note here that the study team committed to full confidentiality protocols in order to protect
the identities of the officers. Only broad patterns and anonymized responses are analyzed and
reported in this study.
In what follows, section 2 contains a brief history of the Philippine National Police, while section
3 synthesizes the relevant literature. Section 4 elaborates on the methodology behind this study.
Section 5 discusses the empirical results, drawing on both the quantitative and qualitative analyses.
A final section outlines the main conclusions and policy recommendations from this study.

Brief history of the Philippine National Police

The Philippine National Police (PNP) traces its origins to the early Philippine Constabulary (PC)
created by then US colonial authorities in 1901. Roughly 75 years later, in 1976, President
Ferdinand Marcos issued Presidential Decree 765 which led to the creation of the country’s national
police force, the Philippine Constabulary Integrated National Police (PC/INP). Various fragmented
local police units were unified into a national police force with the PC at its core. When Martial Law
was declared in 1972, the principle of civilian supremacy over the military was set aside, and
President Marcos as Commander-in-Chief effectively took control over both the PC/INP and the
Armed Forces of the Philippines (Hernandez, 1988).
After the EDSA revolution toppled the Marcos dictatorship, a new Constitution was created and
it called for a police force that would be national in scope but civilian in character. In 1990, this
Constitutional mandate would be embodied into law as Congress passed Republic Act 6975 ‘An Act
Establishing the Philippine National Police under a Reorganized Department of the Interior and
Local Government’. The newly formed PNP took shape in 1991, comprised of former PC/INP, and
selected officers from the Armed Forces units such as the Philippine Air Force Security Command,
the Philippine Coast Guard, Philippine Navy, and the Philippine Army.
1410 R. U. MENDOZA ET AL.

Later, the Local Government Code of 1991 (Republic Act 7160) defined the powers of local
governments in the Philippines. Together, RA 6975 and RA 7160 defined the powers of local chief
executives over units of the PNP,5,6 These powers included that Provincial Governors have the
power to choose the Provincial Director of the PNP, while City and Municipal Mayors maintain
operational supervision and control to direct, superintend, oversee and inspect the police units and
forces.
In 1998, Republic Act No. 8551, ‘PNP Reform and the Reorganization Act of 1998’ amended
certain provisions of Republic Act No. 6975. In the spirit of accountability to civilian authority, the
PNP was placed under the administrative control and operational supervision of the National Police
Commission (NAPOLCOM), an attached agency of the Department of Interior and Local
Government (DILG). The Secretary of the Interior and Local government is mandated to be the Ex-
Officio Chairman of NAPOLCOM.
Given the close links of many PNP units to local government officials, and in view of the
governance challenges faced by local governments in the Philippines, notably corruption, dynastic
rule, and episodes of impunity, it is unsurprising that the PNP has also seen its share of governance
challenges (Hernandez, 1988; McCoy, 1994; Sidel, 1997).
One way to overcome this is by building a strong, independent and professional leadership
pipeline underpinned by high-quality standards for recruitment and promotion through the ranks.
Building this will require a deeper understanding of the factors that both build or erode key
leadership qualities and performance in the PNP. We turn to the literature on these issues next.

Review of relevant literature

The study employs Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory as the main framework of the study. Lewin main­
tained that to understand any situation it was necessary that ‘one should view the present situation –
the status quo – as being maintained by certain conditions or forces’ (Lewin, 1943, p. 172) operating
in the context. This is exemplified in the formula B = f(p,E) where B is behavior, p is the person, and
E is the environment. It stipulates therefore any observable behavior is a by-product of the
interaction of the persona of the individual operating within a specified environment or ‘field.’
Thus, changing behavior stem from changes, be they small or large, in the forces within the field
(Lewin, 1947). In this study, therefore, following Lewin’s Field Theory, it is hypothesized that police
performance (behavior) is a result of the interaction of the officer’s personality, demographic facets,
and professional history (person) and the organization culture (environment). A brief review of the
literature emphasizes some of the main factors to consider, namely personality traits, or the
individual characteristics; organizational culture, or the way the person perceived the culture within
the confines of the organization; demographic profile and professional history.

Personality traits
Balch (1972) describes personality traits as a set of characteristics that help shape the mentality of
police officers. In fact, a model of personality called the Five-Factor Model (FFM) has emerged as
a useful predictor of job performance over the last three decades (Al-Ali, 2011; Cochrane et al.,
2003). Also, known as the ‘Big Five’ personality dimensions, the FFM consists of Openness to
experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (OCEAN). A key
study by Barrick and Mount (1991) contributed greatly toward validating the potency of the FFM in
predicting job performance. By conducting a meta-analysis of 117 studies, they found that the FFM
is a robust and meaningful framework for testing hypotheses relating individual personalities to
a wide range of criteria. Notably, they found that the Conscientiousness dimension was a valid
predictor of job performance for all types of occupational groupings, i.e., professionals, police,
managers, sales, and skilled/semi-skilled workers. They asserted that ‘those individuals who exhibit
 POLICE PRACTICE AND RESEARCH 1411

traits associated with a strong sense of purpose, obligation, and persistence generally perform better
than those who do not.’
Another study of the Abu Dhabi Police supports that personality is a predictor of performance
(Al-Ali, 2011). They found that, of the Big Five, Conscientiousness and Extraversion showed
positive significant correlation with job performance. Neuroticism, on the other hand, showed
significant negative correlation with job performance. Furthermore, the study found that three of
the FFM have significant negative correlation with measurements of counterproductive work
behavior (CWB). In contrast, neuroticism showed positive associations with CWB. Finally,
Sanders (2003) noted that the international literature examining police officers’ performance appear
to consistently identify personality traits like intelligence, honesty, common sense, reliability and/or
conscientiousness.

Perceived organizational culture

Denison and Mishra (1995) refer to organizational culture as an evolved context of organizational
climate where it is deeply rooted in history and is complex for direct manipulation. Further, they
characterize culture to include underlying traits and value dimensions (Denison & Mishra, 1995). In
one of their studies, a theoretical framework was developed for relating organizational culture and
effectiveness. Based on their study, they identified four (4) culture traits that relate to effectiveness of
the professional individual: Adaptability, Mission, Involvement, and Consistency. They found out
that involvement and adaptability were strong predictors of growth–that is, individuals have the
growing capacity to operate under the conditions of autonomy and have a high resistance to change
and adaptation. Further, the results showed that mission or long-term vision and consistency are
also positively related to effectiveness. This indicates that if the culture of the organization was
perceived stable and predictable over time, then this too contributes to better performance of
individuals working in that organization.
Organizational culture has been a dominant concept used to encapsulate the effect of the
environment on individual performance and collective effectiveness. It consists of what people
believe about how things work in their organizations and the behavioral and physical outcomes of
these beliefs (Sinclair, 1993). Batalla (2019) examines the institutionalized corruption at the PNP,
which may be rooted in patronage politics, weak internal controls, and culture of favoritism and
protection (known as kuya system or bata-bata system). On the other hand, patterns of lethal police
violence vary in Metro Manila, wherein Quezon City and Manila City have the highest rate at
almost identical rates of 14.5 killings per million population annually, while Pateros and San Juan
City both have no reported killings (Kreuzer, 2018). This suggests that police performance may be
greater influenced by specific local subcultures.
It is possible to link an entirely separate branch of literature – focused on institutions – to the
growth of the organizational culture. For instance, research by Jiao (2010) examines differences in
the institutional innovations for combatting corruption by the Hong Kong Police Force (HKPF)
and New York Police Department (NYPD). HKPF routinely partners with an independent anti-
corruption agency, ICAC (Independent Commission Against Corruption),7 while the NYPD has
established internal integrity mechanism through its Internal Affairs Bureau (IAB).8 This suggests
a diversity in institutional designs which balances the internal and external accountability mechan­
isms germane to different police agencies across countries.

Demographic profile
Demographic profile pertains to age, gender, marital status, socioeconomic status, and academic
background. Studies show how these various dimensions can also influence individual perfor­
mance. In terms of age, older adults have difficulty with the mastery of training content and
completion of tasks when compared to younger adults (Kubeck et al., 1996). Another study
1412 R. U. MENDOZA ET AL.

explained how physiological aging can result in a decline in basic cognitive and psychomotor
abilities. However, older workers demonstrate greater tendency for higher commitment, lower
turnover, and voluntary absenteeism (Rhodes, 1983).
Studies on gender revealed that male officers reported more hypermasculine values. These found
to be related to more citizen rudeness and an increased likelihood of receiving complaint report
(Schuck, 2014). In terms of civil status, married individuals revealed to differ significantly from
single individuals in relation to work values, where married individuals demonstrated high work
values and performance (Ueda & Ohzono, 2013). On the other hand, studies on the number of
children revealed that individuals with more young children tend to perform poorly because of
increased family responsibilities (Crouter, 1984).
Educational attainment also shows that individuals with higher levels of education perform
better compared to less educated individuals (Smith & Aamodt, 1997). Apart from educational
attainment, Henson et al. (2010) also observed that measures of police academy performance and
civil service exam score were linked to job success for police officers in a Midwestern police
department he examined during the period from 1996 to 2006.

Professional history
Professional history refers to the exposure of the police officer within the organization. In particular,
this relates to their areas of assignment, number of transfers, years of service, trainings received,
among other factors. There is a dearth of literature that would support professional history as
predictor of performance. For instance, studies found that length of work or tenure has direct effect
on degree of job knowledge and well-practiced work skills, which in turn positively affect perfor­
mance (McDaniel et al., 1988; Schmidt et al., 1986). International research also identified age (which
may also proxy for experience in the workforce) as one of the factors that appear associated with
better performance of police officers (e.g., Kubeck et al., 1996; White, 2008). Ng and Feldman (2010)
presented a contradictory position by suggesting that organizational tenure had a decreasing impact
on performance. Specifically, they found that tenure had a significant impact on performance
between 3 and 6 years in the organization – and this decreases until around 14 years in the
organization. Furthermore, research on police misconduct also find empirical evidence that prior
criminal involvement, employment problems either with the police force or with an earlier
employer, complaints by citizens, and weaker education are among the warning signs that end up
predicting dismissals (e.g., Frank, 2009; Kane & White, 2009; Stinson et al., 2012).

Methodology
Building on methods established in the literature, the empirical analysis herein utilizes a unique
micro-level dataset drawn from surveys, FGDs, and administrative information involving officers of
the PNP National Capital Region Police Office (PNP-NCRPO).

Performance indicator
The PNP has multiple systems in place aimed to measure individual performance in the police
force. First is the individual performance evaluation report (IPER), which is accomplished by the
supervisor and submitted twice a year.9 An assessment by the United National Development
Programme (UNDP) revealed disadvantages of this performance evaluation system. It found that
the indicators used to evaluate police officers focus more on their character traits and personal
competence, rather than actual job performance. Moreover, it bestows the supervisor with high
level of personal discretion and subjectivity, which potentially increases the risk for abuse and
corruption (United Nations Development Programme [UNDP], 2005).
 POLICE PRACTICE AND RESEARCH 1413

Another performance indicator employed in PNP is enforcement productivity (i.e., number of

arrests). While this provides a more objective measure of performance, a number of literature
suggest that this narrow indicator does not take into account the breadth of policing mission
(Goldstein, 1977), and varying types of work in a police organization (Sparrow, 2015). Furthermore,
focusing on these enforcement goals may contribute to police misconduct, and may bias the
judgment of officers towards attaining more arrests (Sparrow, 2015).
Lastly, awards and medals are used to recognize outstanding performance of police functions
and activities. These awards are granted in recognition of heroism, accomplishments, meritorious
service, skill and proficiency, and are given to both operational and administrative nature of work,
which means that all police officers, across different ranks and departments, have equal access and
opportunity to receive awards. In assessing promotions, PNP applies this criterion to evaluate level
of excellence in performance of duty as evidenced by awards received. On the other hand, criminal
and administrative cases and derogatory records are in turn used to measure poor performance.
Recognizing the broad spectrum of existing performance indicators in PNP, the researchers
decided to employ awards and cases to indicate ‘strong’ and ‘poor’ police performance, respectively.
This performance indicator provides the study an objective measure of performance, which is
accessible to different ranks and types of work in PNP.
‘Strong’ performing police officers are defined as the police officers who have received awards
and those with zero cases filed against them. Awards include Medalya ng Kabayanihan
(Distinguished Conduct Medal), Medalya ng Kadakilaan(Heroism Medal), Medalya ng
Kagalignan(Medal of Merit), Medalya ng Kagitingan(Medal of Valor), Medalya ng Katapangan
(Medal of Bravery), Meritorious Awards, and Metrobank Award.10 Not included are awards
received for years of service. ‘Poor’ performing police officers are those who have legal, adminis­
trative and civil cases involving grave offenses, and with no awards received. Examples of grave
offenses are drugs, human rights violations, robbery or extortion, and graft or malversation.
Information on awards and cases were derived from administrative information provided by
the PNP.

Participants
The sample was selected from the pool of current officers in the PNP National Capital Region Police
Office (NCRPO), a division of the Philippine National Police which has jurisdiction over Metro
Manila, also known as the National Capital Region. These officers rank from Patrolman to
Lieutenant Colonel, and who have been in active police service for the past 10 years (2009–2019).
This excludes those who were dismissed, resigned, or retired in the past five years, and who were
recruited from 2015 to 2018. The total population of NCRPO is 23,144. Of this group, a total of
13,220 officers have awards, while 9,924 have cases. These were then stratified for proper repre­
sentation among districts in NCRPO (i.e., National Capital Region Police Office Headquarters,
Eastern Police District, Manila Police District, Northern Police District, Quezon City Police
District, and Southern Police District). From these districts, invited study participants were selected
through systematic random sampling after arranging alphabetically the officers’ last names.

Sources of data
This study draws on both quantitative and qualitative data using mixed methods. As aligned with
ethical standards in research involving human participants, the entire research protocol was
submitted to and approved by the University Research Ethics Council. With this, ethical protocol
was complied to, such as informed consent forms which stated confidentiality and anonymity
parameters.
1414 R. U. MENDOZA ET AL.

Quantitative method
Though the invitation was extended to more participants, a total of four hundred seventy-nine
(479) respondents consented to join in the pen-and-paper quantitative survey. Of this, two hundred
ninety-two (292) came from those tagged as strong performing police officers, while one hundred
eighty-seven (187) came from those tagged as poor performing police officers. Participant avail­
ability was a critical factor in having more respondents join in the study as they were more likely
stationed in their police posts and could not leave their duties. Others have been transferred stations
and were inaccessible during the time of the research. Despite the attempt to increase sample size
within the approved duration of the study, the study was limited to the stratified sample size. The
produced sample size however permitted generalizability of results following acceptable statistical
criteria of 95% confidence level and 5% confidence interval within the total officers of the National
Capital Region (NCRPO). The quantitative survey involved two survey instruments. The first was
the OCEAN personality test, and the second was an organizational culture survey tool created by
Denison and Mishra (1995). Both these surveys were implemented from August to September 2019,
and had a response rate of 67%. The officers’ personal data sheets, which contained demographic
and professional history information, were also collected for the quantitative analysis.
Personality test. The NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) used in the research is a 60-item
questionnaire with factors measuring openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and
neuroticism based on the research of Costa and McRae in 1976 on personality profiling. This test
aims to measure personality factors intrinsic to the individual. It has a reliability measure of 0.90,
0.78, 0.76, 0.86 and 0.90 for the dimensions of neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness
and conscientiousness, respectively (Costa & McRae, 1976). The factor descriptions are as follows:

(A) Openness focuses on the intellect or imagination. This reflects how a person is willing to try
out new things, thinking out of the box, having varied interests, being daring and bold,
creative and curious.
(B) Conscientiousness reflects how an individual controls his or her impulses, acts in socially
acceptable ways, and plans and organizes activities. It shows their self-discipline, persis­
tence, reliability, diligence, consistency, and thoroughness.
(C) Extraversion looks at how a person interacts with other people. Specifically, this is focused
on their level of social confidence, energy levels, ability to talk to anyone, assertiveness, and
friendliness.
(D) Agreeableness seeks to showcase behaviors that demonstrate how an individual gets along
with other people, such as showing helpfulness, patience, tactfulness, loyalty, sensitivity to
others, politeness, and kindness.
(E) Neuroticism measures an individual’s emotional stability and self-esteem. High neuroti­
cism leads to behaviors such as being moody, jealous, unconfident, insecure, nervous, and
unaccepting of criticism.11

Organizational culture survey. The second tool was the organizational culture survey drawing on
seminal work by Denison and Mishra (1995). This is composed of four parts, and each part has
three different subparts. It was measured using a 5-point Likert scale and had internal reliability of
0.97. The factors of the test are as follows:
(A) Involvement reflects the engagement of individuals in the organization and its internal
dynamics. Involvement plays a key role in creating a sense of ownership and responsibility,
which in turn fosters a greater commitment to the organization and a growing capacity to
operate under conditions of autonomy (Denison & Mishra, 1995).
(B) Consistency discusses the values, processes and systems that show an internal and stable
focus for the entire organization. Consistency refers to the degree of normative integration.
Its positive relation to effectiveness is underpinned by the hypothesis that an implicit
control system based on internalized values can be more effective in achieving integration
 POLICE PRACTICE AND RESEARCH 1415

rather than on explicit rules and regulations. One negative aspect of highly consistent
cultures is the high resistance to change and adaptation (Denison & Mishra, 1995).
(C) Adaptability reflects how the organization adjusts to the public, learn new skills, or change
in response to an external demand. This positively relates to organizational effectiveness
(Denison & Mishra, 1995).
(D) Mission discusses the purpose and direction of the organization and its members. Sense of
Mission or long-term vision also positively relates to effectiveness. This hypothesis was
based on their observation of several organizations that proved effective because they
pursued a mission combining economic and non-economic objectives, which provided
meaning and direction to its members (Denison & Mishra, 1995).

Personal data sheet. Aside from the information gathered from the surveys, the study team was
given access to personal data sheets in order to provide information on the demographic profile of
the participants and their professional history. The demographic profile of the participants included
the following information: age, gender, civil status, number of children, educational attainment,
religion, and the province where they originated. Meanwhile, professional history of the partici­
pants included data on their tenure, respective areas of assignment, and type of trainings they
received, specifically on operational skills and managerial skills. The study team committed to full
confidentiality protocols in order to protect the identities of the officers. Only broad patterns and
anonymized responses are analyzed and reported in this study.

Qualitative method
Focus group discussions. FGDs were conducted in order to validate the results from the survey and
dig deeper into the underlying motivations behind some of the responses. Two FGDs were conducted
on 27 August and 29 August 2019, immediately after the pen-and-paper testing. The FGDs were
divided into two groups: the first group was composed of eight (8) police officers who are facing
administrative cases, while the second group was composed of ten (10) police officers who received
awards. A guide was specifically developed for the focus group discussions. This guide asked questions
pertaining to: a) describing the ideal police officer, b) factors that will help these officers to do the ideal
role, c) characteristics of poorly performing police officers, d) reasons for their poor performance, and
e) how the PNP as an institution creates these police officers whether good or not.

Empirical analysis
As for the quantitative analysis of the survey, multiple linear regression was implemented to assess
which factors contribute to the performance of the police officers. This was done by using the
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Content and thematic analyses were conducted to
make sense of the data collected from the focus group discussions. These involved coding all the
responses and then collating them into general themes. These themes were then reviewed, defined,
and labeled to describe the content of the data. To ensure accuracy of analysis, inter-coder reliability
was implemented wherein other qualitative analysts collaborated in reviewing the transcripts and
identifying the themes, as well as the description for each theme. Frequency of the verbatim
statements per general theme was also computed.

Empirical analysis and results

As already noted, the results are presented based on the Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory, which posits
that the behavior of the individual is a by-product of the interaction of the individual within
a specified environment or context. As such, applying this to the police officers, performance is
a result of the combination of an individual’s intrinsic facets (e.g., individual characteristics)
operating within the context of the police force (e.g., organizational culture and factors).
1416 R. U. MENDOZA ET AL.

Table 1. Results of the multiple regression analyses by performance.

Performance t p β F df p adj. R2
Good performance
Overall model for personality profile and organizational culture 2.28 9, 281 .018 .068
Openness −2.76 .006 −.199
Conscientiousness .16 .075 .158
Extraversion 1.17 .240 .091
Agreeableness −1.96 .051 −.145
Neuroticism −2.17 .031 −.155
Mission −.50 .619 −.046
Adaptability −.25 .807 −.020
Involvement .48 .630 .043
Consistency .02 .858 .018
Overall model for professional history 15.85 2, 62 .000 .317
Years of service .437 .663 .025
No. of transfers 9.46 .000 .535
Area of assignment −3.97 .000 −.228
Training on operational skills .908 .368 .094
Training on managerial skills 5.50 .000 .569
Overall model for demographic profile 4.58 7, 282 .000 .080
Age 4.03 .000 .269
Civil status 1.36 .173 .087
Educational attainment 2.00 .046 .115
Poor performance
Overall model for personality profile and organizational culture .39 9, 174 .940 −.031
Openness .33 .744 .028
Conscientiousness −.46 .643 −.049
Extraversion −.67 .501 −.060
Agreeableness −.79 .433 −.068
Neuroticism −.26 .792 −.025
Mission −.07 .942 −.009
Adaptability .59 .559 .065
Involvement 1.01 .315 .116
Consistency −.51 .610 −.067
Overall model for professional history 2.45 2, 34 .101 .075
No. of transfers −2.12 .042 −.359
Training on managerial skills 1.29 .205 .219
Overall model for demographic profile 5.301 2, 178 .006 .046
Age 1.96 .052 .143
Educational attainment 2.25 .016 .177
The significance level was tested at p <.05.

Descriptive statistics
From the 479 participants, demographic data results show their average age was 37 years old, with
majority being male (90%), married (69%) and had on average 2 children (29%). Furthermore, 81%
were Roman Catholic in religion, 98% completed up to college with the remaining 2% moving
further into post-graduate studies, 63% came from Metro Manila, had worked with the police force
for 12 years, and had been transferred precincts at least 3 times.

Regression results
The multiple regression was conducted to examine if personality profile as reflected in the NEO-FFI
test, perceived organizational culture as measured in the Denison-Mishra Culture Survey, profes­
sional history and demographic profile significantly predict performance. Conducting confirmatory
factory analysis on the two tools followed their same theoretical structure, strengthening the
internal reliability of the tools. This study finds evidence that personality traits, specifically open­
ness, agreeableness and neuroticism, as well as number of transfers, area of assignment, training on
managerial skills, age and education level are all factors for good performance for officers in the
PNP National Capital Region Police Office.
 POLICE PRACTICE AND RESEARCH 1417

Strong performing police officers. For the police officers who received awards, the personality
facets of Neuroticism (β = −.155, p = .031), Openness (β = −.199, p = .006), and Agreeableness
(β = −.145, p = .051) were found to be predictors of good performance. This means that the police
officers who score lower on these facets were found to have a stronger personality aligned to the
organizational culture and perform better. They are more intrinsically driven to succeed rather than
be influenced by other individuals. These are individuals who prefer routine and tried-and-tested
methods rather than new ideas. In addition, they act more independently of others, remain firm on
their stance, demonstrate confidence and have lower self-doubt.
On the other hand, cultural facets from the Denison survey, specifically mission (β = −.046,
p = .619), adaptability (β = −.020, p = .807), involvement (β = .043, p = .630) and consistency
(β = −.018, p = .858), were found to be weak predictors of good performance. This signified that the
perceived organizational culture was not a major influence for the good performing police officers.
This could be because these officers were more intrinsically driven rather than externally motivated
to perform well.
Looking at their professional history, the empirical results showed a significant direct relation­
ship between number of transfers (β = .535, p = .000), area of assignment (β = −.228, p = .000) and
training on managerial skills (β = .569, p = .000) and performance. More transfers for a police officer
were associated with a higher likelihood that the police officer would perform better. Consistently,
the findings showed that assignment in certain districts negatively predicted good performance.
Quezon City and Manila City have significantly higher number of poor performing officers among
the 17 NCR cities and municipality. Similarly, another study shows that these two cities have the
highest fatal police encounters per capita from 2006 to 2015 (Kreuzer, 2018). This result cohered
with the longstanding policy to encourage rotations in different assignments for police officers.
From a governance perspective, this also cohered with the effort to prevent officers from being
‘captured’ through corrupt transactions whose risk tends to increase with more familiarity in an
assignment. Rotations help to prevent over-familiarization with potentially corrupt elements in any
one assignment, and it also provides police officers with the opportunities to exhibit performance
and gain more experience in different assignments. Plum assignments are also more evenly
distributed so that more officers are given a chance to distinguish themselves. Lastly, those officers
who received managerial skills training, not just operational skills training, have higher likelihood
to perform better. This suggests that leadership development has a key role in fostering good
performance. However, it should be noted here that managerial skills training opportunities are
offered to those officers who are already high performing, and are targeted to be developed as
managers.
Age (β = .269, p = .000) and education (β = .115, p = .046) were both associated with good
performance as well. This suggested the greater risks of poor performance were frontloaded in
a young officer’s career, when experience and education had not yet become influencing
factors.
Poor performing police officers. For the police officers who were given administrative cases,
none of the personality facets in the OCEAN test were found to be predictors of their poor
performance. This means that for this group, their performance was not intrinsically driven.
More likely, performing under par was a result of their interaction with the environment they
operated in.
Cultural facets from the Denison survey indicated however that organizational culture was not
also predictive of their poor performance. This meant that the poor performance of the police
officers was not influenced by the organizational culture itself, but by the interaction among
members of the organization. This could be with fellow police officers or their respective leaders.
This angle would later be validated during the FGDs as officers mentioned the ‘bata-bata system’
whereby senior officers and politicians may try to influence and protect younger officers in an
attempt to gain their allegiance and support.
1418 R. U. MENDOZA ET AL.

Furthermore, looking at their professional history, the number of transfers (β = −.359, p = .042)
was inversely associated with poor performance. The less the number of transfers a police officer
went through, the higher the chance that the police officer performed poorly. (Once again this
reconfirms the findings earlier that rotation plays a healthy role in staff development.) Due to the
minimal opportunity to be assigned to different situations, this group of police officers most likely
maintain routinary tasks and operate in their comfort zone, offering little opportunity for leadership
growth. It is important to note however that there may be other intervening factors that may
influence this behavior such as leadership role and availability of job rotation.

Thematic analysis
FGDs with the strong performing and poor performing officers produced the following results,
which emphasized the combined importance of training and intrinsic leadership skills among
potential officers. The next section elaborates on the key findings.
Individual characteristics. Both strong performing and poor performing police officers
described the ideal police officer to be God-fearing, dependable, honest, self-disciplined and
obedient, brave and patriotic, considerate and patient, and loving. All agreed that there are still
police officers who possess these characteristics in the PNP. For them, innate characteristics
intrinsic to the person even before entering the workforce were critically important for these
officials to perform at par or even above standards. However, they emphasized that some char­
acteristics, such as discipline and accountability, can be addressed through more effective police
training. Thus, the group pointed out that new recruits, if not properly trained, are the ones prone
to do unacceptable behavior. Our discussions with police officers further highlighted the impor­
tance of attracting and selecting the most competitive recruits, so that these individuals already had
the strong building blocks for leadership necessary to succeed as officers in the PNP.
On the other hand, both groups described a bad police officer to be hard-headed, tardy, sensitive,
jealous, discontented, materialistic, and arrogant. When asked why the poorly performing officers
behaved that way, they mentioned factors such as the environment they were situated in, tempta­
tions within the organization, and their lack of material possessions.
Training. All new recruits of PNP undergo basic technical skills training. According to the
officers that participated in the FGD, they observed that the quality of training may potentially be
decreasing, signaled by the perceived lack of discipline and poorer performance of the new recruits
and younger officers. As evidence, they claimed that more than 32% of younger officers received
cases. Furthermore, they observed that new recruits are increasingly out of shape, which may be
a result of decreasing physical rigor of the current trainings. The officers highlighted that main­
taining physical fitness is crucial in performing their tasks, especially for operatives and field
officers.12
However, officers mentioned that there are efforts to improve the training in the PNP. First, there
is a re-training program for poor performers. The officers who received grave cases and/or
suspended are required to go back to camp for 45 days for training. Second, more opportunities
for personal and leadership trainings are now being offered. An example of this is the My Brother’s
Keeper initiative that focuses on behavioral and spiritual development of the officers.
Subcultures. There are two main prevailing and opposite cultures that the groups referenced:
‘My Brother’s Keeper Squad’ (MBK from hereon) and Bata-Bata (Senior-Junior or BB from hereon)
systems. The MBK is a mentoring program that provides opportunities for young police officers
(brother) to be adopted by senior police officers (keeper) in a bond of brotherhood and account­
ability. The squad concept helps to ensure that each policeman in a unit will be accountable to each
other as they lookout for each other’s welfare. It involves support in terms of sharing advice on
career challenges, culture building, and spiritual guidance. This has been perceived to be a positive
influence on performance by the police participants.
 POLICE PRACTICE AND RESEARCH 1419

On the other hand, the informal BB system breeds patronage between senior and junior officers.
The participants claimed that this system produced positive effects before such as sense of loyalty
and trust, but this has been abused over time, and used for personal gain, such as for protection and
promotion. They mentioned that if junior officers have senior officers backing them up, they tend to
be more complacent and arrogant. Opposite to MBK, the officers perceive this BB culture to have
a negative effect on police performance.
Policies. As for policies within the police force that affected good and bad performance, they
mentioned the support of top management specifically the President to their undertakings made
them change their mindset when it comes to service. Specifically, the internal cleansing policy
helped in making sure poor performing officers are culled out of their system, together with
sanctions for repeated misdemeanors. Through the internal cleansing policy, the PNP identifies
a list of officers with cases and provides intervention depending on their case. Interventions may be
punitive, such as dismissal or suspension; but recent changes in the PNP leadership have begun to
emphasize a more rehabilitative approach, tackling the root causes of poor performance (e.g., such
as commissioning this diagnostic study).
On the other hand, officers also mentioned that lack of policies that support police officers results
in potentially bad behavior. For example, according to them, they did not receive ample support to
perform their duties – and one example was the inadequate legal assistance when dealing with court
cases and appearances. At times, they were also compelled to use their own resources when
attending court hearings. By shouldering job-related expenses, some officers may be tempted to
engage in corrupt activities to make up for their out-of-pocket expenses. These types of informal
practices may have initially served as coping mechanisms. However, these probably also hardened
over time in order to become part of the organizational culture and common practice.
Public perception. Both groups claimed that negative public perception towards the police
affects morale and performance. According to their personal experiences, police officers are not
regarded highly and are treated disrespectfully by the public. This is especially intensified in highly
urbanized cities such as Metro Manila. While they implement maximum tolerance when dealing
with civilians, this persistent lack of respect may reduce the quality of their interpersonal relations
and interactions, such as losing patience and performing actions to exert their authority.
They acknowledged that media plays a critical role in shaping the public image of the PNP. For
instance, many of the news covering PNP feature issues of poor performing police officers, leading
to more negative perceptions and lack of trust towards the institution. There is desire from the
officers to work towards building public trust and creating better image for PNP. Through this, they
can gain confidence and prestige in performing their duties as a police officer and public servant.

Policy recommendations
In support of the PNP’s efforts to stamp out corruption, improve its performance and build a strong
leadership and recruitment pipeline, this study mapped and analyzed some of the main factors that
both build or erode key leadership qualities and performance in the PNP. The study utilized
quantitative and qualitative research methods to examine factors such as personality traits, orga­
nizational culture, demographic profile and professional history. It finds evidence that personality
facets of openness, agreeableness and neuroticism, as well as number of transfers, area of assign­
ment, training on managerial skills, age and education level are all factors for good performance for
officers in the PNP National Capital Region Police Office.
Presented below is a general framework on how interventions can be structured.
The main findings of this study confirm with empirical evidence in many expected areas for
reform engagement. We re-emphasize them here for future researchers to engage reformists in the
PNP, in an evidence-based change management agenda for the organization.
1420 R. U. MENDOZA ET AL.

Figure 1. Organizational culture and individual personality in the context of subcultures. Source: Authors’ synthesis based on the
literature and the main results of this study.

Revisit organizational culture to be more pragmatic and responsive

The formal organizational culture on paper appears sound; yet parts of it may be too rigid and may
have failed to adapt in pace with the challenges faced by the PNP and its officers. Some components
of the organizational culture need to be reviewed, and possibly reformed to be more pragmatic and
responsive to the current operations of the PNP. For instance, misreporting (i.e., officers rotate the
names declared on case filing) has become a way of operating to address issues of workload and
court appearances. And as noted earlier, coping mechanisms by some officers may now include
corrupt practices that help to augment the perceived effectiveness of police operations. While
perhaps initially well-meaning, these (and other) adaptive behaviors can be addressed by focusing
on the root issues of operational challenges faced by the organization.

Effective cascading of culture through change management

The good elements of the organizational culture, which include the vision-mission, values and
beliefs, should, ideally, be cascaded down and throughout the organization. This can effectively be
done through adopting change management strategies. This starts with leaders understanding the
existing culture operating in the organization, and defining key reforms and aspirational target
culture. These are then incorporated in their communication, leadership alignment, and organiza­
tional design, among others. Nevertheless, a purely top-down approach here will likely fail, as
emphasized by the next point.

Strengthen subcultures through effective oversight on leadership and mentoring

The reality for the PNP is that it routinely engages with other stakeholders – such as local
government leaders and other stakeholders at the local level – that may, de facto, decentralize
parts of the operational influence and control over some of its units. Hence, in lieu of a top-down
organizational lens, better understanding and shaping subcultures become important areas for
intervention. This entails strengthening the good subcultures that cohere with the ideal organiza­
tional culture, and at the same time, addressing the issues of the bad subcultures. For example, MBK
is identified as an innovation that created good subcultures. This may be reinforced by finding ways
to further institutionalize the said initiative. On the other hand, the organization may look into
reforming the BB system, which may have been initially useful, but now is regarded in the context of
bad subcultures. One simple yet powerful way to strengthen good subcultures would be to formalize
leadership and mentoring development as officers progress in their careers. Effective techniques and
outcomes can be identified and widely recognized by the organization, with a view to further
rooting these practices within the organization.
 POLICE PRACTICE AND RESEARCH 1421

Strategic human resources

Human resource strategies could also be focused on enhancing the quality of recruitment and
training for younger officers. To start, there could be a more evidence-informed recruitment and
screening process for future officers. This study has confirmed a few traits that appear to be linked
to strong performance–personality traits like openness, agreeableness and neuroticism. The inter­
national literature attempting to predict good performance among police officers further confirm
additional traits worth monitoring for, including education, reading level and age (which also
proxies for maturity and experience in the workforce).13 This may include a more deliberate
analysis of the PNP recruitment process and data. It could also involve a more formal collaboration
with the Philippine National Police Academy, and other schools and criminology colleges in order
to examine and improve their programs. This ensures individuals are better selected and trained
even before they enter PNP. More generally, it is also crucial to develop a competency-based
training, deployment and promotion, so as to strengthen the culture of meritocracy in the
organization. Ideally, the PNP could establish very clear and evidence-based processes that identify
specific competencies and skills for each promotion level in the organization. Not only could this
could better inform the training programs to be crafted by PNP; but it could also protect senior
managers within the organization from both potentially corrosive influences on the promotions
process.

Central dataset monitoring leadership development

Finally, a central dataset could enable the Philippine National Police to track performance of the
officers, and monitor the pipeline of its leaders. This will allow PNP to readily conduct periodic
reviews and make responsive, evidence-based decisions on their human resources. This study has
highlighted the routine diagnostics that such a system could produce. Through an empirical
analysis of the different success factors for performance over time, it would then be possible to
fine tune the organization’s policies guided and unified by evidence.

Notes
1. The placement and promotion guidelines are detailed in the PNP Memorandum Circular 2018–011.
2. These local government officials have, over time, developed extensive influence on the careers of different
officers, notably as part of their collaborative roles under the 1991 Local Government Code.
3. In a recent example, the Department of Justice found probable cause to indict retired Gen. Oscar Albayalde,
former PNP chief, with ‘violation of the Anti-Graft and Corrupt Practices Act for persuading, inducing or
influencing another public officer to perform an act constituting a violation of rules and regulations in
connection with the official duties’ along with 12 of his junior police officers in relation to a 2013 anti-drug
operation during his time as Pampanga police chief. News article can be accessed here: https://news.abs-cbn.
com/news/01/16/20/doj-indicts-albayalde-12-ninja-cops-for-graft-over-2013-pampanga-drug-raid.
4. One of the most glaring examples of this is the participation of PNP personnel in the murder of 58 Filipino
citizens, including 53 journalists, in Maguindanao in 23 November 2009. At least 5 police officers would later
be convicted, along with the masterminds from the Ampatuan political clan. For details, the full decision can
be accessed here: https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/12/19/19/read-full-decision-on-maguindanao-massacre-
case.
5. https://www.lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra1991/ra_7160_1991.html.
6. https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1990/12/13/republic-act-no-6975/.
7. https://www.icac.org.hk/en/home/index.html.
8. https://www1.nyc.gov/site/nypd/bureaus/investigative/internal-affairs.page.
9. The indicators and procedure for the IPER are detailed in NAPOLCOM Memorandum Circular 93–019.
10. Description of awards or medals are detailed in NAPOLCOM Memorandum Circular 2006–003.
11. Further information on the OCEAN personality test could be obtained from https://www.mindtools.com/
pages/article/newCDV_22.htm.
12. It is widely studied that increased in body mass index (BMI) is negatively associated to performance. Dawes
et al. (2018) found that overweight officers score lower in defense tactics compared to healthy counterparts.
1422 R. U. MENDOZA ET AL.

Another study by Kukic et al. (2018) also found that increased BMI negatively affected police officers’
muscular endurance and running performance. Apart from decreased physical performance, obese workers
are more highly to get sick, acquire disability, and thus, miss work (Arredondo, 2018).
13. White (2008) examined officers in a large metropolitan police department (anonymized) and found evidence
that reading level, age, gender and race were linked with better performance. Meanwhile, college education,
military experience and residency were not. In addition, Sanders (2003) observed that certain personality
attributes were consistently identified in the empirical literature as being linked to better performance –
intelligence, common sense, integrity, reliability and/or conscientiousness. Henson et al. (2010) exposed issues
in measurement of ‘good performance’, yet also observed that measures of police academy performance and
civil service exam score were linked to job success for police officers in a Midwestern police department he
examined during the period from 1996–2006.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes on contributors
Ronald U. Mendoza, PhD is Dean and Associate Professor at the Ateneo School of Government. Before this, he
served as an Associate Professor of Economics at the Asian Institute of Management (AIM), the Executive Director of
the AIM Rizalino S. Navarro Policy Center for Competitiveness and was a Senior Economist with the United Nations
in New York. Among others, his work includes Providing Global Public Goods: Managing Globalization (Oxford
University Press 2003), The New Public Finance: Responding to Global Challenges (Oxford University Press 2006), and
Building Inclusive Democracies in ASEAN (Anvil Press 2015). Mendoza obtained his Masters in Public
Administration and International Development (MPA-ID) from the Harvard Kennedy School of Government, and
his M.A. and Ph.D. in Economics from Fordham University. He has received various awards, including the 2012
National Academy of Science and Technology’s Ten Outstanding Young Scientist (OYS) in the Philippines (in
Economics), the World Economic Forum’s Young Global Leaders in 2013, and Devex 40 Under 40 Development
Leader in 2013.
Emerald Jay D. Ilac, PhD, RPm, CSIOP is an Assistant Professor of the Ateneo de Manila University Psychology
Department, and currently the Director for Consulting of the Ateneo Center for Organization Research and
Development. His researches on leadership, culture, and psychology has been published in local and international
journals, and is bonafide member and peer reviewer in various Philippine and international associations such as the
International Leadership Association, Administrative Sciences Association of Canada, and the Psychological
Association of the Philippines where he is the current Chair of the Industrial-Organizational Psychology Division.
Ilac obtained his doctorate degree in Leadership Studies in Ateneo de Manila University, and is a licensed psycho­
metrician under the Philippine Regulatory Commission, and Certified Specialist in Industrial-Organizational
Psychology.
Ariza T. Francisco is a full-time project manager and researcher in the Ateneo Policy Center, housed in the Ateneo
School of Government. She previously worked as manager of the local government unit capacity building program,
and officer of the flagship anti-poverty program under the Office of the Vice President (OVP) of the Philippines.
Francisco obtained her Bachelor’s Degree in Health Sciences with a Minor in Development Management from the
Ateneo de Manila University in the Philippines.
Jelo Michael S. Casilao, RPm is an experienced HR and Learning and Development Professional. Currently, he is
a researcher at the Ateneo Policy Center, and a program officer for Learning and Development of the Ateneo Center
for Organization Research and Development. Casilao is a licensed psychometrician under the Philippine Regulatory
Commission and is currently completing his Master’s degree in Organizational Psychology in Ateneo de Manila
University.

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