CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

& OVERVIEW
PSY 102
Have you ever wondered….?
• Why people (yourself included) tend to act differently in groups
• How habits develop and how to break them
• Why we forget some things and remember others
• Why drugs make us feel the way they do
• What dreams really mean
• The ways that human behavior differs from animal behavior, and
how it is similar
• Why your partner/child/roommate/parents act the way they do
(and how to get them to quit it)
 WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY
• Greek mythology: Aphrodite, Eros and Psyche
(Ashliman, 2001)
• Etymology[study of the origin of words] of the Word
“Psychology”
• Earliest origins found in the writings of Aristotle
384BC who was broadly interested in the nature of
living organism
Aristotle 384BC
• You will understand life if you think about the act of
dying. When I die how will I be different from the way
I am right now? In the first moment after death, my
body will be scarcely different in physical terms, that is
in the last seconds of life, but I will no longer move, no
longer sense, nor speak, no feel, nor care. Its these
things that are life. At the moment, the psyche takes
flight in the last breath.
What is psychology cont….
• Aristotle used to term “psyche” to refer to the essence of life
• ‘Psyche’ is Greek word which means life, soul or mind [breath, spirit]
• The root ‘ology’ comes from the Greek word logos which means
explanation, study of or research
Psyche- mind
Ology- study of
• Loosely, Psychology refers to the scientific study of the
mind
TRILOGY OF MIND
• Immanuel Kant (1790) – 3 irreducible faculties of mind
• Knowledge, feelings and desire

• Hillgard (1980)
• Cognition – knowledge and beliefs
• Emotions- affect, mood, feelings
• Motivation- Drives, needs, desires, goals, purposes
 CONTEMPORARY DEFINITION
•Lahey (2012): Psychology can be defined as
the science of behaviour and mental processes
•Feldman (2011): Psychology is the scientific
study of behaviour and mental processes
•Psychology: the study of behavior and mental
processes and how they are affected by an
organism’s physical state, mental state, and
environment
WHAT KIND OF A SCIENCE IS PSYCHOLOGY

•Psychology is a behavioural science

•Psychology is a social science
•Psychology is a biological science
•Psychology is a physical science
GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY
1] DESCRIBE

2] UNDERSTAND[EXPLAIN]

3]PREDICT

4]INFLUENCE[CONTROL]
 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
• Evil Spirits &Trephination
(6000 years ago)

• Socrates (470-399BC) –Rational thought and introspection

• Aristotle(384-322BC), the book, Peri Psyches
• Gustav Theodor Fechner (1860-1887), 1860, landmark book,
Elements of Psychophysics
• 1879, Leipzig, Germany, Modern Psychology is established by
Wilhelm Wundt, first psychology laboratory
 WUNDT & STRUCTURALISM

(a) Wilhelm Wundt is credited as one of the founders of psychology. He

created the first laboratory for psychological research.
(b) This photo shows him seated and surrounded by fellow researchers
and equipment in his laboratory in Germany.
(c) He is the first psychologist
Wundt and Structuralism cont…
• Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
• 1873-Principles of Physiological Psychology
• Psychology viewed as the study of conscious
experience
• Uncover the fundamental mental components
of perception, consciousness, thinking,
emotions & other kinds of mental states and
activities
Wundt cont..
• Studied consciousness using
introspection(internal perception)
• Break down conscious experience into
objective sensations, subjective feelings and
mental images
• Introspection could not be scientifically verified
• His work expanded by Edward Titchener
JAMES AND FUNCTIONALISM

William James, shown here in a self-

portrait, was the first American
psychologist

Originally a professor biology and

philosophy
 JAMES AND FUNCTIONALISM

•William James (1842-1910)

•Influenced by Darwin’s Theory of
Evolution[natural selection & adaptation]
•Psychology viewed as the of the function
of mental processes
•Steam of consciousness
FREUD & PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

(a) Sigmund Freud was a highly influential figure in

the history of psychology. A Neurologist
(b) One of his many books, A General Introduction to
Psychoanalysis, shared his ideas about
psychoanalytical therapy; it was published in 1922.
 FREUD & PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
• Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
• Josef Breuer-Anna O- Talking Cure
• Theorised that problems emanated from the
unconscious mind
• Childhood experiences and the unconscious
• Free Association
• Dream Analysis
PAVLOV, WATSON, SKINNER & BEHAVIOURISM

John B. Watson is known as the father

of behaviorism
within psychology
PAVLOV, WATSON, SKINNER & BEHAVIOURISM

(a) B. F. Skinner is famous for his research on operant

conditioning.
(b) Modified versions of the operant conditioning chamber, or
Skinner box, are still widely used in research settings
today.
PAVLOV, WATSON, SKINNER & BEHAVIOURISM
• Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)- Conditioned Reflex[Classical
Conditioning]
• John Broadus Watson (1878-1958)-the study of consciousness
and conscious experience is flawed
• Watson(1913)-Psychology should limit itself observable
measurable events- that is behaviour alone- hence, the term
behaviourism
• Broadened the scope of psychology beyond mental processes
• Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904-1990)-focused on how
behaviour is affected by its consequences [reinforcement &
punishment]
WERTHEIMER & GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
• Max Wertheimer (1880-1943), Kurt Koffka (1886-1943) & Wofgang
Kohler (1887-1967)
• Also interested in the nature of consciousness
• Concept of the GESTALT: the whole is greater[different] than the
sum of its parts
• Emphasis how perception is organised
• Perceptions are more than the sum of their parts
• Human consciousness cannot be broken down into raw elements as
proposed by structuralism.
• Considered the individual as a whole
• An important foundation for humanistic theory
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY & PERCEPTION
• Apparent Motion: Motion Parallax [Phi Phenomenon], Motion
Picture
Size Constancy

• Size constancy refers to our ability to see objects as maintaining the same
size even when our distance from them makes things appear larger or
smaller
Shape constancy

• Shape Constancy: Perceiving objects as having a stable or

unchanging shape regardless of changes in the retinal image
resulting from differences in viewing angle
Grouping By Similarity
Reversible Figure Ground Background
Ponzo Illusion
The Stroop Effect
As fast as you can, read the names
of the colors
Stroop Effect
As fast as you can,
(don’t read the word)
but read the name of
the color of the word.
The Stroop Effect
As fast as you can,
(don’t read the word)
but read the name
of the color of the word.
MASLOW, ROGERS & HUMANISM
• Objected the pessimism & determinism of Freud
• Disliked the reductionism or simplistic nature of behaviourism
• Humanism embodies the potential good that is innate in all humans
• Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)-Hierarchy of Needs and Self-
actualisation
• Carl Rogers (1902-1987)- Client Centred Therapy & Unconditional
Positive Regard
THE COGNITIVE REVOLUTION
• Behaviourism’s emphasis on objectivity and observable behaviour
pulled psychology away from the mind
• Humanistic psychologist redirected attention to the individual
human as a whole
• In the 1950s new disciplines in linguistics, neuroscience & computer
science revived interest in the mind
• Noam Chomsky(1928--)-Focus on behaviour is short sighted.
• Need to re-incorporate mental functioning to offer meaningful
understandings of behaviour
CHOMSKY
Founding Mother’s of Psychology
• Leta Stetter Hollingworth
• Child development and women’s issues
• Mary Whiton Calkins
• First female president in the APA
• Karen Horney
• Social and cultural aspects to personality
• June Etta Downey
• Personality trait theorist
• Anna Freud
• Mary Salter Ainsworth-attachment
• Elizabeth Loftus-Memory, prejudice
• Mamie Phipps Clark- Racism
CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES IN
•Contemporary differ in their
approaches
•No longer describe themselves as
structuralists
•6 major perspectives- no view has emerged
as correct
•Eclectic Approach-multiple perspectives
The Biological & Evolutionary Perspective
[Neuroscience]
• Biological basis of Behaviour & mental processes
• Hereditary basis of human behaviour & mental
processes
• Effect of damage to certain parts of the brain on
affects personality, behaviour, learning ability,
language
• Drug treatment for severe mental disorders
• e.g Schizophrenia is associated with high levels of
dopamine & is also genetic
The Psychodynamic Perspective
• Seeks to understand the inner person
• Behaviour motivated by unconscious inner forces over
which the individual has little control
• Intra-psychic determinism
• Concepts like defence mechanisms, Eros & Thanatos help to
explain prejudice & environmentally harmful behaviour
• Contemporary Neo-Freudians call themselves Neo-Analysts-
Focusing less on the unconscious & more on conscious
choice & self-direction
The Behavioural & Learning Perspective
• Focuses on the outer-person
• Rejects the inner workings of the mind –observable behaviour
• Emphasises the role of the environment and experiences on
behaviour and mental processes
• Environmental determinism
• Contributions in the treatment of mental disorders, curbing
aggression, & ending addictions
• Contemporary behaviourist acknowledge the role of cognition-social
cognitive theorist or social learning theory[Albert Bandura-
modelling]
• Reciprocal determinism-cognition-environment-behaviour-
The Cognitive Perspective
• Seeks to identify the roots of understanding
• How people think, understand, and know about the world
• Compares human thinking with workings of the computer
• Has roots in Socrates’ advice-Know thyself
• Also has roots in structuralism, functionalism & gestalt
principles
The Humanistic-Existential Perspective
• Focus on the unique qualities of the human species
• Rejects the determinism inherent the psychodynamic &
behavioural perspective
• Emphasises free will
• Humanism stresses human capacity for self fulfilment and
the central role of consciousness, self-awareness and
decision making
• Existentialism views people as free to choose & responsible
for choosing ethical conduct
The Socio-Cultural Perspective

• Seeks to understand people-in-context

• Emphasises human diversity
• Influence of ethnicity, gender, culture, socio-
economic status etc on behaviour and mental
processes
• Emphasises cultural relativity
Psychological Perspectives: Depression Example
• ocio-cultural: societal stress and role demands;
modern culture has made us increasingly isolated
• Psychodynamic: depression is due to unconsciously
displacing anger towards your parent onto yourself
• Humanistic: depression is due to being inauthentic
or by being otherwise blocked in fulfilling your
potential
 PSYCHOLOGY’S KEY ISSUES
 Nature versus nurture
-How much of our behavior is
due to heredity and how much
is due to environment?
 Conscious versus unconscious
– How much of our behavior is produced by
forces of which we are fully aware?

 Observable behavior versus internal mental

processes
– Should psychology only focus
.
on what it can see?
 PSYCHOLOGY’S KEY ISSUES

 Free will versus determinism

• How much of behavior is a result of
free will?

 Individual differences
versus universal principles
• How much of our behavior is a
consequence of our unique and
special qualities?
 FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY

• Contemporary psychologists can be roughly divided into those that

study basic topic in psychology & those that work in applied areas in
psychology
Basic Areas of Modern Psychology
• According to Lahey (2012) 20% of psychologists work in basic areas in
universities and research institutions
• Their domain is the basic knowledge of psychology
• The largest specialities are:
1. Biological Psychology
2. Sensation & Perception
3. Cognition
4. Developmental Psychology
5. Motivation & Emotion
6. Personality
7. Social Psychology
8. Personality
9. Socio-cultural psychology
Applied Areas of Modern Psychology
• 80% of psychologists use basic psychological knowledge to solve human
problems in applied settings.
• The following are the major subspecialties according to the Zimbabwe
Psychological Association:
1) Clinical Psychology
2) Community Psychology
3 )Counselling Psychology
4) Educational Psychology
5) Engineering Psychology
6) Forensic Psychologist
7) Neuro Psychology
8) Occupational/Industrial Psychology
Relationship with Psychiatry
• Psychiatrist have medical training & can prescribe medication
• Psychology is much broader than Psychiatry
• The speciality in Psychology most similar to Psychiatry is Clinical
Psychology (PhD or Psy D
CAREERS IN PSYCHOLOGY
• Psychology is so versatile but most are employed in the social
services or human services.According to Rathus (2016)
• University 26%
• Hospital or Health Sector 25%
• Government 16%
• Business or Non-Profit 10%
• Other educational institutions 8%
• Medical School 6%
• Independent Practice 6%
 PSYCHOLOGY’S FUTURE
• Increase in
specialization
• Focus on
prevention
• Greater influence
on issues of public
interest
• Increase in diversity