GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Chapter 2
Elements and periodic table

Dr. Nguyen Minh Kha

Office: 112 B2 Building
Email: [email protected]
 History

• Aristotle (Greak’s philisopher) devided materials to 4

styles: Gas, fire, soil and water.
• At the same period, Chinese philosophy devided by 5
styles: Metal, wood, water, fire, soil.
• In 1829, Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner – German
Scientist, has grouped 3 elements and gave rule of
group 3: “The middle element has an atomic mass
equal to the average of the two neighboring elements”.
Then other scientists developed into larger groups.
– Ex: Group Cl/Br/I , sulfur, oxygen, selenium and tellunium,
nitrogen, phosphor, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth…

2
• In the year 1864-1865, John Newlands – English
scientist has tried to arrange elements into group of 8:
– Chemical elements are arranged in increasing order of
atomic mass, the properties of elements repeated in groups of
8 elements.
He arranged some elements:
Li Be B C N O F
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
K Ca
• But there are some problems:
1. Unsuitable for elements with atomic mass higher than
Ca.
2.Unsuitable when new elements, e.g., inert gas, are
found.
3
In 1869 Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev – Russian scientist,
and after that 4 months, Julius Lothar Meyer- German
scientist independently gave their periodic tables. But
Mendeleev’s result was better because there were not much
exceptions.

Mendeleev’s periodic law

The properties of the elements as well as the form and
properties of the compounds of chemical elements depend
periodically on the atomic weight of these elements.

At initial, Mendeleev’s periodic table as below:

4
5
 Dmitri Ivanovich
Mendeleev

6
Modern Periodic Table
In the year 1913 Henry Gwyn
Jeffreys Moseley (English
scientist, 1887-1915) gave the
new periodic law after isotopes
have been confirmed:

The properties of the elements as

well as the form and properties
of the compounds of chemical
elements depend periodically on
the atomic nuclear charge of
these elements.

7
8
 Reading the Periodic Table
• Columns in the periodic table are called
groups (numbered from IA to VIIIA or 1 to
18).
• Rows in the periodic table are called periods.
• Metals are located on the left-hand side of the
periodic table (most of the elements are
metals).
• Non-metals are located in the top right-hand
side of the periodic table.
• Elements with properties similar to both
metals and non-metals are called metalloids
and are located at the interface between the
metals and non-metals.
9
 Properties of the Periodic Table

• Some of the groups in the periodic table are given special

names.
• These names indicate the similarities between group
members:
▪ Group IA: Alkali metals.
▪ Group IIA: Alkaline earth metals.
▪ Group VIA: Chalcogens.
▪ Group VIIA: Halogens.
▪ Group VIIIA: Noble gases.

10
 1. Blocks in periodic table
• A block of the periodic table is a set of elements unified
by the atomic orbitals their valence electrons or
vacancies lie in (general valence electronic
configuration).
• The block names (s, p, d, and f) are derived from the
spectroscopic notation for the value of the last electron's
azimuthal quantum number.
• There is an approximate correspondence between this
nomenclature of blocks, based on electronic
configuration, and sets of elements based on chemical
properties.
11
 s, p, d, f-blocks
ns1 – alkali metals (excluding 1H and 2He)
a. s-block (ns1,2):
ns2 – alkaline earth metals

b. p-block (ns2np1-6) :
ns2np1 ns2np2 ns2np3 ns2np4 ns2np5 ns2np6

Metal Metalloid Non- Non- Non-metal Noble

metal metal (Halogen) gas
c. d-block (n-1)d1-10ns1,2 : transition metals
d. f-block (n-2)f1-14(n-1)d 0-10ns2 :
inner transition metals 4f1 – 14 : lanthanides
5f1 – 14 : actinides
12
Which block of the element?

Z = 16
Z = 20
Z = 26

13
s-block p-block

d-transition elements

lanthanides
actinides
f-transition elements
14
 2. Periods
▪ Each horizontal row of the table is called
a period

15
 2. Periods
➢ Periods = rows
• From left to right
• What do elements in a row have in common?
– the same number of electron shells
• Every element in period 1 (1st row) has 1 shell for its
electrons (H & He)
• All of the elements in period 2 have two shells for
their electrons.
• It continues like this all the way down the table

16
3. Columns are called “Groups” or
Families

17
 3. Group
▪Column = group = families
▪What do elements in a group have in common?
▪ same number of valence electrons (electrons in the outer
shell and the last subshell).
➢ Structure of outer electronic shell is similar
→ They share similar characteristics with the other elements
in their family

✓ 8 groups A (main group elements, s- and p- blocks)

✓ 8 groups B (transition elements, d- and f- blocks)

18
 ➢ Group A (s- and p- blocks)

The order of group = total electrons in outer shell

(total valence electrons)

IA IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIIIA

ns1 ns2 ns2np1 ns2np2 ns2np3 ns2np4 ns2np5 ns2np6

19
 ➢ Group B (d- and f- blocks)
The order of group = total electrons of ns and (n - 1)d

IIIB IVB VB VIB

ns2(n-1)d1 ns2(n-1)d2 ns2(n-1)d3 ns2(n-1)d4
f-blocks →ns1(n-1)d5
VIIB VIIIB IB IIB
ns2(n-1)d5 ns2(n-1)d6,7,8 ns2(n-1)d9 ns2(n-1)d10
→ns1(n-1)d10

✓ All f-block elements are in group IIIB

✓ All d and f-blocks are metal

20
 4. Order of element
• The order = Z = e
• Period = nmax
• Group = total valence electron
– s-, p- block elements: Group A.
Valence AO: ns np
– d-block elements: Group B.
Valence AO: ns (n – 1)d
d-block element: (n-1)dansb a = 10 → Group = b
a < 6 → Group = a+b
a = 6, 7, 8 → Group = VIIIB
– All f-block elements are in group IIIB
21
 Position of element in periodic table

• Type 1: Giving Z
– Ex: Z = 19, Z= 25

• X (Z = 19): 1s22s22p63s23p64s1 : Period 4, Group

IA, Metal.

• Y (Z = 25): 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d5 : Period 4,

Group VIIB, Metal.

22
 Position of element in periodic table

• Type 2: Giving 4 quantum numbers of the last

electron

– Ex: 4 quantum numbers of the last electron from

element M are: n =3; ℓ =2; ml = 0; ms = - ½

=> The last subshell: 3d8 : Ni (Z = 28):

1s22s22p63s23p64s23d8 (Period 4, Group VIII B,
Metal)

23
 Position of element in periodic table

• Type 3: Giving the electronic configuration of

corresponding ion.
– Ex:
• Ion D2+: The last subshell is: 3d5.
=>D: 4s2 3d5 => Period 4, Group VIIB, Metal (25Mn).
• Ion M4+: The last subshell is : 3p6.
=>M: 4s23d2 => Period 4, Group IVB, Metal (22Ti).
• Ion X2-: The last subshell is: 4p6.
=>X: 4s23d104p4 => Period 4, Group VIA, Nonmetal
(34Se).
24
 TRENDS IN THE
PERIODIC TABLE
1. Atomic radius
2. Ionic radius
3. Ionization energy
4. Electron affinity
5. Electronegativity
6. Oxidation state

25
 ➢In a group:
➢ The electronic structure is similar → chemical
properties are similar.
➢ From up to down: The number of electron
shell increases. → The attraction of the nucleus
towards the outermost electron decreases:
• Metallic properties increase, non-metallic properties
decrease.

• Reduction increases, oxidization decreases.

26
 ➢In a period:
➢ The number of electron shell does not
change,
➢ The total number of outermost electrons
increases → The attraction of the nucleus
towards the outermost electron increases:
• Metallic properties decrease, non-metallic
properties increase.

• Reduction decreases, oxidization increase.

27
 1. Atomic Radius
• decrease left to right across a period
– as nuclear charge increases, number of electrons increase;
however, the nucleus acts as a unit charge while the electrons
act independently, pulling electrons towards the nucleus,
decreasing size

• increases from upper right corner to the lower left

corner

28
Atomic Radius vs. Atomic Number

30
 2. Ionic Radius
• same trends as for atomic radius
• positive ions smaller than atom
• negative ions larger than atom

rA+  rA  rA−

31
32
33
 Ionic Radius
Isoelectronic series
• series of negative ions, noble gas atom, and positive ions
with the same electronic configuration
• size decreases as “positive charge” of the nucleus
increases

34
 Ionic Radius
– With cation of an element: if a↑ then rMa+↓:
r(Fe2+) > r(Fe3+)

– With ions of the same group & the same ionic

charge : r ↑ if Z ↑
r(Li+)<r(Na+)<r(K+)<r(Rb+)<r(Cs+)<r(Fr+)

– Isoelectronic series: r ion ↓ if Z ↑

r(8O2-)>r(9F-)>r(11Na+) >r(12Mg2+)>r(13Al3+)
35
 Examples
Arrange the following ions in order of increasing radius:

Q1: 7N3- , 9F- , 11 Na +,

13 Al3+,
15 P3-,
15 P5+

Q2: 11Na+ , 19K+ , 13Al3+ , 35Br - ,17Cl-

36
 Examples
Arrange the following ions in order of increasing radius:

Q1: 7N3- , 9F- , 11 Na +,

13 Al3+,
15 P3-,
15 P5+

P 5+ < Al3+ < Na+ < F- < N3- < P3-

15 13 11 9 7 15

Q2: 11Na+ , 19K+ , 13Al3+ , 35Br - ,17Cl-

Al3+ < Na+ < K + < Cl- < Br -

13 11 19 17 35

37
 3. Ionization Energy
• energy necessary to remove an electron to form a
positive ion
• low value for metals, electrons easily removed
• high value for non-metals, electrons difficult to remove
• increases from lower left corner of periodic table to the
upper right corner

X(g) + IE = X+(g) + 1e
e-
+

38
 Ionization Energies
✓ first ionization energy
• energy to remove first electron from an atom

✓ second ionization energy

• energy to remove second electron from a +1 ion
etc.

39
 Ionization Energy vs. Atomic Number

B: 1s22s22p1 → B+ use up all single e on subshell p.

O: 1s22s22p4 → O+ reached a semi-saturated
40
state.
 Examples
Arrange the following elements in order of increasing the
first ionization energy:

1s22s22p4 (x),
1s22s22p3 (y),
1s22s22p6 (z)
and 1s22s22p63s1 (m)

41
 Successive ionization energies (in kJ/mol)
Element First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth Seventh
Na 496 4,560
Mg 738 1,450 7,730

Al 577 1,816 2,881 11,600

Si 786 1,577 3,228 4,354 16,100

P 1,060 1,890 2,905 4,950 6,270 21,200

S 999.6 2,260 3,375 4,565 6,950 8,490 27,107

Cl 1,256 2,295 3,850 5,160 6,560 9,360 11,000
Ar 1,520 2,665 3,945 5,770 7,230 8,780 12,000

42
 4. Electron Affinity
• energy released when an electron is added to an atom
• same trends as ionization energy, increases from lower
left corner to the upper right corner
• metals have low “EA”
• nonmetals have high “EA”
X(g) + 1e = X-(g), EA

43
Electron Affinity

44
 5. Electronegativity
• Ability to attract electron density towards oneself when
forming bonds with atoms of other elements.
▪ increases from left to right across a period
▪ decrease from top to down though a group.

45
 6. Oxidation state
• In chemistry, the oxidation state, or oxidation number,
is the hypothetical charge of an atom if all of its bonds to
different atoms were fully ionic.
• Conceptually, the oxidation state may be positive,
negative or zero.

➢Highest positive oxidation state of the element

= group number (except IB, VIIIB, VIIIA)

➢Lowest negative oxidation state of nonmetal

= Group number - 8
46