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Computerized Engine Controls 9th Edition Hatch Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): Hatch, Steve V.
ISBN(s): 9781621986881, 1621986888
File Details: PDF, 10.02 MB
Year: 2012
Language: english
COMPUTERIZED
ENGINE CONTROLS
Ninth Edition

Steve V. Hatch
Lincoln College of Technology, Denver Campus
Formerly
Denver Automotive and Diesel College

Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States

Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions

with oﬃce locations around the globe, including Singapore, the United
Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil and Japan. Locate your local oﬃce at:
international.cengage.com/region

For your lifelong learning solutions, visit delmar.cengage.com

Visit our corporate website at cengage.com.

Notice to the Reader

Publisher does not warrant or guarantee any of the products described herein or perform any independent analysis in connection with
any of the product information contained herein. Publisher does not assume, and expressly disclaims, any obligation to obtain and include
information other than that provided to it by the manufacturer. The reader is expressly warned to consider and adopt all safety precautions
that might be indicated by the activities described herein and to avoid all potential hazards. By following the instructions contained herein,
the reader willingly assumes all risks in connection with such instructions. The publisher makes no representations or warranties of any kind,
including but not limited to, the warranties of ﬁtness for particular purpose or merchantability, nor are any such representations implied with
respect to the material set forth herein, and the publisher takes no responsibility with respect to such material. The publisher shall not be
liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or part, from the readers’ use of, or reliance upon, this material.

Printed in the United States of America

1 2 3 4 5 XX 13 12 11

The application of the microprocessor with OBD II brought to our vehicles back in 1996. While
its related components, circuits, and systems has there are differences between manufacturers, the
made automotive technology exciting, fast paced, reality is that there are more similarities than dif-
and more complicated. Technological advance- ferences. Even prior to OBD II implementation,
ments continue to add complexity to the modern the input and output sides of the various com-
automobile at record-setting rates and show no puter systems were more similar than different.
signs of slowing down. Ultimately, the technol- OBD II standards then standardized the diagnos-
ogy requires that entry-level automotive service tic end of these systems. As a result, the reader
technicians must be well trained in the principles should begin by concentrating on the first nine
of automotive technology and must continue to generic chapters, then study the system-specific
upgrade their training throughout their careers. chapters that are of interest, and read the final
Those who do this will find the task challenging, two chapters last.
but achievable and rewarding. The chapters of this edition contain:
This text was written in response to a widely
recognized need within the industry: to help stu- • Objectives. Objectives are provided at the
dents and technicians get a commanding grasp beginning of each chapter to help the reader
of how computerized engine control systems op- identify the major concepts to be presented.
erate and how to diagnose problems associated • Key Terms. Terms that are unique to comput-
with them. The student/technician who studies erized engine control systems are provided at
this text will soon come to realize that no single the beginning of each chapter as Key Terms
component or circuit on any given computerized and then appear in boldface type at their first
engine control system, other than the computer use in the chapter. These Key Terms are also
itself, is complicated. provided in the Glossary, along with their
Computerized Engine Controls is written with definitions.
the assumption that the reader is familiar with the • Diagnostic & Service Tips. These tips offer
basic principles of traditional engine, electrical helpful advice for the technician on diagnosing
system, and fuel system operation. Although ev- and servicing vehicles, as well as addressing
erything here is within the grasp of a good techni- customer concerns.
cian, this textbook is not a beginner’s book. • Chapter Articles. Chapter articles give addi-
Computerized Engine Controls contains eleven tional nice-to-know information about technical
generic chapters (Chapters 1 through 9, 17, 18) topics covered in the chapter.
and seven system-specific chapters (Chapters 10 • Summary. Each chapter contains a Summary
through 16). Emphasis should be placed on the to review the major concepts presented in
generic chapters due to the standardization that that chapter.

vii

• Diagnostic Exercise. A Diagnostic Exercise the cylinder imbalance monitor and Global OBD
is provided after the Summary of each chapter, II Mode $0A. Chapter 10 (on GM TBI systems)
applying a real-life scenario to a concept of and Chapter 11 (on GM PFI systems) from the
importance to today’s technicians. eighth edition have been combined into one chap-
• Review Questions. Review Questions are ter (Chapter 10) to reduce the emphasis on TBI
provided at the end of each chapter to help systems. Much of the material in these two chap-
the reader assess his/her recall and compre- ters in past editions was repetitiove, with the PFI
hension of the material in each chapter, as chapter referring to the TBI chapter many times.
well as to reinforce the concepts covered. All Finally, Appendix A from the eighth edition has
of these Review Questions have been written now been turned into a final chapter, Chapter
in a multiple-choice format—the type of ques- 18, and has been revamped with much material
tion that would be found on an ASE test. added. A portion has also been added to Chap-
ter 18 that specifically deals with the diagnosis of
Personal safety concerns peculiar to specific emission program failures. Other additions to this
computerized engine control systems are high- chapter include chapter objectives, key terms, a
lighted where applicable. The book follows the diagnostic exercise, and 20 chapter questions.
industry standards for how to use the following Countless other changes have also been
terms: made throughout this textbook. Acronyms are
now found in Appendix A, and automotive-re-
• Warnings indicate that failure to observe cor- lated web addresses are now found in Appen-
rect diagnostic or repair procedures could re- dix B. These changes and additions have been
sult in personal injury or death. made in order to make this textbook the most
• Cautions indicate that failure to observe cor- comprehensive automotive textbook that you will
rect diagnostic or repair procedures could re- read this year.
sult in damage to tools, equipment, or the ve-
hicle being serviced.
SUGGESTIONS ON HOW
Each student should be aware that while TO USE THIS TEXT
working with computerized controls is not inher-
ently dangerous, failure to observe recognized The reader should begin by reading
safety practices is. There are, unfortunately, many Chapters 1 through 9, preferably in the sequence
more injuries and accidents in the automotive re- they exist in the textbook, as they contain informa-
pair business than there should be. Good safety tion that pertains to all makes of vehicles. Reading
practices, if learned early in a student’s career, these chapters will also provide some background
can literally be lifesaving later on. that will make understanding specific system
designs and diagnostic strategies easier when
reading the system-specific chapters of this book.
New to This Edition Chapters 10 through 16, which are specific to in-
Additional material on air/fuel ratio sensors dividual manufacturers’ systems, can be read in
is now provided in Chapter 3. Chapter 8, Under- any order, though most students will find it much
standing OBD II, with a slight modification in the easier to read a manufacturer’s set of chapters in
chapter’s title since the previous edition, has also chronological sequence, the way they appear in
been totally revamped so as to flow in a more logi- the book. Generally, systems become more com-
cal sequence for the reader. Necessary updates plex over time. The newer, more complex systems
have also been added to this chapter, including become easier to understand if the reader has

proficient background knowledge of the earlier, chapter, can also be considered an optional chap-
simpler systems. Many students may not wish to ter, although most readers will find this chapter
study each chapter, or their instructors may not enjoyable. Finally, the student/technician should
choose to assign the study of each chapter. We read Chapter 18 as a final chapter—this chapter
suggest, however, that at least three of the specific provides much information on how to apply the
system chapters be selected for study. Chapter 17 material presented throughout the textbook to a
on alternative power sources, although a generic vehicle that is in your service bay.

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Chapter 1: A Review of Electricity
and Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Chapter 3: Common Components
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 for Computerized Engine
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Electrical Circuits versus Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Electronic Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Electron Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Common Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Electrical Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Sensing Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Electrical Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Polarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 System Diagnosis and Service . . . . . . . . 102
Circuit Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Integrated Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
The Digital Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Chapter 4: Common Operating
Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Principles for Computerized
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Engine Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . 109
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Chapter 2: Computers in Cars . . . . . . 43 Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Fuel Volatility and Fuel Octane . . . . . . . . 110
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Electronic Fuel Injection System
Why Computers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Operating Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
How Computers Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Ignition System Operating
Functions of the Engine Computer . . . . . . 62 Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Controlling Exhaust Gasses . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Emission-Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Closed-Loop and Open-Loop Variable Valve Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 42 V Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
The PCM and Exhaust Emissions . . . . . . 67 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Attitude of the Technician . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
System Diagnosis and Service . . . . . . . . . 67 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

iii

Chapter 5: Diagnostic Concepts . . . . 145 Chapter 8: Understanding OBD II . . . 213

Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Types of Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 CARB/EPA/SAE/OBD Background . . . . . 213
Diagnostic Trouble Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Why OBD II? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Data Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 What Does OBD II Do? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Functional Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Diagnostic Management Software . . . . . 215
Technical Service Bulletins . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Standardization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Pinpoint Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 OBD II Monitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Flowcharts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 The Ten Global Modes of OBD II . . . . . . 235
Electrical Schematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Cold Start Emissions Reduction . . . . . . . 239
Other General Diagnostic Reducing the Escape of HC
Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Emissions During Refueling . . . . . . . . 240
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 OBD III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

Chapter 6: Diagnostic Equipment . . . 159 Chapter 9: Multiplexing Concepts . . . 245

Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Scan Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Multiplexing Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Breakout Boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Multiplex System Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Non-Powered Test Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Multiplexing Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Logic Probes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Communication on a J1850 VPW
Digital Volt/Ohm Meters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Data Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Digital Storage Oscilloscopes . . . . . . . . . 175
Communication on a CAN
Safety Considerations When Using
Data Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
A DVOM or DSO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Multiplexing Variations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Gas Analyzers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Fiber Optic Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Other Bosch Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Diagnosis of Multiplexed Circuits . . . . . . 259
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Chapter 7: Exhaust Gas Analysis . . . 195 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Chapter 10: General Motors’
Theory of Gas Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Electronic Engine Controls . . . . . . . . 263
Measured Gasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Gas Analyzers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Diagnosing with the Gasses . . . . . . . . . . 206 Powertrain Control Module . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Operating Modes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Fuel Management Systems . . . . . . . . . . 277

Idle Speed Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 Other PCM-Controlled Systems . . . . . . . 420

Spark Management Systems . . . . . . . . . 290 System Diagnosis and Service . . . . . . . . 425
Emission Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Other PCM-Controlled Systems . . . . . . . 310 Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Body Control Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
System Diagnosis and Service . . . . . . . . 320
PCM, PROM, and CALPAK Service . . . . 323 Chapter 13: Ford’s Electronic
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 Engine Control V (EEC V) . . . . . . . . . 439
Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Engine Controls Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Chapter 11: Advanced General Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Motors Engine Controls . . . . . . . . . . 331 Fuel Management Systems . . . . . . . . . . 443
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 Idle Speed Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 Ignition Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
Northstar Engine Overview . . . . . . . . . . . 332 Emission Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Northstar Inputs/Outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 Advanced Ford Computer
Cadillac LH2 Northstar Upgrades . . . . . . 347 System Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Cadillac HFV6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Body Control Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
GM Generation III Small-Block V8s. . . . . 351 Voice Recognition/Navigational
GM Generation IV Small-Block V8s . . . . 354 Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
GM Active Fuel Management AdvanceTrac™ System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 EcoBoost Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Flywheel Alternator Starter System . . . . 356 CVPI Fire-Suppression System . . . . . . . 463
Belt Alternator Starter System . . . . . . . . 361 System Diagnosis and Service . . . . . . . . 464
Chevrolet Volt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
GM Voice-Recognition/ Navigational Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
System Diagnosis and Service . . . . . . . . 365
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 Chapter 14: Chrysler Corporation
Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Fuel Injection Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Chapter 12: Ford’s Electronic Powertrain Control Module . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Engine Control IV (EEC IV) . . . . . . . . 371 Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 Fuel Management Systems . . . . . . . . . . 488
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 Idle Speed Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Powertrain Control Module . . . . . . . . . . . 372 Spark Management Systems . . . . . . . . . 492
Operating Modes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 Emission Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 Other PCM-Controlled Systems . . . . . . . 497
Fuel Management Systems . . . . . . . . . . 398 Chrysler Multiplexing Systems . . . . . . . . 499
Idle Speed Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 Advanced Chrysler Electronic
Spark Management Systems . . . . . . . . . 403 Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Emission Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 414 System Diagnosis and Service . . . . . . . . 502

Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 Chapter 17: Alternative Power

Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Chapter 15: European (Bosch) Honda Insight, Civic, and Accord
Engine Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . 509 Hybrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 Toyota Hybrid System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 Ford Escape Hybrid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
System Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 Allison Two-Mode Hybrids . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
Continuous Injection System. . . . . . . . . . 513 Fuel Cell Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
Pulsed Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514 Flexible Fuel Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
Motronic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516 System Diagnosis and Service . . . . . . . . 600
Electronic Control Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
Operating Modes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
Outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
Bosch Obd II Update . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 Chapter 18: Approach
System Diagnosis and Service . . . . . . . . 534 to Diagnostics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 Narrowing Down the Area
of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
Chapter 16: Asian Computer Pinpoint Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 Diagnosing Intermittent Symptoms . . . . . 614
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 Testing Catalytic Converters . . . . . . . . . . 615
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 EVAP System Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
Nissan: Electronic Concentrated Diagnosing Air/Fuel Ratio Problems . . . . 620
Control System (ECCS) . . . . . . . . . . . 540 Diagnosing an Emission
Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542 Test Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
Outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549 Reprogramming a Computer. . . . . . . . . . 626
System Diagnosis and Service . . . . . . . . 553 The Three Essential Tools of Electronic
Toyota Computer-Controlled System Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
System (TCCS). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 Other Diagnostic Resources . . . . . . . . . . 630
Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
Outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557 Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
System Diagnosis and Service . . . . . . . . 564 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
Honda: Programmed Fuel
Injection (PGM-FI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565 Appendix A: Terms and Acronyms . . . 635
Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
Outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569 Appendix B: Automotive-Related
Honda’s VTEC Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573 Web Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
System Diagnosis and Service . . . . . . . . 578
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663

A Review of Electricity and Electronics

KEY TERMS
OBJECTIVES
Amp or Ampere
Upon completion and review of this chapter, you should be able to: Amperage
❑ Understand the conceptual differences between the terms Analog
electrical/and electronic. Armature
❑ Understand how a compound is different from an element. Clamping Diode
❑ Define the difference between an element and a compound. Compound
Digital
❑ Describe the importance of an atom’s valence ring as it pertains
Diode
to electrical theory. Dual In-Line Package (DIP)
❑ Understand the relationship between voltage, resistance, and Electrical
amperage. Electromotive Force
❑ Define circuit types in terms of series circuits and parallel circuits. Electronic
❑ Understand the construction and operation of semiconductors Element
such as diodes and transistors. Free Electrons
❑ Define the difference between an analog voltage signal and a H-Gate
digital voltage signal. Integrated Circuit (IC)
❑ Describe the relationship between a variable frequency, variable Molecule
duty cycle, and variable pulse width. Negative Ion
Ohm
Ohm’s Law
Permeability
Positive Ion
Reluctance
The earliest automobiles had little in the way
Resistance
of electrical systems, but as the automobile has Semiconductors
become more complicated and as more acces- Solenoid
sories have been added, electrical and electronic Transistor
systems have replaced mechanical methods of con- Valence Ring
trol on today’s vehicles. Additional electronic control Volt
systems have made and will continue to make the Voltage or Voltage Potential
automobile comply with government standards and Voltage Drop
consumer demands. Today, most major automotive
systems are controlled by computers.

This increased use of electrical and elec- came off the assembly line, but electronic circuits
tronic systems means two things for the automo- have been added to the automobile in more recent
tive service technician: First, to be effective, all years. For example, interior lighting circuits began
service technicians need skills in electrical diag- on the automobile as simple electrical circuits and
nosis and repair, almost regardless of the techni- without any electronic control. But, more often than
cian’s service specialty; second, technicians with not, interior lighting systems on today’s vehicles are
such skills will command significantly greater fi- controlled electronically by a computer.
nancial rewards and will deserve them. Even though the use of solid-state compo-
There are several principles by which electri- nents may often be used as a criterion to identify
cal systems operate, but they are all fairly simple; an electronic circuit, solid-state components,
learning them is not difficult. As each principle such as power transistors, may also be used in
is introduced to you through your reading or in an electrical circuit. A power transistor is a type
class, ask questions and/or read until you under- of transistor designed to carry larger amounts of
stand it. Review the principles often and practice amperage than are normally found in an elec-
the exercises that your instructor assigns. tronic circuit. A power transistor is essentially a
highly reliable relay.
Ultimately, an electrical circuit is a circuit
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS VERSUS that performs work through a load device. An
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS electronic circuit is used to intelligently control
an electrical circuit. Therefore, an electrical cir-
The differences between electrical circuits cuit may or may not be under the control of an
and electronic circuits are not always clear-cut. electronic circuit.
This has led to some confusion about the use of It should also be noted that a component
terms and how an electronic system differs from identified as an electronic device always needs
an electrical system. Perhaps the comparisons in a proper power (positive) and ground (negative)
the following table will help. just to power up properly, whether it is a small
Think of electrical circuits as the muscle and integrated circuit (IC) chip or a complex, sophis-
electronic circuits as the brain. Electrical circuits ticated computer. If either one is lacking it cannot
have been used in the automobile since the first one do its assigned job properly.

Electrical Circuits Electronic Circuits

Do physical work: heat, light, and electro- Communicate information: voltages or on/off
magnetism used to create movement. signals.
Use electromechanical devices: motors, Use solid-state devices (semiconductors) with
solenoids, relays. no moving parts, such as transistors and
diodes.
Operate at relatively high current or amperage. Operate at relatively low current or amperage.
Have relatively low resistance (ohms). Have relatively high resistance (ohms).
May or may not be controlled by an electronic Are used to control electrical circuits.
circuit.

ELECTRON THEORY Neutrons

Molecules and Atoms

A study of electricity begins with the smallest Protons
pieces of matter. All substances—air, water, wood,
steel, stone, and even the various substances that
our bodies are made of—are made of the same
bits of matter. Every substance is made of units Electrons
called molecules. A molecule is a unit formed by
combining two or more atoms; it is the smallest
unit that a given substance can be broken down Orbit path
to and still exhibit all of the characteristics of that
Figure 1–2 Helium atom. © Cengage Learning 2012
substance. For example, a molecule of water, or
H2O, is made up of two atoms of hydrogen and
one atom of oxygen (H is the chemical symbol
for hydrogen and O is the chemical symbol for not have a neutron. The next smallest and lightest
oxygen). If a molecule of water is broken down atom is the helium atom. It has two protons, two
into its component atoms, it is no longer water. neutrons, and two electrons (Figure 1–2). Since
As molecules are made up of atoms, atoms the hydrogen atom is the smallest and lightest,
are in turn made up of: and since it has one electron and one proton, it is
given an atomic number of 1. Since helium is the
• electrons, or negatively charged particles next lightest, it has an atomic number of 2. Every
• protons, or positively charged particles atom has been given an atomic number that indi-
• neutrons, or particles with no charge; at the cates its relative size and weight (or its mass) and
level of atomic activity concerning us here, the number of electrons, protons, and neutrons it
neutrons just add mass to the atom contains. An atom usually has the same number
of electrons, protons, and neutrons.
The smallest and lightest atom is the hydro-
gen atom. It contains one proton and one elec-
Elements
tron (Figure 1–1); it is the only atom that does
Once the three different bits of matter are
united to form an atom, two or more atoms com-
Electron bine to form a molecule. If all of the atoms in the
molecule are the same, the molecule is called an
element. Which element it is depends on how
many protons, neutrons, and electrons the atoms
contain. There are more than a hundred differ-
ent elements. Some examples of elements are
gold, lead, iron, and sodium. Examples of other
elements that are of concern to an automotive
Proton
technician include hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen,
oxygen, and silicon. An element, then, is a pure
Orbit path
substance whose molecules contain only one
Figure 1–1 Hydrogen atom. © Cengage Learning 2012 kind of atom.

Compounds 1st layer (2 electrons)

2nd layer (8 electrons)
A substance such as water, which contains hy-
drogen and oxygen atoms, is called a compound.
Examples of other compounds that are of con-
cern to an automotive technician include carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and ox-
ides of nitrogen. Therefore, compounds consist of
Nucleus
two or more elements.
(29 protons)

Molecules
Outer layer (1 electron)
A molecule consists of a minimum of two
atoms that are chemically bonded together; it is 3rd layer (18 electrons)
electrically stable, with a neutral charge. A mole-
Figure 1–3 Layers of electrons around a copper
cule may contain two or more identical atoms and
atom nucleus. © Cengage Learning 2012
therefore be an element, such as an oxygen mol-
ecule (O2), or it may have atoms of two or more
elements and therefore be a compound, such as fact, they are sometimes said to move at nearly the
water (H2O). speed of light. These characteristics work together
to explain many of the behaviors of an atom that
make current flow. Current is defined as a mass of
Atomic Structure and Electricity
free electrons moving in the same direction.
Notice in Figure 1–1 and Figure 1–2 that the There are two types of current: direct current
protons and neutrons are grouped together in the (DC) and alternating current (AC). Direct current
center of each atom, which is called the nucleus of always flows in one direction. Current from a bat-
the atom. The electrons travel around the nucleus tery is the best example. Most of the devices in
of the atom in an orbit, similar to the way that the an automobile use DC. Circuits with alternating
Earth travels around the sun. But because an atom current repeatedly switch the polarity of the circuit
usually has several electrons orbiting around its so that current flow (electron movement) reverses
nucleus, the electrons form in layers, rather than direction repeatedly. The power available from
all of them traveling in the same orbit (Figure 1–3). commercial utility companies is AC and cycles
Some, however, share the same orbit, as seen in (changes polarity) 60 times per second. This is
Figure 1–3. For the purposes of this text, only the known as 60 Hertz (Hz) AC voltage. One cycle
electrons in the last layer are of any real impor- occurs when the current switches from forward to
tance. This layer is often called the outer shell or backward to forward again. The car’s alternator
valence ring. The student should realize that we (an AC generator) produces AC current, which is
are speaking very loosely here when we describe converted to DC before it leaves the alternator.
electrons in shells having orbits. For our pur- The fast-moving electron wants to move in a
poses, this simple explanation (a model once straight line, but its attraction to the proton nucleus
called the Rutherford atom) satisfactorily conveys makes it act like a ball tied to the end of a string
the nature of the electron. twirled around. The repulsive force between the
As mentioned, electrons are negatively charged electrons keeps them spread as far apart as their
and protons are positively charged. You have prob- attraction to the nucleus will allow.
ably heard or know that like charges repel and un- The fewer electrons there are in the outer shell
like charges attract. Electrons are always moving; in of the atom and the more layers of electrons there

are under the outer shell, the weaker is the bond Atom with Atom with
between the outer electrons and the nucleus. If negative charge positive charge
one of these outer electrons can somehow be (– ion) (+ ion)
broken free from its orbit, it will travel to a neigh-
boring atom and fall into the outer shell there, re- Electron flow from
sulting in two unbalanced atoms. The first atom is negative to positive
missing an electron. It is now positively charged
and is called a positive ion. The second atom
has an extra electron. It is negatively charged and
is called a negative ion. Ions are unstable. They
want either to gain an electron or to get rid of one Light bulb
so that they are balanced.
Negative ions at Positive ions at
negative terminal Battery positive terminal
ELECTRICAL THEORY
Voltage Potential Electron flow from
negative to positive
An atom that is a positive ion has positive
potential. It has more positive charge than neg-
ative charge because it has more protons than
electrons. Suppose that this atom is at one end of
a circuit (Figure 1–4). Further suppose that there Light bulb
is a negative ion at the other end of the circuit in
that this atom has an extra electron, thus giving it Figure 1–4 Negative versus positive potential.
© Cengage Learning 2012
a negative potential. Because of the difference in
potential at the two ends of the circuit, an electron
at the negatively charged end will start moving in the wire. Actually, this resistance has two func-
toward the positively charged end. The greater tions. It limits current flow so as to keep the wire
the difference in potential (the greater the num- from burning open and it also turns the current
ber of opposite-charged ions) at each end of the flow into some type of useful work—heat, light, or
circuit, the greater the number of electrons that electromagnetism.
will start to flow. This potential difference between It is the voltage potential that makes current
the two charges is commonly known as voltage flow. Actually, three factors must be present for
potential. an electrical circuit to work properly. These three
An example can be created by attaching factors are voltage potential, resistance to flow,
something between the two ends of a circuit and current flow, as demonstrated in the following
that will produce positive and negative ions. This example:
is what a battery or generator does in a circuit
(Figure 1–4). If you connect both ends of a copper Suppose that you have a glass of your
wire to a battery, the voltage potential will cause favorite lemonade sitting on your patio table
electron flow through the wire. However, because on a nice summer day. Suppose that there
the wire will not be able to handle the electron flow is a straw sitting in the glass of lemonade.
that the battery can provide, it will burn open very There is atmospheric pressure acting on
quickly. Therefore some kind of resistance, or the lemonade in the glass and therefore
opposition to a steady electric current, is needed at the lower end of the straw. There is also

atmospheric pressure present at the upper theories is that magnetism is caused by the
end of the straw (remember, it is just sitting movement and group orientation of electrons.
there on the patio table at the moment). Some materials strongly demonstrate the char-
Because there is no potential difference acteristics associated with magnetism and some
between the pressures at the two ends of the do not. Those that strongly demonstrate the char-
straw, the lemonade is not presently flowing acteristics of magnetism, such as iron, are said to
in the straw. Now, if you simply close your have high permeability. Those that do not, such
mouth over the upper end of the straw but do as glass, wood, and aluminum, are said to have
not change the pressure in your mouth, you high reluctance.
will still not get the lemonade to flow up the
straw. You must provide a pressure difference
Lines of Force
(or potential) in order to get the lemonade to
flow up the straw. You do this by creating a It is not known whether there actually is
negative pressure within your mouth (that is, such a thing as a magnetic line of force. What
a pressure that is less than the atmospheric is known, however, is that magnetism exerts a
pressure acting on the lemonade in the glass). force that we can understand and manipulate
The pressure differential is what causes the if we assume there are magnetic lines of force.
lemonade to flow up the straw. If you want Magnetic force is linear in nature, and it can be
to get a larger flow of lemonade, you must managed to do many kinds of work. By assign-
create a larger pressure difference (or suck ing certain characteristics to these lines of force,
harder). However, this only tells half the story. we can explain the behavior of magnetism. Mag-
Another factor that influences the volume of netic lines of force:
lemonade that you get to flow up the straw
is the size of the straw. Suppose that you 1. have a directional force (north to south out-
replace your normal-size straw with a slender side the magnet)
coffee stir stick/straw. This small straw would 2. want to take the shortest distance between
limit the volume of lemonade that you could two poles (just like a stretched rubber band
get to flow up the straw. The same is true in between the two points from which it is
an electrical circuit. In an electrical circuit, the held)
amount of current that flows is dictated by two 3. form a complete loop
factors—how much voltage potential is applied 4. are more permeable to iron than air
to the circuit and how much resistance to flow 5. resist being close together (especially in air)
is present in the circuit. This is, in essence, 6. resist being cut
what is commonly known as Ohm’s law, 7. will not cross each other (they will bend first)
described later in this chapter. You can also
apply this same principle to a fuel injector in Magnetic lines of force extending from a
that the flow rate of a fuel injector is dictated magnet make up what is commonly called a
by the amount of pressure difference between magnetic field and more correctly called mag-
the two ends of the injector and the orifice netic flux (Figure 1–5). If a magnet is not near
size (restriction) of the injector. an object made of permeable material, the lines
of force will extend from the north pole through
the air to the south pole (characteristic 1). The
Magnetism lines of force will continue through the body of the
Magnetism is closely tied to the generation magnet to the north pole to form a complete loop
and use of electricity. In fact, one of the prevailing (characteristic 3). Every magnet has a north pole

Magnetic flux field

Soft iron
N (temporarily
assumes a
polarity)
S

S N

S
Figure 1–6 Magnetic field distortion.
© Cengage Learning 2012

Figure 1–5 Magnetic field. © Cengage Learning 2012

Electromagnets
Early researchers discovered that when cur-
and a south pole. The poles are the two points of a rent passes through a conductor, a magnetic field
magnet where the magnetic strength is greatest. forms around the conductor (Figure 1–7). This
As the lines of force extend out of the north pole, principle makes possible the use of electromag-
they begin to spread out. Here you see opposition nets, electric motors, generators, and most of the
between characteristics 2 and 5. The lines of force other components used in electrical circuits.
want to take the shortest distance between the If a wire is coiled with the coils close together,
poles, but they spread out because of their ten- most of the lines of force wrap around the entire
dency to repel each other (characteristic 5). The coil rather than going between the coils of wire
result is a magnetic field that occupies a relatively
large area but has greater density near the body
of the magnet.
Because the body of the magnet has high
permeability, the lines of force are very concen-
trated in the body of the magnet (characteristic 4). w
n flo
This accounts for the poles of the magnet having tro
c
the highest magnetic strength. Ele
If there is an object with high permeability
near the magnet, the magnetic lines of force will
distort from their normal pattern and go out of their
Figure 1–7 Lines of force forming around a conduc-
way to pass through the object (Figure 1–6). The
tor. If you place your left hand on the wire with your
tendency for the lines of force to pass through the thumb pointing in the direction of electron flow, your
permeable object is stronger than their tendency fingers will be pointing in the direction of the directional
to take the shortest route. The lines of force will, force of the magnetic lines of force. When thinking of
however, try to move the object toward the near- conventional current flow, the same would apply for the
est pole of the magnet. right hand. © Cengage Learning 2012

Directional force of Directional force of Electron

Electron magnetic flux lines flow
magnetic flux lines
flow

S N

Soft iron core

S N
Figure 1–10 Electromagnet. © Cengage Learning 2012
Figure 1–8 Magnetic field around a coil. Place your
left hand, with thumb extended, around the coil with
your fingers pointing in the direction of the electron flow
through the coil. Your thumb will point to the north pole the center so that they can follow a shorter path.
of the magnetic field. © Cengage Learning 2012 If the core is movable, it will move to the center
of the coil. A coil around an off-center, movable,
permeable core is a solenoid. A spring is usually
(Figure 1–8). This is because if they do try to wrap used to hold the core off center. When the current
around each loop in the coil, they must cross each flow is switched on to create the electromagnet,
other, which they will not do (characteristic 7) the magnetic field is stronger than the spring ten-
(Figure 1–9). sion and will overcome the spring tension in order
If a highly permeable core is placed in the to move the iron core. This solenoid can be used
center of the coil, the magnetic field becomes to do physical work such as to engage a starter
much stronger because the high permeability of drive to a flywheel or to lock or unlock a door. But
the core replaces the low permeability of the air for most subjects to which this textbook pertains,
in the center (Figure 1–10). If the core is placed there will be a valve attached to the movable iron
toward one end of the coil (Figure 1–11), the lines core. This solenoid-operated valve may be spring
of force exert a strong force on it to move it toward loaded normally closed (N/C) and open when
electrically energized, or it may be spring loaded
normally open (N/O) and close when electrically
energized.
Electron flow

Motors
In an electric motor, current is passed through
a conductor that is looped around the armature
core (Figure 1–12). The conductor loops are
placed in grooves along the length of the core.
The core is made of laminated discs of permeable,
Figure 1–9 Magnetic lines of force cannot cross. soft iron that are pressed onto the armature shaft.
© Cengage Learning 2012 The soft iron core causes the magnetic field that

Directional force of
magnetic flux lines

S N

Note: Core will move to center of coil regardless

of directional force of magnetic flux lines.
Figure 1–11 Solenoid. © Cengage Learning 2012

forms around the conductor to be stronger due of the armature conductor, the field it has pro-
to its permeability. There are several conductor duced has a directional force in the same direc-
loops on the armature, but only the loop that is tion as that of the lines of force between the field
nearest the center of the field poles has current poles. The lines of force in this area are compat-
passing through it. The loops are positioned so ible, but combining these two fields in the same
that when one side of a loop is centered on one area produces a high-density field. Remember
field pole, its other side is centered on the other that magnetic lines of force resist being close
field pole. together.
The field poles are either permanent mag- At the bottom of the armature conductor, the
nets or pieces of soft iron that serve as the core of lines of force formed around it have a directional
an electromagnet. If electromagnets are used, an force opposite to those from the north field pole.
additional conductor (not shown in Figure 1–12) The lines of force will not cross each other, so
is wound around each field pole, and current is some lines from the field pole distort and go up
passed through these field coils to produce a and over the conductor into the already dense
magnetic field between the field poles. The motor portion of the field above the conductor, and some
frame that the poles are mounted on acts as the just cease to exist. This produces a high-density
magnet body. field above the conductor and a low-density field
Looking at the armature conductor near the below it. The difference in density is similar to a
north field pole in Figure 1–12, you see that its difference in pressure. This produces a downward
magnetic field extends out of the armature core force on the conductor.
and that it has a clockwise force. The magnetic The other side of the armature loop, on the
field between the field poles has a directional other side of the armature, is the same except
force from north pole to south pole. At the top that the current is now traveling the opposite

Armature conductors
Armature core

Motor frame
Armature shaft

Field poles:
electromagnets Magnetic field
or permanent around conductors
magnets

Flux field

END VIEW OF MOTOR

Figure 1–12 Electric motor. © Cengage Learning 2012

way. The loop makes a U-shaped bend at the through a magnetic field (Figure 1–13). This phe-
end of the armature. The magnetic field around nomenon occurs because of characteristic 6. As
this part of the conductor has a counterclockwise the conductor passes through the magnetic field, it
force. Here, the lines of force around the con- cuts each line of force. Because the lines of force re-
ductor are compatible with those between the sist being cut, they first wrap around the conductor,
field poles under the conductor, but they try to much like a blade of grass would if struck by a stick
cross at the top. This produces an upward force (Figure 1–14). This principle is used in generators
on this side of the armature loop. The armature
rotates counterclockwise. To change the direc-
tion in which the armature turns, either change Flux lines
the direction that current flows through the ar- N
mature conductors or change the polarity of the
field poles.

Magnetic Induction
Passing voltage through a wire causes a mag- Conductor
netic field to form around the wire. However, if S
lines of force can be formed around a conductor, a
voltage is produced in the wire and current starts to
Horseshoe magnet
flow. This assumes, of course, that the wire is part
of a complete circuit. Lines of force can be made to Figure 1–13 Magnetic induction.
wrap around a conductor by passing a conductor © Cengage Learning 2012

Horseshoe magnet 3. How fast and how many times the conductors
Flux lines
pass through the magnetic field.
Moving 4. The angle between the lines of force and the
N conductor’s approach to them.
conductor

Amperage
Amperage is a measure of the amount of cur-
rent flowing in a circuit. One ampere (amp) equals
6,250,000,000,000,000,000 (6.25 billion billion)
S electrons moving past a given point in a circuit per
second. This is often expressed as one coulomb.
Lines of force wrapping
around conductor as it
moves through flux field Voltage
Figure 1–14 Cutting lines of force. A volt is a measure of the force or pressure
© Cengage Learning 2012
that causes current to flow; it is often referred to
as voltage. The difference in potential is voltage.
to produce voltage and current flow. The principle The most common ways of producing voltage
will work regardless of whether: are chemically, as in a battery, or by magnetic
induction, as in a generator. A more accurate but
• the conductor is moved through a stationary less-used name is electromotive force. Note
magnetic field, as in a DC generator that volts are what drive the electrons through
• a magnetic field is moved past stationary the circuit; voltage is the measurement of that
conductors, as in an AC generator force. Similarly, amps are the number of elec-
• the lines of force in an electromagnetic field trons moving; amperage is the measurement of
are moved by having the circuit producing the that number.
magnetic field turned on and off, as in an igni-
tion coil
Resistance
Note that in each case, movement of either
the lines of force or the conductor is needed. A The fact that voltage is required to push cur-
magnetic field around a conductor where both are rent through a circuit suggests that the circuit of-
steady state will not produce voltage. The amount fers resistance. In other words, you do not have
of voltage and current produced by magnetic in- to push something unless it resists moving.
duction depends on four factors: Resistance limits the amount of amperage that
flows through a circuit (Figure 1–15). The unit of
1. The strength of the magnetic field (how many measurement of resistance to flow is an ohm. If
lines of force there are to cut). A tiny amount a circuit without enough resistance is connected
of voltage is induced in the wire by each line across a reliable voltage source, wires or some
of force that is cut. other component in the circuit will be damaged by
2. The number of conductors cutting the line heat because too much current flows.
of force. Winding the conductor into a coil As mentioned, a bond exists between an elec-
and passing one side of the coil through the tron and the protons in the nucleus of an atom.
magnetic field cuts each line of force as many That bond must be broken for the electron to be
times as there are loops in the coil. freed so that it can move to another atom. Breaking

4 Ohms • Temperature —as the temperature of a conduc-

tor increases, the resistance also increases.
• Physical condition—cuts, nicks, corrosion,
12 V and other deficient physical aspects of a con-
ductor, connector, or load will increase the
resistance of the circuit, thus creating exces-
sive voltage drop within the circuit, resulting
in reduced current flow.
Low resistance allows more
current to flow. Sometimes students get confused between
voltage and amperage while doing tests on elec-
20 Ohms trical systems. Review these definitions and con-
sider the influence that voltage and amperage
have on a circuit. It might also help to remember
12 V that voltage can be present in a circuit without
current flowing. However, current cannot flow un-
less voltage is present.

Higher resistance allows less Voltage Drop

current to flow. When current is flowing through a circuit,
Figure 1–15 Resistance versus current flow. voltage is lost, or used up, by being converted to
© Cengage Learning 2012 some other energy form (heat, light, or magne-
tism). This loss of voltage is referred to as voltage
drop. Every part of a circuit offers some resis-
that bond and moving the electron amount to doing tance, even the wires, although the resistance in
work. Doing that work represents a form of resis- the wires should be very low (Figure 1–16). The
tance to current flow. This resistance varies from voltage drop in each part of the circuit is propor-
one conductive material to another, depending on tional to the resistance in that part of the circuit.
the atomic structure of the material. For example, The total voltage dropped in a circuit must equal
lead has more resistance than iron, and iron has the source voltage. In other words, all of the volt-
more resistance than copper. It also varies with the age applied to a circuit must be converted to an-
temperature of the conductor. Loose or dirty con- other energy form within the circuit. If excessive
nections in a circuit also offer resistance to cur- voltage drop occurs somewhere in a circuit due
rent flow. Using current flow to do work (to create to unwanted resistance, the amperage flowing in
heat, light, or a magnetic field to move something) the circuit will be reduced. This also reduces the
also amounts to resistance to current flow. There voltage drop across the intended load component
are five things that will influence resistance within in that excessive voltage drop is occurring else-
a wire and/or circuit: where in the circuit. This reduces the load com-
ponent’s ability to function properly. Many good
• Atomic structure of the material—for exam- computers have been replaced simply because
ple, copper wiring versus aluminum wiring. of problems involving excessive voltage drop in
• Wire gauge —a smaller gauge of wire (higher the power and ground circuits that are used to
number) increases circuit resistance. power up the computer.
• Wire length —as the wire’s length is increased, It should be stressed that, in order for voltage
its resistance also increases. to be dropped or used up, current must be flowing

0.1 V lost across 0.2 V lost 5.82 V lost in 5.82 V lost in

fuse and connections in switch light as heat light as heat
as heat as heat and light and light

11.98 V 11.88 V 11.66 V 5.84 V

5.83 V 0.01 V
12.00 V 11.87 V 11.67 V

2 2
0.005 V
12 V

0.00 V
Small voltage drops
lost in wire as heat

0.005 V lost in
frame or body
ground path
as heat
VOLTAGE CONVERTED TO OTHER ENERGY FORMS
Figure 1–16 Voltage drop. © Cengage Learning 2012

in the circuit. If current is not flowing in the circuit where: E electromotive force or voltage
(as in the case of a burned fuse or other open), I intensity or amperage
voltage will not be dropped, but rather source volt- R resistance or ohms
age will be present regardless of resistance all
the way from the battery to the positive side of the The simplest application of Ohm’s law en-
open, and a ground measurement of zero volts ables you to find the value of any one of the three
will be present on the ground side of the open factors—amperage, voltage, or resistance—if the
as well. other two are known. For example, if the voltage
is 12 V and the resistance is 2 (Figure 1–17),
the current flow can be determined as follows:
Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law defines a relationship between I E兾R or
amperage, voltage, and resistance. Ohm’s law I 12 V兾2 6 amps
says that it takes 1 volt (V) to push 1 amp (A)
through 1 ohm () of resistance. Ohm’s law can
be expressed in one of three simple mathemati-
cal equations:

EIR
I E兾R Figure 1–17 A simple series circuit.
R E兾I © Cengage Learning 2012

electrons there are in the outer shell the easier it

E is to break them loose from the atom. If an atom
has five or more electrons in its outer shell, the
electrons become much more difficult to break
I X R away from the atom, and the substance made up
of those atoms is a very poor conductor—so poor
Figure 1–18 Ohm’s law calculation. that it is classed as an insulator. Rubber, most
© Cengage Learning 2012 plastics, glass, and ceramics are common ex-
amples of insulators. Substances with four elec-
trons in their outer shell are poor conductors but
(The Greek letter , or omega, is often used can become good ones under certain conditions.
as a symbol or an abbreviation for ohms, and Thus, they are called semiconductors. Silicon
amps is the term often used as an abbreviation and germanium are good examples of semicon-
for amperes.) ductors. (Semiconductors are covered in more
If the resistance is 4 and the current is detail later in this chapter.)
1.5 amps, the voltage applied can be found by: Conductors are substances made up of atoms
E I R or with three or fewer electrons in their outer shell.
E 1.5 amp 4 6 V These electrons are called free electrons because
they are loosely held and can be freed to travel to
If the voltage is 12 V and the current is 3 amps, another atom.
the resistance can be found by:
R E兾I or Circuit Design
R 12 V兾3 amps 40
The following three elements are essential to
Perhaps the easiest way to remember how all electrical circuits in order to have an operating
to use these equations is to use the diagram in circuit:
Figure 1–18. To find the value of the unknown fac-
tor, cover the unknown factor with your thumb and 1. Voltage source, such as a battery or genera-
multiply or divide the other factors as their posi- tor, provides voltage to the power circuit.
tions indicate. 2. Load, such as a motor or light, performs the
There are many other applications of Ohm’s function the circuit was designed to perform
law, some of which are quite complex. (A more and also provides resistance to limit current.
complicated application is covered later in this 3. Circuitry or current conductors complete the
chapter.) An automotive technician is rarely re- circuit between the voltage source and the
quired to apply Ohm’s law directly to find or repair load.
an electrical problem on a vehicle. But knowing and
understanding the relationship of the three factors Also, most electrical circuits will have some
is a must for the technician who wants to be able to type of component to provide each of the follow-
diagnose and repair electrical systems effectively. ing functions:

• Circuit protection, such as a fuse or circuit

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS breaker, serves to open the circuit in the
event of excessive current flow.
Conductors and Insulators
• Circuit control, such as a switch or relay (elec-
Previously, in discussing the electrons in the trically operated switch), provides the ability
outer shell of an atom, it was said that the fewer to control when current flows in the circuit.

• Ground—meaning the metal of the vehicle’s The following problems apply Ohm’s law to a
body, chassis, and engine—is commonly series circuit. Refer to Figure 1–21, which shows
used in place of running a copper wire on the a compound series circuit.
negative side of the circuit (referred to as a Series Circuit—Problem 1. Assume that
negative ground). the resistance of R1 is 2 and that R2 is 4 ;
find the total current flow. In a series circuit, the
These components are often represented resistance value of each unit of resistance can be
by symbols, as shown in Figure 1–19. You added together because all of the current passes
should note that any circuit protection devices, through each resistor.
circuit control devices, and grounds constitute
part of the circuitry or current conductors when I E兾R or
used. I E兾(R1 R2) or
I 12 V兾(2 4 ) or 12 V兾6 2 A
Circuit Types Series Circuit—Problem 2. Assume the
There are two distinct types of electrical cir- resistance values are unknown in Figure 1–21,
cuits, plus combinations of the two. but that the total current flow is 3 amps. To find
Series Circuits. In a series circuit, there is the total resistance:
only one path for current flow and all of the current
flows through every part of the circuit. Parts A RT E兾I or
and B of Figure 1–19 show simple series circuits. RT 12 V兾3 amps 4
Even though there is only one load in each of
these circuits, they qualify as series circuits Series Circuit—Problem 3. Find the voltage
because there is only one path for current flow. drop across R1, applying the same resistance
Figure 1–20 shows a better example of a series values as in problem 1. Each ohm of resistance
circuit. Not only is there just one path for current value shares equally in the total voltage drop in
flow, there are also two loads in series with each a series circuit. Therefore, how much voltage is
other. When there are two or more loads in series, dropped (used up) by each ohm of resistance in a
the current must pass through one before it can circuit is also numerically equal to how many amps
pass through the next. The characteristics of a are flowing in the circuit. As an example, if a 12 V
series circuit include the following: circuit has a resistance total of 6 , we know that
there the current flow is 2 amps (12兾6 2). But
• Current flow is the same at all parts of the the same math is also used to calculate how much
circuit. voltage is dropped by each measured ohm of
• Resistance units are added together for total resistance to flow. If each ohm of resistance shares
resistance. equally in the voltage drop, then 12 V divided by
• Current flow decreases as resistance units 6 indicates that each ohm of resistance will drop
are added. 2 V. Thus, because you are concerned with the
• All of the voltage will be used up by all of voltage drop across R1 in Figure 1–21, multiply
the resistance in the circuit if current is the resistance of R1 by the circuit’s amperage.
flowing. There will be no voltage left after
the last resistance. Furthermore, each ohm Voltage drop across R1 R1 I or
of resistance will share equally in the volt- 2 2 A 4 V (voltage drop across R1)
age drop.
• An open in any part of the circuit disrupts the Parallel Circuits. In a parallel circuit, the
entire circuit. conductors split into branches with a load in each

Voltage source Circuit protection Circuit control Load

(battery) (fuse) (switch) (type not indicated)

Conductor

Circuit protection Circuit control Load

Voltage source (circuit breaker) (switch) (light)
(battery)

Ground symbols indicate that points

are connected by frame or body
B

Voltage source Circuit protection

(alternator) (fusible link)
Relay

Load
(motor)

Control circuit

Ground side switch

C
When control circuit is turned ON, its coil creates a magnetic
field that closes the contacts, which turns ON the motor.
Figure 1–19 Circuit components. © Cengage Learning 2012

Load 2 5.2 A
Load 1 (motor) A
(resistor)
1.2 A 4A
A A

10 3
12 V
Figure 1–20 Series circuit. © Cengage Learning 2012

Figure 1–22 Parallel circuit. © Cengage Learning 2012

R1 R2
how the resistances relate to each other. There is
also a shortcut method that can be used in place
of any of the three formulas, as demonstrated.
12 V The following problems apply Ohm’s law to a par-
allel circuit.
Parallel Circuit—Problem 1: Calculating
Total Resistance for a Parallel Circuit with
Figure 1–21 Series circuit. © Cengage Learning 2012 Two Branches. The product of R1 multiplied
by R2 divided by the sum of R1 plus R2 equals
the resistance total (RT). This is mathematically
branch (Figure 1–19, Part C, and Figure 1–22). stated as:
Some current will flow through each branch, with
the most current flowing through the branch with (R1 R2)兾(R1 R2) RT
the least resistance. Characteristics of a parallel In Figure 1–23, assume that R1 is 3 and
circuit are: R2 is 4 . Then calculate the resistance total as
follows:
• Current varies in each branch (unless resis-
tance in each branch is equal). (3 4 )兾(3 4 ) 12 兾7 1.71
• Total circuit current flow increases as more
branches are added. Notice that the resistance total is less than
• Total circuit resistance goes down as more the least resistor value. This is because the total
branches are added and will always be less
than the lowest single resistance unit in the
circuit.
• Source voltage is dropped across each branch. 12 V
• An open in one branch does not affect other R1 R2
branches.

There are three possible mathematical formu-

las for calculating the total resistance in a parallel Figure 1–23 Parallel circuit with two branches.
circuit depending on the number of branches and © Cengage Learning 2012

resistance to the flow of electrons is reduced as Notice, again, that the resistance total is less
more branches that allow flow are added to the than the least resistor value. Also, this complex
circuit. mathematical formula is best done using a cal-
Parallel Circuit—Problem 2: Calculating culator with a memory feature. But there is an
Total Resistance for a Parallel Circuit with easier way.
More Than Two Branches That Have Equal Solving Total Resistance for a Parallel
Resistances. The resistance total is equal to the Circuit Using the Method of Assumed Voltages.
resistance of one branch divided by the number This is a “cheat” method for finding the resistance
of branches. This is mathematically stated as: total of any parallel circuit, whether it has two
branches or more than two branches and whether
(Resistance of one branch)兾 the resistances of the branches are equal or
(Number of branches) RT dissimilar. Assume any convenient voltage, be it
In Figure 1–24, if each of the resistances in each your source voltage or any other voltage that is
of the four branches were 3 of resistance (all are convenient to perform the math with. Calculate the
equal), the total resistance would be calculated by current flow for each branch at the assumed voltage.
dividing 3 (the resistance value of one branch) by 4 Then add up all of the current flows to find the total
(the number of branches). Thus, the resistance total current flow. Then divide the assumed voltage by
would equal 0.75 . Notice, again, that the resis- the total current flow to find the resistance total.
tance total is less than the least resistor value. Let us try applying it to Figure 1–24 with the same
Parallel Circuit—Problem 3: Calculating resistance values as used earlier.
Total Resistance for a Parallel Circuit with Let us assume a source voltage of 12 V. Using
More Than Two Branches That Have Dissimilar Ohm’s law, we can calculate the current flow eas-
Resistances. The resistance total is equal to ily for each branch as follo ws:
the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of
each of the branch’s resistance values. This is 12 V divided by 2 (R1) 6 amps
mathematically stated as: 12 V divided by 3 (R2) 4 amps
12 V divided by 4 (R3) 3 amps
1兾((1兾R1) (1兾R2) (1兾R3) (1兾R4) 12 V divided by 6 (R3) 2 amps
(and so on . . .)) RT
Then add up the current of each branch.
In Figure 1–24, if R1 2 , R2 3 , R3
4 , and R4 6 , then: 6 amps 4 amps 3 amps 2 amps
15 amps
RT 1兾((1兾2) (1兾3) (1兾4) (1兾6)) or
RT 1兾((0.5) (0.33) (0.25) (0.16)) or Now divide the assumed voltage by the total
RT 1兾1.24 0.806 current.

12 V divided by 15 amps 0.8 (RT)

ⴙ Now let us assume another convenient volt-

R1 R2 R3 R4 age of 60 V. Again, using Ohm’s law, we can
ⴚ easily calculate the current flow for each branch
as follows:

Figure 1–24 Parallel circuit with more than two 60 V divided by 2 (R1) 30 amps
branches. © Cengage Learning 2012 60 V divided by 3 (R2) 20 amps

60 V divided by 4 (R3) 15 amps how the resistance units relate to each other, then
60 V divided by 6 (R3) 10 amps use whichever set of formulas (series circuit or
parallel circuit) applies. For example:
Then add up the current of each branch. Series-Parallel Circuit—Problem 1. In
Figure 1–25, assume a resistance of 4 for the
30 amps 20 amps 15 amps 10 amps indicator light (R3), 20 for R1, and 30 for R2.
75 amps Find the total resistance for the circuit.
Branches R1 and R2 are in parallel with each
Now divide the assumed voltage by the total other and in series with R3. First, use the product
current. over the sum method (or the method of assumed
voltages may also be used) to solve for the com-
60 V divided by 75 amps 0.8 (RT) bined resistance of R1 and R2.

Therefore, any voltage that is convenient to

R R1 R2兾R1 R2 or
use with the particular resistance values will work
R 20 30 兾20 30
for this shortcut method. This makes it easy enough
R 600 兾50 12
to calculate the resistance total for any parallel cir-
cuit, thereby eliminating the need for a calculator.
Series-Parallel Circuits. Some circuits have Now add the total resistance of R1 and R2
characteristics of a series as well as those of a (12 ) to the resistance of R3 (4 ).
parallel circuit. There are two basic types of series-
parallel circuits. The most common is a parallel RT R R3 or 120 40 160
circuit with at least one resistance unit in series
with all branches (Figure 1–25). All of the current Series-Parallel Circuit—Problem 2. Find
flowing through the circuit in Figure 1–25 must the total current flow for the circuit.
pass through the indicator light before it divides to
go through the two heating elements, which are in IT E兾RT or
parallel with each other. IT 12兾16 0.75 amp
To solve for current, resistance, or voltage drop
values in a series-parallel circuit, you must identify Before you can find the current flow through
R1 or R2, you must find the voltage applied to R1
and R2. Remember that R3 is in series with both
Indicator light Heat R1 and R2. Also remember that in a series circuit,
elements a portion of the source voltage is dropped across
R3
each resistance unit. Therefore, because there is
a voltage drop across R3, there is not a full 12 V
applied to R1 and R2.
12 V R1 R2 Series-Parallel Circuit—Problem 3. Find
the voltage drop across R3.

V3 IT R3 or
V3 0.75 amp 4 3 V

Figure 1–25 Series-parallel circuit. If 3 V are dropped across R3 from a source

Indicator light Positive side

of circuit

R1 R3
12 V 2 1

Winding R2 Load
4

Figure 1–26 Series string in parallel.

© Cengage Learning 2012 Negative side
of circuit
Series-Parallel Circuit—Problem 4. Find Figure 1–27 Circuit polarity. © Cengage Learning 2012
the current flow through:

R1:I1 E兾R1 or is identified by positive and negative. An electrical

I1 9 V兾20 0.45 amp circuit’s polarity is determined by its power source.
R2: I2 E兾R2 or The best example is a battery (Figure 1–27). The
I2 9 V兾30 0.30 amp side of the circuit that connects to the positive side
of the battery is positive and on most vehicles is
The second type of series-parallel circuit the insulated side. The voltage on this side is usu-
is a parallel circuit in which at least one of the ally near the source voltage. Most of the voltage
branch circuits contains two or more loads in se- is dropped in the load where most of the work is
ries (Figure 1–26). This type of circuit may be re- done. The negative side of the circuit carries the
ferred to as series string in parallel. Finding the current from the load to the negative side of the
total current, resistance, or voltage drop for this battery. There is usually very little resistance in
circuit is easy. Identify the branch, or branches, the negative side of the circuit, and the voltage is
that have multiple loads in series and add up the near zero. Because this side of the circuit has the
resistances within that branch. Then treat the cir- same potential as the vehicle’s frame and sheet
cuit like any other parallel circuit. When trouble- metal, this side of the circuit is not usually insu-
shooting this kind of circuit in a vehicle, failing to lated, but rather is connected to the metal of the
recognize the branch of a circuit you are testing engine, chassis, or body and is therefore referred
as having loads in series could cause confusion. to as the ground side of the circuit.
CAUTION: If you are not absolutely sure
about the circuit you are testing, consult the
correct wiring schematic for the vehicle. CIRCUIT FAULTS
Three kinds of faults can occur in an electri-
POLARITY cal or electronic circuit: opens, excessive resis-
tance, and shorts.
Just as a magnet has polarity—a north pole
and a south pole that determine the directional
Opens
force of the lines of force—an electrical circuit
has polarity. Instead of using north and south to By far the most common fault in electrical
identify the polarity, an electrical circuit’s polarity and electronic circuits is an open circuit, or open.

An open circuit means that there is a point in the as used in electrical terminology means that the
circuit where resistance is so high that current current is taking a shortcut rather than following
cannot flow. An open can be the result of a broken the path it is supposed to take.
wire, a loose or dirty connection, a blown fuse, If, in an electromagnetic load, the wind-
or a faulty component in the load device. Expe- ings overheat, resulting in melting of the mate-
rienced technicians know that wires rarely break rial that insulates one winding from the next, the
except in applications in which the wire experi- current may bypass just a few of the windings,
ences a lot of flexing. Most opens occur in con- thus reducing the circuit’s intended resistance
nections, switches, and components. A switch in (Figure 1–29A). If only a relatively small number
a circuit provides a way to conveniently open the of the coil’s loops are shorted, the increase in cur-
circuit. Of course, when a circuit is opened delib- rent flow might not be enough to further damage
erately, it is not a fault. the circuit, although it might blow a fuse if the cir-
cuit is fuse protected. The device might even con-
tinue to work, but probably at reduced efficiency.
Excessive Resistance But if the shorted load is controlled by a com-
A loose or dirty connection or a partially cut puter, the resulting increase in current flow may
wire can cause excessive resistance in a circuit. be substantial enough to destroy the computer’s
Under these conditions, the circuit can still work, ability to control this circuit (depending upon the
but not as well as it could, because the additional
resistance reduces current flow through the cir-
cuit (Figure 1–28). Excessive resistance can also
result from a faulty repair or modification of a cir- Current
cuit in which a wire that is too long or too small in bypasses Short
diameter has been installed. The location of ex- loop (coils make
cessive resistance in a circuit can be easily found
physical contact)
with a series of voltage drop tests, which are dis-
A
cussed in Chapter 6.
Short
Shorts
A short is a fault in a circuit that causes cur-
rent to bypass a portion of a circuit. The term short

Worn or burned
contacts B

Likely locations for loose

or corroded connections
Short
C
Figure 1–28 Possible locations in a circuit for an
open or high resistance. © Cengage Learning 2012 Figure 1–29 Shorts. © Cengage Learning 2012

current protection that may or may not be de- is used much more than germanium. Therefore,
signed into the computer), resulting in the need most of this discussion will apply to silicon.
to replace the computer as part of the repair. Or As previously stated, an atom with three or
the current may bypass the entirety of the load, fewer electrons in its outer shell easily gives them
thus reducing the circuit’s resistance to near zero up. If an atom has more than four but fewer than
ohms (Figure 1–29B). Also, a short may bypass a eight electrons in its outer shell, it exhibits a ten-
switch or relay-operated switch and thus create an dency to acquire more until it has eight. If there are
“always on” condition in which the circuit cannot seven electrons in the outer shell, the tendency to
be properly controlled (Figure 1–29C). acquire another one is stronger than if there are
Short to Power. Figure 1–29B demonstrates only six. Once there are eight, it becomes very
a short to power (positive) and a short that also stable; in other words, it is hard to get the atom to
allows current to fully bypass the load. This would gain or lose an electron. In a semiconductor ma-
likely quickly blow the fuse due to the increased terial—for example, a silicon crystal—the atoms
current. In this example, the circuit will not operate share valence electrons in what are called cova-
at all until the problem is corrected and the fuse is lent bonds (Figure 1–30). Each atom positions it-
replaced. If an improper fuse has been installed self so that it can share the valence electrons of
with an amperage rating that is higher than the neighboring atoms, giving each atom, in effect,
manufacturer-recommended amperage rating, a eight valence electrons. This lattice structure is
fire could result. Do not ever replace a fuse with characteristic of a crystal solid and provides two
one other than the fuse recommended by the useful characteristics:
manufacturer unless the manufacturer directs you to
do so through a Technical Service Bulletin (TSB). 1. Impurities can be added to the semiconduc-
A short finder is an excellent tool for finding tor material to increase its conductivity; this is
this type of short; it consists of a self-resetting called doping.
circuit breaker that temporarily replaces the fuse 2. It becomes negative temperature coefficient,
and a sensitive inductive meter that can sense meaning that its resistance goes down as its
the pulsing of the magnetic field from the battery temperature goes up. (This principle is put to
to the point of the short. use in temperature sensors, as we will see in
Short to Ground. Figure 1–29C demon- Chapter 3.)
strates a short to ground (negative) and a short
that also bypasses the switch that controls the
load. This short would not blow the fuse but instead,
Doping
would keep the circuit energized continuously. All of the valence electrons in a pure semi-
conductor material are in valence rings contain-
ing eight electrons (Figure 1–30). With this atomic
SEMICONDUCTORS structure, no electrons can be easily freed, and
there are no holes to attract an electron even if
Semiconductors are the basis of today’s some were available. The result is that this mate-
solid-state electronics, or electronic devices such rial has a high resistance to current flow. Adding
as computers and amplifiers that are able to very small amounts of certain other elements can
control the most complex systems without hav- greatly reduce the semiconductor’s resistance.
ing any moving parts. As mentioned previously in Adding trace amounts (about 1 atom of the dop-
this chapter, a semiconductor is an element with ing element for every 100 million semiconductor
four valence electrons. The two most-used semi- atoms) of an element with either five or three va-
conductor materials for solid-state components lence electrons can create a flaw in some of the
are silicon and germanium. Of these two, silicon covalent bonds.

Si Si Si Si

Valance
electron
Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si

Each silicon atom shares an electron with each neighboring atom.

Adding atoms with five valence electrons (re- boron is used as the doping material in a silicon
ferred to as pentavalent atoms) such as arsenic, crystal. The boron atom’s three valence electrons
antimony, or phosphorus achieves a crystal struc- are shared in the valence ring of three of the
ture as shown in Figure 1–31. In Figure 1–31, neighboring silicon atoms, but the valence ring
phosphorus is the doping element and silicon
is the base semiconductor element. Four of the Doping Semiconductor Crystals
phosphorus atom’s five valence electrons are
shared in the valence rings of neighboring silicon In actuality, a PN junction is not produced
atoms, but the fifth is not included in the cova- by placing a P- and an N-type semiconduc-
lent bonding with neighboring atoms; it is held tor back to back. Rather, a single semicon-
in place only by its attraction to its parent phos- ductor crystal is doped on one side with the
phorus atom—a bond that can be broken easily. pentavalent atom’s opposite sides and on
This doped semiconductor material is classified the other with trivalent atoms. The center of
as an N-type material. Note that it does not have the crystal then becomes the junction. The
a negative charge because the material contains doping is done by first bringing the semicon-
the same number of protons as electrons. It does ductor crystal to a molten temperature. In a
have electrons that can be easily attracted to liquid state, the covalent bonds are broken.
some other positive potential. The desired amount of doping material is
Adding atoms with three valence electrons then added. As the semiconductor crystal
(referred to as trivalent atoms) such as aluminum, cools, the covalent bonds redevelop with the
gallium, indium, or boron achieves an atomic doping atoms included.
structure as seen in Figure 1–32. In Figure 1–32,

Si Si Si Si

Free
electron P Si Si Si

Si Si Si P

B Si Si Si

Hole
Si Si B Si

Si Si Si Si

Figure 1–32 Silicon doped with boron. Note: For simplicity, only the holes and free electrons in the valence ring
are shown. © Cengage Learning 2012

P-type N-type

Holes
Free
electrons

Figure 1–33 P-type and N-type crystals. Note: For simplicity, only the holes and free electrons in the valence ring
are shown. © Cengage Learning 2012

of the fourth neighboring silicon atom is left with • The valence rings near the junction in both
a hole (electron deficiency) instead of a shared the N- and P-type have eight shared elec-
electron. Remember that a valence ring of seven trons, so they are reluctant to gain or lose
electrons aggressively seeks an eighth electron. any more.
In fact, the attraction to any nearby free electron
is stronger than the free electron’s attraction to Another way to state the information in the
its companion proton in the nucleus of its parent preceding list is to say that there are no longer any
atom. Thus this material is classified as a P-type. current carriers in the zone around the junction.
This zone is often referred to as the depletion
PN Junction
Figure 1–33 shows a P-type crystal and an
N-type crystal separated from each other. Only Depletion zone
the free electrons in the N-type and the holes
(electron deficiencies) in the P-type that result
P-type N-type
from the way in which the doping atoms bond
with the base semiconductor material are shown.
If the P-type and the N-type are put in physical
Holes
Free
contact with each other, the free electrons near
electrons
the junction in the N-type cross the junction and
fill the first holes they come to in the seven-
electron valence rings near the junction in the P-
type (Figure 1–34). The junction is the area that
joins the P-type and N-type. This action quickly
creates a zone around the junction in which:
Negative ions Positive ions
• There are no more free electrons in that por- Junction
tion of the N-type. Figure 1–34 PN junction. Note: For simplicity, only
• There are no more free holes (electron defi- the holes and free electrons in the valence ring are
ciencies) in that portion of the P-type. shown. © Cengage Learning 2012

zone. It is also sometimes referred to as a bound- Conventional Current Flow versus

ary layer. In addition: Electron Current Flow
• The phosphorus atoms near the junction in Before electrons were known, Benjamin
the N-type have each lost an electron, which Franklin surmised that current was a flow of
makes them positive ions (the free electron positive charges moving from positive to neg-
that crossed the junction to fill a hole in the ative in a circuit. Franklin’s belief became so
P-type abandoned a proton in the nucleus of accepted that even after electrons were dis-
the phosphorus atom). covered and scientists learned that current
• The boron atoms near the junction in the flow consists of electrons moving from nega-
P-type have each gained an electron, which tive to positive, the old idea was hard to give
makes them negative ions (the electron that up. As a result, the “idea” of positive charges
dropped into the valence ring around the moving from positive to negative is still often
boron atom is not matched by a proton in the used. It is referred to as conventional current
nucleus of the boron atom). flow or less formally as hole flow.
The conventional current flow theory has
The positive ions near the junction in the gotten a boost in recent years because it helps
N-type are attracted to the free electrons that explain how semiconductors work: Positively
are farther from the junction, but they are more charged holes move from positive charges
strongly repulsed by the negative ions just to negative charges as electrons move from
across the junction. Likewise, the negative ions negative charges to positive charges.
in the P-type are attracted to the holes that are
farther from the junction, but those holes are
more strongly repulsed by the positive ions on
the N-side of the junction. The extra electrons in electrical one-way check valve with no moving
the negative ion atoms are somewhat attracted parts; it will allow current to pass in one direc-
to the nearby holes, but they are more strongly tion only. If a positive electrical potential is applied
bound by the covalent bonding into which they to the positive end and a negative electrical po-
have just dropped. tential is applied to the negative end and the ap-
Keep in mind that a layer of negative ions along plied electrical pressure (voltage) is greater than
the junction in the P-type and a layer of positive 0.6 V, the applied polarity will cause the diode
ions along the junction of the N-type have been to gain continuity across the PN junction. In this
created. The opposing ionic charges on the two condition the diode is said to be forward biased
sides of the depletion zone create an electrical po- (Figure 1–35). The higher negative potential intro-
tential of about 0.6 V (0.3 V for germanium). This duced by the forward bias voltage at the negative
potential, often referred to as the barrier potential, side of the crystal repels the free electrons in the
cannot be measured directly, but its polarity pre- N-type material. They move toward the junction,
vents current from flowing across the junction canceling the charge of the positive ions. At the
unless it is overcome by a greater potential. same time, the higher positive potential intro-
duced by the forward bias voltage on the posi-
tive side of the crystal repels the free holes in the
Diodes P-type. They move toward the junction, canceling
If two of these semiconductor materials, the charge of the negative ions. With the barrier
one N-type and one P-type, are placed back to potential overcome, current easily flows across
back, the simplest semiconductor device, known the junction, with electrons moving toward the ex-
as a diode, is formed. A diode operates as an ternal positive potential and holes moving toward

Neutralized Neutralized Free P-type N-type Free

negative ions positive ions holes electrons
Depletion zone
P-type N-type

Negative Positive
Hole Electron ions ions
flow flow

Figure 1–36 Reverse bias voltage applied to a

an alternator are designed to carry a substan-

the external negative potential. When the forward tial amount of current; at the other extreme, the
bias voltage is removed, barrier potential redevel- miniaturized diodes contained within an IC chip
ops and the diode again presents high resistance can only carry very small amounts of current and
to current flow. yet will still function electrically as diodes. The
If this polarity is reversed, the diode acts as amount of current that a diode (or any other type
an insulator. In this condition the diode is said to of semiconductor with one or more PN junctions)
be reverse biased (Figure 1–36). If a reverse bias can safely handle is determined by such things as
voltage is applied, with a negative potential ap- its physical size, the type of semiconductor and
plied to the P-side and a positive potential applied doping material used, its heat dissipating ability,
to the N-side, the positive potential attracts free and the surrounding temperature. If the circuit
electrons away from the junction, and the nega- through which forward bias voltage is applied
tive potential attracts holes away from the junction. does not have enough resistance to limit current
This causes the depletion zone to be even wider flow to what the semiconductor can tolerate, it
and the resistance across the junction to increase will overheat and the junction will be permanently
even more. If the reverse bias voltage goes high damaged (open or shorted).
enough—that is, above 50 V for most rectifier di-
odes (those designed to conduct enough current
Diode Symbols
to do work, and the most common type)—current
will flow. It will rise quickly, and in most cases the The most commonly used symbol to repre-
diode will be damaged. This is called the break- sent a diode is an arrow with a bar at the point
down voltage. (Figure 1–37A). The point always indicates the
Diodes can be designed to carry various direction of current flow using conventional the-
amounts of current. For example, the diodes in ory. With electron theory the flow is opposite the

Cathode

Colored
band

direction that the arrow is pointing. The arrow Zener Diode

side of the symbol also indicates the P-side of the
diode, often referred to as the anode. The bar at A zener diode is one in which the crystals
the end of the arrow’s point represents the N-side are more heavily doped. Because of this the
and is often called the cathode. Thus, a better depletion zone is much narrower, and its bar-
way to look at a diode symbol within an electrical rier voltage becomes very intense when a re-
schematic and know how it affects the circuit is to verse bias voltage is applied. At a given level
do as follows: If the polarity applied to the diode is of intensity, the barrier voltage pulls electrons
more positive at the anode end (or more negative out of normally stable valence rings, creat-
at the cathode end), it will operate as a conduc- ing free electrons. When this occurs, current
tor; likewise, if the polarity applied to the diode is flows across the diode in a reverse direction
more negative at the anode end (or more positive without damaging the diode. The breakdown
at the cathode end), it will operate as an insula- voltage at which this occurs can be controlled
tor. Figure 1–37B shows a modified diode symbol by the amount of doping material added in
that represents a zener diode. the manufacturing process. Zener diodes are
On actual diodes, the diode symbol can be often used in voltage-regulating circuits.
printed on one side to indicate the anode and cath-
ode ends (Figure 1–37C), or a colored band can
be used instead of the symbol (Figure 1–37D). power diode can be indicated by markings, or in
In this case the colored band will be nearer to the case of specific part number applications such
the cathode end. Figure 1–37E shows a power as for an alternator, it may be sized or shaped so
diode. A power diode is one large enough to con- that it can be installed only one way.
duct larger amounts of current to power a working
device. It will be housed in a metal case, which
can serve as either the anode or the cathode con- Diode Applications
nector and will also dissipate heat away from the The best-known application of diodes in the
semiconductor crystals inside. The polarity of a automobile is their use to rectify AC voltage to

DC voltage within the alternator. The winding in

Figure 1–38 represents one of the stator wind-
ings within the alternator. The alternator’s rotating OV
electromagnetic field windings induce an AC volt-
age pulse within each stator winding with each Figure 1–40 Full wave rectification of the AC voltage
to a DC voltage. © Cengage Learning 2012
rotation. For 180 degrees of the field winding’s
rotation a positive voltage pulse is induced in the
stator winding (Figure 1–39), and during the fol-
lowing 180 degrees of the field winding’s rotation negative charge at Point B is blocked by the diode
a negative voltage pulse is induced in the stator on the right and conducted by the diode on the left.
winding. In Figure 1–38, when Point A is positive After a further 180 degrees of alternator rotation,
and Point B is negative, the positive charge at when Point A is negative and Point B is positive,
Point A is blocked by the diode on the left and the negative charge at Point A is blocked by the
is conducted by the diode on the right, and the diode on the right and is conducted by the diode
on the left, and the positive charge at Point B is
blocked by the diode on the left and conducted
by the diode on the right. Thus, both AC voltage
A pulses are applied to the vehicle’s battery as pos-
ⴙ ⴚ itive DC voltage pulses (Figure 1–40) because
the negative AC voltage pulse has now been
flipped upright as a positive voltage pulse. This is
known as full wave AC-to-DC rectification. (Half
ⴚ ⴙ wave rectification would simply leave the negative
voltage pulse unused, or wasted, and would only
B make use of the positive voltage pulses, whereas
full wave rectification uses both the positive and
negative pulses by turning the negative pulses
into positive ones.)
However, because the alternator actually
ⴚ ⴙ contains three stator windings into which the ro-
tating field windings induce voltage pulses, one
immediately after another, initially three sets of
these positive and negative voltage pulses are
induced into the stator windings for each rota-
Figure 1–38 Full wave AC-to-DC rectification. tion of the field windings (Figure 1–41). After the
© Cengage Learning 2012

OV OV

Figure 1–39 AC voltage induced in a stator winding Figure 1–41 AC voltage pulses induced in the three
with one rotation of the alternator. © Cengage Learning 2012 stator windings of an alternator. © Cengage Learning 2012

12 V
Ignition
OV switch

Figure 1–42 Voltage pulses of three stator wind-

diodes in the rectifier bridge fully rectify the nega- Warning lamp assembly
tive voltage pulses into positive voltage pulses
(Figure 1–42), the effective voltage applied to the
Motorized shoulder
battery is actually a relatively stable DC voltage
belt control module
that only varies slightly around 14.2 V, as shown
by the solid waveform depicted in Figure 1–43.
The slight variation in this waveform is known as
alternator AC ripple and is best measured at the Driver Passenger
alternator output terminal with an AC voltmeter. If door door
a diode is open or shorted, or if a stator winding switch switch
is open, the amplitude (difference between the
high and the low voltage) of this signal will be too
great. Excessive AC ripple causes problems with Figure 1–44 Diodes used to control current flow
a computer’s internal and external communica- paths in circuits that share a common load.
tion and can be a reason why good computers © Cengage Learning 2012
are unnecessarily replaced.
Another automotive application of diodes is
to control current flow paths in circuits that share lamp in the instrument cluster to illuminate it.
a common load component. An example of this Without diodes, opening one door would cause
is shown in Figure 1–44. The driver’s door switch a ground signal that would back up through the
closes when the door is opened to alert the mod- other door’s circuit and would cause the mod-
ule that it should remove the motorized shoulder ule to believe falsely that both doors had been
belt from the driver. Similarly, the passenger’s opened. By using diodes within the “door ajar”
door switch closes when the passenger door is lamp assembly, the circuits can be effectively iso-
opened to alert the module that it should remove lated from each other even though either circuit
the motorized shoulder belt from the passenger. can illuminate the warning lamp.
However, either switch will ground the “door ajar” A third automotive application that uses
diodes is voltage spike suppression, though
the diode is only one of three methods used.
Figure 1–45 shows a winding that represents an
electromagnetic load that is switched on and off.
When current flow is switched on, current ramps
up relatively slowly to the fully saturated level as
OV dictated by Ohm’s law, just as turning on a water
Figure 1–43 The resulting DC voltage after AC- valve will only allow the water pressure that is
to-DC rectification as it is applied from the alternator’s present to begin pushing water through the pipe.
output terminal to the battery. © Cengage Learning 2012 Therefore, the resulting electromagnetic field

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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Bartlett—[Gruffly.] I’ve naught to forget—leastways naught that’s in
your mind. But they’s things about the stubborn will o’ woman I’d like to
forget. [They look at each other across the table. There is a pause. Finally
he cannot stand her accusing glance. He looks away, gets to his feet, walks
about, then sits down again, his face set determinedly—with a grim smile.]
Well, here we be, Sarah—alone together for the first time since—
Mrs. Bartlett—[Quickly.] Since that night, Isaiah.
Bartlett—[As if he hadn’t heard.] Since I come back to you, almost.
Did ye ever stop to think o’ how strange it be we’d ever come to this? I
never dreamed a day’d come when ye’d force me to sleep away from ye,
alone in a shed like a mangy dog!
Mrs. Bartlett—[Gently.] I didn’t drive you away, Isaiah. You came o’
your own will.
Bartlett—Because o’ your naggin’ tongue, woman—and the wrong ye
thought o’ me.
Mrs. Bartlett—[Shaking her head, slowly.]
It wasn’t me you ran from, Isaiah. You ran away from your own self—
the conscience God put in you that you think you can fool with lies.
Bartlett—[Starting to his feet—angrily.] Lies?
Mrs. Bartlett—It’s the truth, Isaiah, only you be too weak to face it.
Bartlett—[With defiant bravado.] Ye’ll find I be strong enough to face
anything, true or lie! [Then protestingly.] What call have ye to think evil o’
me, Sarah? It’s mad o’ ye to hold me to account for things I said in my
sleep—for the damned nightmares that set me talkin’ wild when I’d just
come home and my head was still cracked with the thirst and the sun I’d
borne on that island. Is that right, woman, to be blamin’ me for mad
dreams?
Mrs. Bartlett—You confessed the rest of what you said was true—of
the gold you’d found and buried there.
Bartlett—[With a sudden fierce exultation.] Aye—that be true as
Bible, Sarah. When I’ve sailed back in the schooner, ye’ll see for yourself.
There be a big chest o’ it, yellow and heavy, and fixed up with diamonds,
emeralds and sech, that be worth more, even, nor the gold. We’ll be rich,
Sarah—rich like I’ve always dreamed we’d be! There’ll be silks and
carriages for ye—all the woman’s truck in the world ye’ve a mind to want
—and all that Nat and Sue’ll want, too.
Mrs. Bartlett—[With a shudder.] Are you tryin’ to bribe me, Isaiah—
with a treasure that’s been cursed by God?
Bartlett—[As if he hadn’t heard.] D’ye remember long ago, back East,
just after we was married, and I was skipper o’ my first whalin’ ship, how
that foreigner come to me with the map o’ the pirates’ gold and asked me to
charter the ship? D’ye remember o’ how I’d talk to ye o’ findin’ ambergris,
a pile o’ it on one vige that’d make us rich? Ye used to take interest then,
and all th’ voyage with me ye’d be hopin’ I’d find it, too.
Mrs. Bartlett—That was my sin o’ greed that I’m bein’ punished for
now.
Bartlett—[Again as if he hadn’t heard.] And now when it’s come to us
at last—bigger nor I ever dreamed on—ye drive me away from ye and say
it’s cursed.
Mrs. Bartlett—[Inexorably.] Cursed with the blood o’ the man and
boy ye murdered!
Bartlett—[In a mad rage.] Ye lie, woman! I spoke no word!
Mrs. Bartlett—That’s what you kept repeatin’ in your sleep, night
after night that first week you was home, till I knew the truth, and could
bear no more. “I spoke no word!” you kept sayin’, as if ’twas your own soul
had you at the bar of judgment. And “That cook, he didn’t believe ’twas
gold,” you’d say, and curse him.
Bartlett—[Wildly.] He was lyin’, the thief! Lyin’ so’s he and the boy
could steal th’ gold. I made him own up he was lyin’. What if it’s all true,
what ye heard? Hadn’t we the right to do away with two thieves? And we
was all mad with thirst and sun. Can ye hold madmen to account for the
things they do?
Mrs. Bartlett—You wasn’t so crazed but you remember.
Bartlett—I remember I spoke no word, Sarah—as God’s my judge!
Mrs. Bartlett—But you could have prevented it with a word, couldn’t
you, Isaiah? That heathen savage lives in the fear of you. He’d not have
done it if——
Bartlett—[Gloomily.] That’s woman’s talk. There be three o’ us can
swear in any court I spoke no word.
Mrs. Bartlett—What are courts? Can you swear it to yourself? You
can’t, and it’s that’s drivin’ you mad, Isaiah. Oh, I’d never have believed it
of you for all you said in sleep, if it wasn’t for the way you looked and
acted out of sleep. I watched you that first week, Isaiah, till the fear of it had
me down sick. I had to watch you, you was so strange and fearful to me. At
first I kept sayin’, ’twas only you wasn’t rid o’ the thirst and the sun yet.
But then, all to once, God gave me sight, and I saw ’twas guilt written on
your face, on the queer stricken way you acted, and guilt in your eyes. [She
stares into them.] I see it now, as I always see it when you look at me. [She
covers her face with her hands with a sob.]
Bartlett—[His face haggard and drawn—hopelessly, as if he were too
beaten to oppose her further—in a hoarse whisper.] What would ye have
me do, Sarah?
Mrs. Bartlett—[Taking her hands from her face—her eyes lighting up
with religious fervor.] Confess your sin, Isaiah! Confess to God and men,
and make your peace and take your punishment. Forget that gold that’s
cursed and the voyage you be settin’ out on, and make your peace.
[Passionately.] I ask you to do this for my sake and the children’s, and your
own most of all! I’ll get down on my knees, Isaiah, and pray you to do it, as
I’ve prayed to God to send you his grace! Confess and wash your soul of
the stain o’ blood that’s on it. I ask you that, Isaiah—and God asks you—to
make your peace with Him.
Bartlett—[His face tortured by the inward struggle—as if the word
strangled him.] Confess and let someone steal the gold! [This thought
destroys her influence over him in a second. His obsession regains
possession of him instantly, filling him with rebellious strength. He laughs
harshly.] Ye’d make an old woman o’ me, would ye, Sarah?—an old,
Sunday go-to-meetin’ woman snivvelin’ and prayin’ to God for pardon!
Pardon for what? Because two sneakin’ thieves are dead and done for? I
spoke no word, I tell ye—but if I had, I’d not repent it. What I’ve done I’ve
done, and I’ve never asked pardon o’ God or men for ought I’ve done, and
never will. Confess, and give up the gold I’ve dreamed of all my life that
I’ve found at last! By thunder, ye must think I’m crazed!
Mrs. Bartlett—[Seeming to shrivel up on her chair as she sees she has
lost—weakly.] You be lost, Isaiah—no one can stop you.
Bartlett—[Triumphantly.] Aye, none’ll stop me. I’ll go my course
alone. I’m glad ye see that, Sarah.
Mrs. Bartlett—[Feebly trying to get to her feet.] I’ll go to home.
Bartlett—Ye’ll stay, Sarah. Ye’ve had your say, and I’ve listened to
ye; now I’ll have mine and ye listen to me. [Mrs. Bartlett sinks back in
her chair exhaustedly. Bartlett continues slowly.] The schooner sails at
dawn on the full tide. I ask ye again and for the last time, will ye christen
her with your name afore she sails?
Mrs. Bartlett—[Firmly.] No.
Bartlett—[Menacingly.] Take heed, Sarah, o’ what ye’re sayin’! I’m
your husband ye’ve sworn to obey. By right I kin order ye, not ask.
Mrs. Bartlett—I’ve never refused in anything that’s right—but this be
wicked wrong.
Bartlett—It’s only your stubborn woman’s spite makes ye refuse.
Ye’ve christened every ship I’ve ever been skipper on, and it’s brought me
luck o’ a kind, though not the luck I wanted. And we’ll christen this one
with your own name to bring me the luck I’ve always been seekin’.
Mrs. Bartlett—[Resolutely.] I won’t, Isaiah.
Bartlett—Ye will, Sarah, for I’ll make ye. Ye force me to it.
Mrs. Bartlett—[Again trying to get up.] Is this the way you talk to me
who’ve been a good wife to you for more than thirty years?
Bartlett—[Commandingly.] Wait! [Threateningly.] If ye don’t christen
her afore she sails, I’ll take Nat on the vige along with me. [Mrs. Bartlett
sinks back in her chair, stunned.] He wants to go, ye know it. He’s asked me
a hundred times. He s’spects—’bout the gold—but he don’t know for sartin.
But I’ll tell him the truth o’ it, and he’ll come with me, unless—
Mrs. Bartlett—[Looking at him with terror-stricken eyes—
imploringly.] You won’t do that, Isaiah? You won’t take Nat away from me
and drag him into sin? I know he’ll go if you give him the word, in spite of
what I say. [Pitifully.] You be only frightenin’ me! You can’t be so wicked
cruel as that.
Bartlett—I’ll do it, I take my oath—unless—
Mrs. Bartlett—[With hysterical anger.] Then I’ll tell him myself—of
the murders you did, and—
Bartlett—[Grimly.] And I’ll say ’twas done in fair fight to keep them
from stealin’ the gold! I’ll tell him your’s is a woman’s notion, and he’ll
believe me, not you. He’s his father’s son, and he’s set to go. Ye know it,
Sarah. [She falls back in the chair hopelessly staring at him with horrified
eyes. He turns away and adds after a pause.] So ye’ll christen the Sarah
Allen in the mornin’ afore she sails, won’t ye, Sarah?
Mrs. Bartlett—[In a terrified tone.] Yes—if it’s needful to save Nat—
and God’ll forgive me when He sees my reason. But you—Oh, Isaiah! [She
shudders and then breaks down, sobbing.]
Bartlett—[After a pause, turns to her humbly as if asking her
forgiveness.] Ye mustn’t think hard o’ me that I want your name. It’s
because it’s a good woman’s name, and I know it’ll bring luck to our vige.
I’d find it hard to sail without it—the way things be.
Mrs. Bartlett—[Getting to her feet—in a state of feverish fear of him.]
I’m goin’ to home.
Bartlett—[Going to her.] I’ll help ye to the top o’ the hill, Sarah.
Mrs. Bartlett—[Shrinking from him in terror.] No. Don’t you touch
me! Don’t you touch me! [She hobbles quickly out of the door in the rear,
looking back frightenedly over her shoulder to see if he is following as

[The Curtain Falls]

ACT THREE
Scene—Dawn of the following morning—exterior of the Bartlett home,
showing the main entrance, facing left, toward the harbor. On either side
of the door, two large windows, their heavy green shutters tightly closed.
In front of the door, a small porch, the roof supported by four white
column. A flight of three steps goes up to this porch from the ground. Two
paths lead to the steps through the straggly patches of grass, one around
the corner of the house to the rear, the other straight to the left to the edge
of the cliff where there is a small projecting iron platform, fenced in by a
rail. The top of a steel ladder can be seen. This ladder leads up the side or
the cliff from the shore below to the platform. The edge of the cliff extends
from the left corner front, half-diagonally back to the right, rear-center.
In the grey half-light of the dawn, Horne, Cates, and Jimmy Kanaka are
discovered. Horne is standing on the steel platform looking down at the
shore below. Cates is sprawled on the ground nearby. Jimmy squats on his
haunches, his eyes staring out to sea as if he were trying to pierce the
distance to the warm islands of his birth. Cates wears dungarees, Jimmy
dungaree pants and a black jersey; Horne, the same as in Act Two.
Cates—[With sluggish indifference.] Ain’t she finished with it yet?
Horne—[Irritably.] No, damn her! I kin see ’em all together on the
wharf at the bow o’ the schooner. That old crow o’ a woman o’ his! Why
the hell don’t she christen her and be done with it and let us make sail?
Cates—[After a pause.] Funny, ain’t it—his orderin’ us to come up here
and wait till it’s all done.
Horne—[Angrily.] That’s her doin’, too. She thinks we ain’t good
enough to be where she is. [After a pause.] But there’s nothin’ funny to me
that he does no more. He’s still out o’ his head, d’ye know that, Cates?
Cates—[Stupidly.] I ain’t noticed nothin’ diff’rent ’bout him.
Horne—[Scornfully.] He axed me if I ever seen them two in my sleep—
that cook and the boy o’ the Triton. Said he did often.
Cates—[Immediately protesting uneasily as if he had been accused.]
They was with us in the boat b’fore we fetched the island, that’s all ’bout
’em I remember. I was crazy, after.
Horne—[Looking at him with contempt.] So was we all crazy, for the
matter o’ that. I’ll not call ye a liar, Cates, but—a hell o’ a man ye be! You
wasn’t so out o’ your head that ye forgot the gold, was ye?
Cates—[His eyes glistening.] That’s diff’rent. Any man’d remember
that, even if he was crazy.
Horne—[With a greedy grin.] Aye. That’s the one thing I see in my
sleep. [Gloatingly.] We’ll dig it up soon now. In three months we’d ought to
be there—an’ then we’ll be rich, by Christ! [There is the faint sound of cries
from the beach below. Horne starts and turns to look down again.] They
must ’a’ finished it. [Cates and Jimmy come to the edge to look down.]
Jimmy—[Suddenly—with an eager childish curiosity.] That falla wife
Captain she make strong falla spell on ship, we sail fast, plenty good wind?
Horne—[Contemptuously.] Aye, that’s as near as ye’ll come to it. She’s
makin’ a spell. Ye stay here, Jimmy, and tell us when the Old Man is
comin’. [Jimmy remains looking down. Horne motions Cates to follow him,
front—then in a low voice, disgustedly.] Did ye hear that damn fool nigger?
Cates—[Grumblingly.] Why the hell is the Old Man givin’ him a full
share? One piece o’ it’d be enough for a nigger like him.
Horne—[Craftily.] There’s a way to get rid o’ him—if it comes to that.
He knifed them two, ye remember.
Cates—Aye.
Horne—The two o’ us can take oath to that in any court.
Cates—Aye.
Horne—[After a calculating look into his companion’s greedy eyes—
meaningly.] We’re two sane men, Cates—and the other two to share is a
lunatic and a nigger. The skipper’s showed me where there’s a copy o’ his
map o’ the island locked up in the cabin—in case anything happens to him
I’m to bring back the gold to his woman, he says. [He laughs harshly.]
Bring it back! Catch me! The fool! I’ll be open with ye, Cates. If I could
navigate and find the island myself I wouldn’t wait for a cracked man to
take me there. No, be damned if I would! Me and you’d chance it alone
someway or other.
Cates—[Greedily.] The two o’ us—share and share alike! [Then shaking
his head warningly.] But he’s a hard man to git the best on.
Horne—[Grimly.] And I be a hard man, too. And he’s not right in his
head. We’ll keep our eyes peeled for a chance. Something may turn up—
and maybe—
Jimmy—[Turning to them.] Captain, he come. [Cates and Horne
separate hastily. Bartlett climbs into sight up the ladder to the platform.
He is breathing heavily but his expression is one of triumphant exultation.]
Bartlett—[Motions with his arms.] Down with ye and git aboard. The
schooner’s got a name now—a name that’ll bring us luck. We’ll sail on this
tide.
Horne—Aye—aye, sir.
Bartlett—I got to wait here till they climb up the path. I’ll be aboard
afore long. See that ye have her ready to cast off by then.
Horne—Aye—aye, sir. [He and Cates disappear down the ladder.
Jimmy lingers, looking sidewise at his Captain.]
Bartlett—[Noticing him—gruffly but almost kindly.] What are ye
waitin’ for?
Jimmy—[Volubly.] That old falla wife belong you, Captain, she make
strong falla spell for wind blow plenty? She catch strong devil charm for
schooner, Captain?
Bartlett—[Scowling.] What’s that, ye brown devil? [Then suddenly
laughing harshly.] Yes—a strong spell to bring us luck. [Roughly.] Git
aboard, ye dog! Don’t let her find ye here with me. [Jimmy disappears
hurriedly down the ladder. Bartlett remains at the edge looking down
after him. There is a sound of voices from the right and presently Mrs.
Bartlett, Sue, Drew and Nat enter, coming around the house from the
rear. Nat and Drew walk at either side of Mrs. Bartlett, who is in a state
of complete collapse, so that they are practically carrying her. Sue follows,
her handkerchief to her eyes. Nat keeps his eyes on the ground, his
expression fixed and gloomy. Drew casts a glance of angry indignation at
the Captain, who, after one indifferent look at them, has turned back to
watch the operations on the schooner below.]
Bartlett—[As they reach the steps of the house—intent on the work
below—makes a megaphone of his hands and shouts in stentorian tones.]
Look lively there, Horne!
Sue—[Protestingly.] Pa!
Bartlett—[Wheels about. When he meets his daughter’s eyes he
controls his angry impatience and speaks gently.] What d’ye want, Sue?
Sue—[Pointing to her mother who is being assisted through the door—
her voice trembling.] You mustn’t shout. She’s very sick.
Bartlett—[Dully, as if he didn’t understand.] Sick?
Sue—[Turning to the door.] Wait. I’ll be right back. [She enters the
house. As soon as she is gone all of Bartlett’s excitement returns. He
paces up and down with nervous impatience. Nat comes out of the house.]
Nat—[In a tone of anxiety.] Ma seems bad. We can’t do anything. I’m
going for the doctor. [As his father doesn’t seem to hear him—tapping him
on the shoulder, his voice breaking.] Why did you make her do it, Pa? It
was too much for her strength. Wouldn’t anyone else or any other name
have done just as well?
Bartlett—[Impatiently.] No. It had to be.
Nat—When she spoke the words—and fell back in a faint—I thought
she was dead.
Bartlett—[Vaguely.] Weakness. She’ll be all right again after a rest.
[He draws Nat’s attention to the schooner.] Smart lines on that schooner,
boy. She’ll sail hell bent in a breeze. I knowed what I was about when I
bought her.
Nat—[Staring down fascinatedly.] How long will the voyage take?
Bartlett—[Preoccupied.] How long?
Nat—[Insinuatingly.] To get to the island.
Bartlett—Three months at most—with fair luck. [Exultantly.] And I’ll
have luck now!
Nat—Then in six months you may be back—with it?
Bartlett—Aye, with—[Stopping abruptly, turns and stares into his
son’s eyes—angrily.] With what? What boy’s foolishness be ye talkin’?
Nat—[Pleading fiercely.] I want to go, Pa! There’s no good in my
staying here any more. I can’t think of anything but—Oh, why don’t you be
fair and let me sail with you!
Bartlett—[Sternly, to conceal his uneasiness.] Keep clear o’ this, boy,
I’ve warned ye!
Sue—[Appearing in doorway—indignantly.] Nat! Haven’t you gone for
the doctor yet?
Nat—[Shame-facedly.] I forgot.
Sue—Forgot!
Nat—[Starting off.] I’m going, Sue. [Then over his shoulder.] You won’t
sail before I come back, Pa? [Bartlett does not answer. Nat stands
miserably hesitating.]
Sue—Nat! For heaven’s sake! [Nat hurries off around the corner of the
house, rear. Sue comes to her father who is watching her with a queer,
humble, hunted expression.]
Bartlett—Well, Sue?
Sue—[Her voice trembling.] Oh, Pa, how can you do such terrible
things. How could you drag Ma out of bed at dawn to christen your old boat
—when you knew how sick she’s been!
Bartlett—[Avoiding her eyes.] It’s only weakness. She’ll get well o’ it
soon.
Sue—Pa! How can you say things like that—as if you didn’t care!
[Accusingly.] The way you’ve acted ever since you’ve been home almost,
anyone would think—you hated her!
Bartlett—[Wincing.] No!
Sue—Oh, Pa, what is it that has come between you? Can’t you tell me?
Can’t I help to set things right again?
Bartlett—[Mumblingly.] Nothin’—nothin’ ye kin help—nor me. Keep
clear o’ it, Sue. Danny—ye think o’ him, that’s enough for ye.
Sue—But things can’t go on like this. Don’t you see how it’s killing Ma?
Bartlett—She’ll forget her stubborn notions, now I be sailin’ away.
Sue—But you’re not—not going for a while now, are you?
Bartlett—Ain’t I been sayin’ I’d sail at dawn today? They’re makin’
her ready to cast off. I’m waitin’ for Horne to hail.
Sue—[Looking at him for a moment with shocked amazement.] But—
you can’t mean—right now!
Bartlett—[Keeping his face averted.] Aye—or we’ll miss this tide.
Sue—[Putting her hands on his shoulders and trying to look into his
face.] Pa! You can’t mean that! [His face is set with his obsessed
determination. She lets her hands fall with a shudder.] You can’t be as cruel
as that! Why, I thought, of course, you’d put off—[Wildly.] You have,
haven’t you, Pa? You did tell those men you couldn’t sail when you saw
how sick Ma was, didn’t you—when she fainted down on the wharf?
Bartlett—[Implacably.] I said I was sailin’ by this tide—and sail I
will, by thunder!
Sue—Pa! [Then pleadingly.] When the doctor comes and you hear what
he says—
Bartlett—[Roughly.] I ain’t stoppin’ on his word nor any man’s. I
know what’s best to do. [Intensely.] That schooner’s been fit to sail these
two weeks past. I been waitin’ on her stubborn will [he gestures toward the
house], eatin’ my heart out day and night. Then I swore I’d sail today. I tell
ye, Sue, I got a feelin’ in my bones if I don’t put out now I never will. Aye,
I feel it deep down inside me. [In a tone of superstitious awe.] And when
she christened the schooner—jest to the minute, mind ye!—a fair breeze
sprung up and come down out o’ the land to blow her out to sea—like a
sign o’ good luck.
Sue—[Aroused to angry indignation.] What kind of a man have you
become—to think of such things now! Oh, I can’t believe you’re the same
man who used to be my father!
Bartlett—Sue!
Sue—To talk cold-bloodedly of sailing away on a long voyage when
Ma’s inside—dying for all you seem to know or care! Oh, I hate you when
you’re like this! You’re not the father I love! You’ve changed into someone
else—hateful and cruel—and I hate him, I hate him! [She breaks down,
sobbing hysterically.]
Bartlett—[Who has listened to her with a face suddenly stricken by
fear and torturing remorse.] Sue! Ye don’t know what ye be sayin’, do ye?
Sue—I do! You’re not the same to me any more—or to any of us. I’m
afraid of you. And when you coldly propose to go away—now—I hate you,
yes I do! And I hate those three awful men who make you act this way. I
hate the schooner! I wish she and they were at the bottom of the sea!
Bartlett—[Frenziedly—putting his hand over her mouth to stop her
words.] Stop, girl! Don’t ye dare—
Sue—[Shrinking away from him—frightenedly.] Pa!
Bartlett—[Bewilderedly, pleading for forgiveness.] Don’t heed that,
Sue—I didn’t mean—ye git me so riled—I’d not hurt ye for all the gold in
the world. But don’t ye talk wrong o’ things ye can’t know on.
Sue—Oh, Pa, what kind of things must they be—when you’re ashamed
to tell them!
Bartlett—I ain’t ashamed. It ain’t that. On’y they be things a girl’s no
call to meddle in. They be men’s business and I be man enough to carry ’em
out alone. Ye’ll know all they be to know—and your Ma and Nat, too—
when I come back from this vige. And the sooner I sail, the quicker I’ll be
back to ye. Oh, ye’ll be glad enough then—when ye see with your own
eyes! Ye’ll bless me then ’stead o’ turning agin me! [Hesitating for a second
—then somberly.] On’y now—till it’s all over and done—ye’d best keep
clear o’ it.
Sue—[Passionately.] I don’t care—I don’t want to know anything about
it. What I do know is that you can’t sail now. Oh, Pa, don’t you see you
can’t? Haven’t you any heart at all? Can’t you see how bad Ma is?
Bartlett—It’s the sight o’ me sickens her. She’ll git better with me
away from her.
Sue—No. She needs you. She doesn’t want you to go. She called your
name just a while ago—the only word she’s spoken since she christened the
ship. Come in to her, Pa! Tell her you won’t go!
Bartlett—[Desperately.] I got to git away from her, I tell ye, Sue!
She’s been houndin’ me ever since I got back—houndin’ me with her
stubborn tongue till she’s druv me mad, a’most! Ye’ve been on’y givin’
thought to her, not me. They’s my side to it, too!
Sue—I’ll talk to her, Pa. She can’t realize she’s hurting you or she
wouldn’t—And then everything will be just the same as it used to be again.
Bartlett—[Shaking his head.] They be too much between. The only
chance for that be my plan—to sail away and come back with—what I be
seekin’. Then she’ll give over her stubborn naggin’—if she’s human
woman. It’s for her sake as much as my own I’m goin’—for her and you
and Nat. [With a sudden return of his old resolution.] I’ve made up my
mind, I tell ye, and in the end ye’ll know I be right. [A hail in Horne’s
voice comes thinly up from the shore below. Bartlett starts, his eyes
gleaming.] Ye hear? It’s Horne hailin’ me to come. They be ready to cast
off. I’ll git aboard. [He starts for the ladder.]
Sue—Pa! After all I’ve said—without one word of good-bye to Ma!
[Hysterically.] Oh, what can I do, what can I say to stop you! She hasn’t
spoken but that one call for you. She hardly seems to breathe. If it weren’t
for her eyes I’d believe she was dead—but her eyes look for you. She’ll die
if you go, Pa!
Bartlett—No!
Sue—You might just as well kill her now in cold blood as murder her
that way!
Bartlett—[Shaken—raising his hands as if to put them over his ears to
shut out her words—hoarsely.] No! Ye lie! She’ll live till I git back and
all’ll be as it was again!
Drew—[Appearing in the doorway, his face working with grief and
anger—harshly.] Captain Bartlett! [Then lowering his voice as he sees Sue.]
Mrs. Bartlett is asking to see you, Captain, before you go.
Sue—There! Didn’t I tell you, Pa!
Bartlett—[Struggling with himself—dully.] She’s wantin’ to bound me
again, that be all.
Sue—[Seeing him weakening—grasps his hand persuasively.] Pa! Come
with me. She won’t hound you. How silly you are! Come! [Hesitatingly,
head bowed, he follows her toward the door.]
Bartlett—[As he comes to Drew he stops and looks into the young
man’s angry, accusing face. He mutters half mockingly.] So ye, too, be agin
me, Danny?
Drew—[Unable to restrain his indignation.] What man that’s a real man
wouldn’t be against you, sir?
Sue—[Frightenedly.] Danny! Pa!
Bartlett—[In a sudden rage draws back his fist threateningly. Drew
stares into his eyes unflinchingly—Bartlett controls himself with an effort
and lets his arm fall to his side—scornfully.] Big words from a boy, Danny.
I’ll forget them this time—on account o’ Sue. [He turns to her.] I’m goin’ in
to her to please ye, Sue—but if ye think any words that she kin say’ll
change my mind, ye make a mistake—for I be sailin’ out as I planned I
would in spite o’ all hell! [He walks resolutely into the house. Sue follows
him after exchanging a hopeless glance with Danny.]
Drew—[To himself—with a shudder.] He’s mad, damn him! [He paces
up and down. Horne appears on the ladder from below, followed by
Cates.]
Horne—[Coming forward and addressing Drew.] Is the skipper about?
Drew—[Curtly.] He’s in the house. You can’t speak to him now.
Horne—She’s ready to cast off. I hailed him from below but I ’spect he
didn’t hear. [As Drew makes no comment—impatiently.] If he don’t shake a
leg, we’ll miss the tide. There’s a bit o’ fair breeze, too.
Drew—[Glancing at him resentfully.] Don’t count on his sailing today.
It’s just as likely he’ll change his mind.
Horne—[Angrily.] Change his mind again? After us waitin’ and wastin’
time for weeks! [To Cates in a loud tone so Drew can hear.] What did I tell
ye, Cates? He’s crazy as hell.
Drew—[Sharply.] What’s that?
Horne—I was tellin’ Cates the skipper’s not right in his head [Angrily.]
What man in his senses’d do the way he does?
Drew—[Letting his resentment escape him.] That’s no lie, damn it!
Horne—[Surprised.] Aye, ye’ve seen it, too, have ye? [After a pause.]
Now I axe ye, as a sailor, how’d ye like to be puttin’ out on a vige with a
cracked man for skipper? [Sue comes out of the door, stops with a shudder
of disgust as she sees the two sailors, and stands listening. They do not
notice her presence.]
Drew—It seems to me a crazy voyage all round. What kind of trading is
it you’re to do?
Horne—[Suspiciously.] Ye’ll have to ask the skipper that.
Drew—[With a scornful shrug.] I was forgetting it’s such a dead secret.
That the craziest part, eh? [With sudden interest as if a new idea had come
to him.] But you know all about it, don’t you—what the Captain plans to do
on this voyage—and all that?
Horne—[Dryly.] Aye, as well as himself—but I’m tellin’ no man.
Drew—And I’m not asking. What do you suppose I care about any
sneaking trade deal in the Islands he may have up his sleeve? What I want
to find out is: Do you know enough about this business to make this one
voyage alone and attend to everything—in case the Captain can’t go?
Horne—[Exchanging a quick glance with Cates—trying to hide his
eagerness.] Aye, I could do as well as any man alive. I’ve been sailin’ this
sea for twenty year or more and I know the Island trade inside and out. He
could trust me for it—and I’d make more money for him than he’s likely to
make with his head out o’ gear. [Then scowling.] On’y trouble is, who’d
Captain her if he ain’t goin’?
Drew—[Disappointedly.] Then you don’t know navigation enough for
that?
Horne—I’ve never riz above bo’sun. [Then after a pause in which he
appears to be calculating something—curiously.] Why d’ye ask me them
questions? [Insinuatingly—almost in a whisper.] It can’t be done ’less we
got an officer like you aboard.
Drew—[Angrily.] Eh? What’re you driving at? D’you think I—
Sue—[Who has been listening with aroused interest.] Danny! [She
comes down to him. Horne and Cates bob their heads respectfully and
move back near the platform. Horne watches Sue and Drew out of the
corner of his eye.] Danny, I’ve been listening to what you were saying, but I
don’t understand. What are you thinking of?
Drew [Excitedly.] I was thinking—Listen, Sue! Seems to me from what
I saw your Pa’s out of his right mind, and, being that way, he’s sure bound
to go unless someone or something steps in to stop him. D’you think your
Ma——?
Sue—[Shaking her head—sadly.] No, I’m afraid anything she says will
only make things worse.
Drew—Then you’ve no hope—? No more have I. Something’s got to be
done to keep him home in spite of himself. Even leaving your Ma out of it,
he’s not in any fit state to take a ship to sea; and I was thinking if we could
fix it some way so that fellow Horne could take her out on this voyage—
Sue—But, Danny, Pa’d never give in to that.
Drew—I wasn’t thinking he would. It’d have to be done on the sly. We
—you’d have to give the word—and keep him in the house somehow—and
then when he did come out it’d be too late. The schooner’d be gone.
Sue—[Disturbed, but showing that this plan has caught her mind.] But
—would it be fair?—he’d never forgive—
Drew—When he’s back in his right mind again, he would. [Earnestly.]
I’m not fond of lying and tricks myself, Sue, but this is a case where you
can’t pick and choose. You can’t let him sail, and wreck his ship and
himself in the bargain, likely. Then, there’s your Ma——
Sue—No, no, we can’t let him. [With a glance at Horne and Cates.]
But I don’t trust those men.
Drew—No more do I; but it would be better to chance them than—
[Suddenly interrupting himself—with a shrug of his shoulders.] But there’s
no good talking of that. I was forgetting. None of them can navigate. They
couldn’t take her out.
Sue—But didn’t I hear him say—if they had an officer on board—like
you—
Drew—Yes, but where’ll you find one at a second’s notice?
Sue—[Meaningly.] And you told me, didn’t you, that you’d just got your
master’s papers. Then you’re a captain by rights.
Drew—[Looking at her with stunned astonishment.] Sue! D’you mean
—
Sue—[A light coming over her face.] Oh, Danny, we could trust you!
He’d trust you! And after he’d calmed down I know he wouldn’t mind so
much. Oh, Danny, it’ll break my heart to have you go, to send you away
just after you’ve come back. But I don’t see any other way. I wouldn’t ask
—if it wasn’t for Ma being, this way—and him—Oh, Danny, can’t you see
your way to do it—for my sake?
Drew—[Bewilderedly.] Why, Sue, I—I never thought—[Then as he sees
the look of disappointment which comes over her face at his hesitancy—
resolutely.] Why sure, Sue, I’ll do it—if you want me to. I’ll do it if it can
be done. But we’ve got to hustle. You stand in the door, Sue. You’ve got to
keep him in the house some way if he aims to come out. And I’ll talk to
them. [Sue goes to the doorway. Drew goes over to Horne and Cates.]
Sue—[After listening.] He’s still in with Ma. It’s all right.
Drew—[To Horne, with forced joviality.] How would you like me for
skipper on this one voyage?
Horne—[Craftily.] Ye got your skipper’s papers all reg’lar?
Drew—Yes, that part of it’s all right and square. Listen here. Miss Sue’s
decided her father isn’t in a fit state to Captain this trip. It’d mean danger
for him and the schooner—and for you.
Horne—That’s no lie.
Cates—[To Horne protestingly.] But if we git ketched the Old Man’ll
take it out o’ our hides, not his’n.
Horne—[Savagely.] Shut up, ye fool! [To Drew, craftily.] Cates is right,
jest the same. Ye are as good as his married son and she’s his daughter.
He’d not blame you if things went wrong. He’d take it out on us.
Drew—[Impatiently.] I’ll shoulder all that risk, man!
Sue—[Earnestly.] No harm will come to any of you, I promise you. This
is all my plan, and I’ll tell my father I’m alone to blame.
Horne—[In the tone of one clinching a bargain.] Then we’ll chance it.
[Warningly.] But it’s got to be done smart, sir. Ye’d best look lively.
Drew—I’ve got to get my dunnage. I’ll be right back and we’ll tumble
aboard. [He goes to the door.] Hold him, Sue, on some excuse if he’s
coming. Only a second now and it’ll all be safe. [He goes into the house.
She follows him in.]
Cates—[With stupid anger.] This is a hell o’ a mess we’re gettin’ in, if
ye axe me.
Horne—And I tell ye it’s a great stroke o’ luck. It couldn’t o’ come out
better.
Cates—He’ll be aboard to spy on us.
Horne—Let him! What does he know? He thinks we’re goin’ tradin’,
and there’s no one to tell him diff’rent but me.
Cates—He’ll know better afore long. He’ll s’pect—
Horne—’Bout the gold? He ain’t that kind. He’s a soft young swab o’ a
lady steamer’s mate. Leave me to fool him. And when the time comes to git
rid o’ him, I’ll find a means some way or other. But can’t ye see, ye fool,
it’s luck to have him with us till we git clear o’ civilized ports? He kin
navigate and he’s got skipper’s papers that’ll come in handy if there’s any
trouble. And if anythin’ goes wrong at the start and we’re brung back, him
and the girl’ll take the blame.
Cates—[Stupidly.] S’long as he don’t git no share o’ the gold——
Horne—[Contemptuously.] Share, ye dumbhead! I’d see him in hell first
—and send him there myself. [Drew comes out of the house carrying his
bag which he hands to Cates. Sue follows him.]
Drew—Look lively now! Let’s hustle aboard and get her under way.
Horne—Aye—aye, sir. [He and Cates clamber hurriedly down the
ladder.]
Sue—[Throwing her arms around his neck and kissing him.] Good-bye,
Danny. It’s so fine of you to do this for us! I’ll never forget——
Drew—[Tenderly.] Ssssh! It’s nothing, Sue.
Sue—[Tearfully.] Oh, Danny, I hope I’m doing right! I’ll miss you so
dreadfully! But you’ll come back just as soon as you can—
Drew—Of course!
Sue—Danny! Danny! I love you so!
Drew—And I guess you know I love you, don’t you? [Kisses her.] And
we’ll be married when I come back this time sure?
Sue—Yes—yes—Danny—sure!
Drew—I’ve got to run. Good-bye, Sue.
Sue—Good-bye, dear. [They kiss for the last time and he disappears
down the ladder. She stands at the top, sobbing, following him with her
eyes. Nat comes around the house from the rear and goes to the front door.]
Nat—[Seeing his sister.] Sue! He hasn’t gone yet, has he? [She doesn’t
hear him. He hesitates in the doorway for a moment, listening for the sound
of his father’s voice from inside. Then, very careful to make no noise, he
tiptoes carefully into the house. Sue waves her hand to Drew who has
evidently now got aboard the ship. Then she covers her face with her hands,
sobbing. Nat comes out of the house again and goes to his sister. As she
sees him approaching, she dries her eyes hastily, trying to smile.]
Sue—Did you get the doctor, Nat?
Nat—Yes, he’s coming right away, he promised. [Looking at her face.]
What—have you been crying?
Sue—No. [She walks away from the edge of the cliff, drawing him with
her.]
Nat—Yes, you have. Look at your eyes.
Sue—Oh, Nat, everything’s so awful! [She breaks down again.]
Nat—[Trying to comfort her in an absentminded way.] There, don’t get
worked up. Ma’ll be all right as soon as the doctor comes. [Then curiously.]
Pa’s inside with her. They were arguing—have they made it up, d’you
think?
Sue—Oh, Nat, I don’t know. I don’t think so.
Nat—The strain’s been too much for him—waiting and hiding his secret
from all of us. What do you suppose it is, Sue—ambergris?
Sue—[Wildly.] I don’t know and I don’t care! [Noticing the strange
preoccupied look in his eyes—trying to bring him back to earth—
scornfully.] Ambergris! Are you going crazy? Don’t you remember you’ve
always been the first one to laugh at that silly idea?
Nat—Well, there’s something—— [Starts for the platform. Sue does her
best to interpose to hold him back.] Are they all ready on the schooner.
He’ll have to hurry if she’s going to sail on this tide. [With sudden passion.]
Oh, I’ve got to go! I can’t stay here! [Pleadingly.] Don’t you think, Sue, if
you were to ask him for me he’d—You’re the only one he seems to act sane
with or care about any more.
Sue—No! I won’t! I can’t!
Nat—[Angrily.] Haven’t you any sense? Wouldn’t it be better for
everyone if I went in his place?
Sue—No. You know that’s a lie. Ma would lose her mind if you went.
Nat—And I’ll lose mine if I stay! [Half aware of Sue’s intention to keep
him from looking down at the schooner—irritably.] What are you holding
my arm for, Sue? I want to see what they’re doing. [He pushes her aside
and goes to the platform—excitedly.] Hello, they’ve got the fores’l and
mains’l set. They’re setting the stays’l. [In amazement.] Why—they’re
casting off! She’s moving away from the wharf! [More and more excitedly.]
I see four of them on board! Who—who is that, Sue?
Sue—It’s Danny.
Nat—[Furiously.] Danny! What right has he—when I can’t! Sue, call
Pa! They’re sailing, I tell you, you little fool!
Sue—[Trying to calm him—her voice trembling.] Nat! Don’t be such a
donkey! Danny’s only going a little way—just trying the boat to see how
she sails while they’re waiting for Pa.
Nat—[Uncertainly.] Oh. [Then bitterly.] I was never allowed to do even
that—his own son! Look, Sue, that must be Danny at the stern waving.
Sue—[Brokenly.] Yes. [She waves her handkerchief over her head—then
breaks down, sobbing again. There is the noise of Bartlett’s voice from
inside and a moment later he appears in the doorway. He seems terribly
shattered, at the end of his tether. He hesitates uncertainly, looking about
him wildly as if he didn’t know what to do or where to go.]
Sue—[After one look at his face, runs to him and flings her arms about
his neck.] Pa! [She weeps on his shoulder.]
Bartlett—Sue, ye did wrong beggin’ me to see her. I knowed it’d do
no good. Ye promised she’d not hound me——“Confess,” she says—when
they be naught to tell that couldn’t be swore to in any court. “Don’t go on
this vige,” she says, “there be the curse o’ God on it.” [With a note of
baffled anguish.] She kin say that after givin’ the ship her own name! [With
wild, haggard defiance.] But curse or no curse, I be goin’! [He moves
toward the platform, Sue clinging to his arm.]
Sue—[Frightenedly.] Pa! Go back in the house, won’t you?
Bartlett—I be sorry to go agin your will, Sue, but it’s got to be. Ye’ll
know the reason some day—and be glad o’ it. And now good-bye to ye.
[With a sudden strange tenderness he bends and kisses his daughter. Then
as she seems about to protest further, his expression becomes stern and
inflexible.] No more o’ talk, Sue! I be bound out. [He takes her hand off his
arm and strides to the platform. One look down at the harbor and he stands
transfixed—in a hoarse whisper.] What damned trick be this? [He points to
the schooner and turns to Nat bewilderedly.] Ain’t that my schooner, boy—
the Sarah Allen—reachin’ toward the p’int?
Nat—[Surprised.] Yes, certainly. Didn’t you know? Danny’s trying her
to see how she sails while they’re waiting for you.
Bartlett—[With a tremendous sigh of relief.]
Aye. [Then angrily.] He takes a lot o’ rope to himself without askin’
leave o’ me. Don’t he know they’s no time to waste on boy’s foolin’? [Then
with admiration.] She sails smart, don’t she, boy? I knowed she’d show a
pair o’ heels.
Nat—[With enthusiasm.] Yes, she’s a daisy! Say, Danny’s taking her
pretty far out, isn’t he?
Bartlett—[Anxiously.] He’d ought to come about now if he’s to tack
back inside the p’int. [Furiously.] Come about, damn ye! The swab! That’s
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Notice to the Reader

Printed in the United States of America

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Chapter 5: Diagnostic Concepts . . . . 145 Chapter 8: Understanding OBD II . . . 213

Chapter 6: Diagnostic Equipment . . . 159 Chapter 9: Multiplexing Concepts . . . 245

Idle Speed Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 Other PCM-Controlled Systems . . . . . . . 420

Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 Chapter 17: Alternative Power

A Review of Electricity and Electronics

Electrical Circuits Electronic Circuits

ELECTRON THEORY Neutrons

Molecules and Atoms

Compounds 1st layer (2 electrons)

Magnetic flux field

Figure 1–5 Magnetic field. © Cengage Learning 2012

Directional force of Directional force of Electron

Soft iron core

Note: Core will move to center of coil regardless

END VIEW OF MOTOR

4 Ohms • Temperature —as the temperature of a conduc-

Higher resistance allows less Voltage Drop

0.1 V lost across 0.2 V lost 5.82 V lost in 5.82 V lost in

11.98 V 11.88 V 11.66 V 5.84 V

electrons there are in the outer shell the easier it

• Circuit protection, such as a fuse or circuit

Voltage source Circuit protection Circuit control Load

Circuit protection Circuit control Load

Ground symbols indicate that points

Voltage source Circuit protection

Ground side switch

Figure 1–22 Parallel circuit. © Cengage Learning 2012

There are three possible mathematical formu-

12 V divided by 15 amps 0.8 (RT)

ⴙ Now let us assume another convenient volt-

Therefore, any voltage that is convenient to

Figure 1–25 Series-parallel circuit. If 3 V are dropped across R3 from a source

Indicator light Positive side

Figure 1–26 Series string in parallel.

R1:I1 E兾R1 or is identified by positive and negative. An electrical

Likely locations for loose

Each silicon atom shares an electron with each neighboring atom.

Figure 1–31 Silicon doped with phosphorus. © Cengage Learning 2012

zone. It is also sometimes referred to as a bound- Conventional Current Flow versus

Neutralized Neutralized Free P-type N-type Free

Figure 1–36 Reverse bias voltage applied to a

an alternator are designed to carry a substan-

direction that the arrow is pointing. The arrow Zener Diode

DC voltage within the alternator. The winding in

Figure 1–42 Voltage pulses of three stator wind-

[The Curtain Falls]

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