Academic year 2024-25

Grade: X Practical manual

Subject: Physics
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EXPERIMENT-1

Aim
To determine the focal length of following by obtaining the image of a distant object.
(i) concave mirror
(ii) convex lens
Theory
Focal length of Concave Mirror
• A spherical mirror, whose reflecting surface is curved inwards, that is, faces towards the
Centre of the sphere, is called a concave mirror.
• A concave mirror, like a plane mirror, obeys the laws of reflection of light.
• The rays of light coming from a distant object such as the sun or a distant tree can be
considered parallel to each other

• When parallel rays of light fall on a concave mirror along its axis, the rays meet at a point
in front of the mirror and the image formed of the object is real, inverted and very small
in size.
• As the image formed by concave lens is real it can be obtained on a screen.
• The distance between the principal axis P of the concave mirror and the focus F is the
focal length of the concave mirror. It is denoted by letter ‘f’.
Rules for Obtaining Image Formed by Concave Mirror
1. A ray of light parallel to principal axis of a concave mirror, passes through its focus after
reflection from the mirror as shown in figure (i).
2. A ray of light passing through the Centre of curvature of a concave mirror is reflected
back along the same path as shown in figure (ii).

Grade – 10 1
 3. A ray of light passing through the focus of a concave mirror becomes parallel to the
principal axis after reflection, as shown in figure (iii).

Focal Length of Convex Lens

• Convex lens is bulge in the Centre, i.e,, it is thicker in the middle and thinner at the edges.
It is also called converging lens because it converges a beam of light incident on it.

Here, O = Optical Centre, P = Principal axis, F = Principal focus= Focal length

• When a parallel beam of light falls on a convex lens, the rays, after refraction converge at
a point on its other side.
• If the parallel beam of light comes from a distant object, a real, inverted image of very
small size is formed at the focus of the lens.
• The distance between the optical Centre of lens ‘O’ and the principal focus ‘F’ of the lens
is called focal length of a lens, ‘f’ is the representation of focal length.
• Since the image formed by the lens is real, it can be obtained on a screen.
• Types of Images:
Real Image Virtual Image
It can be obtained on the screen. It cannot be obtained on the screen.
The light rays after reflection, actually meet The light rays after reflection appear to
at a point. E.g., Concave mirror forms such diverge from a point. E.g., Plane and convex
an image. (It is an inverted image) mirrors form such a virtual image.

Grade – 10 2
Aim
To Determine the Focal Length of Concave Mirror
(i) To determine focal length of a given concave mirror:
Materials Required
A concave mirror, a measuring scale, a screen a mirror holder and mirror stand.
Procedure
1. Select a distant object from the laboratory window (distance should be more than 50 ft).
2. Fix the concave mirror on the mirror stand placed on the table, facing the distant object.
3. Place the screen in front of the reflecting surface of the mirror. Move the screen back and
forth until a clear, sharp image of the distant object is obtained on the screen.
4. Measure the distance between the concave mirror and the screen with a metre scale. This
distance is the focal length of the given concave mirror. Record the focal length.
5. Repeat the above procedure twice and record the readings. Take three readings and
calculate the average focal length.

Observation Table
Position of concave mirror
S.No. Position of screen (S) Focal length/ = (M – S) cm
(M)
1. 60 cm 50 cm 10 cm
2. 60 cm 50 cm 10 cm
3. 60 cm 50 cm 10 cm
Calculation
Mean value of focal length of concave mirror =

Result
The focal length of the given concave mirror = 10 cm
Precautions
1. The distant object must be well illuminated to produce a well illuminated and distinct
image.
2. Always place the concave mirror near an open window.
3. The polished surface of the concave mirror must face the distant object.

Grade – 10 3
 4. There should be no obstacle or hurdle in the path of rays of light from the distant object,
incident on the concave mirror.
5. The base of the stands of the concave mirror and screen should be parallel to the
measuring scale.
6. The mirror holder along with the mirror should be kept perpendicular to the measuring
scale for precise measurements.

Grade – 10 4
(ii) Focal Length of Convex Lens Experiment
Aim
To determine focal length of a given convex lens:
Materials Required
Wooden bench, convex lens, a lens holder, a screen fixed to a stand, a measuring scale; etc.
Procedure
1. Arrange the wooden bench capable of holding the lens and screen horizontally on a table,
so that the lens and screen are not disturbed.
2. Keep the lens in a holder facing a distant object say tree branches.
3. Fix the screen on another holder and keep it on the bench.
4. Adjust the position of the screen in such a way that a sharp image of the given distant
object falls on it.
5. Note down the position of the lens in the table and the screen, and find the differences and
record the same. The difference will give the focal length of the given convex lens.
6. Focus the lens towards various distant objects and repeat the experiment to find the
position of sharp image and thereby the focal length.
7. Add all the focal lengths found out and find the mean value of the focal length of the
convex lens.

Observation Table
S.No. Position of convex lens (L) Position of screen (S) Focal length/= (L – S) cm
1. 60 cm 50 cm f1 = 10 cm
2. 60 cm 50 cm f2 = 10 cm
3. 60 cm 50 cm f3 = 10 cm

Grade – 10 5
Calculation
Mean value of focal length of convex lens =

Result
The focal length of the given convex lens = 10 cm
Precautions
1. Convex lens should be placed vertically.
2. There should be no obstacle or hurdle in the path of rays of light from the distant object
incident on the common lens.
3. In order to get a well illuminated and distinct image, it must be ensured that the distant
object is well illuminated.
4. The base of the stands of the convex lens and screen should be parallel to the measuring
scale.

Grade – 10 6
 EXPERIMENT: 2
Aim
To trace the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for different angles
of incidence. Measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction, angle of emergence and
interpret the result.
Theory
• Refraction of Light: When light passes from one medium to other it deviates/changes its
path, this property of light is called refraction of light.
• Normal Ray: A ray of light which forms an angle of 90° with the refracting surface is
said to be normal. When a ray of light travels along the normal, it does not suffer any
refraction.
• Incident Ray: A ray of light that travels towards the refracting surface is called incident
ray.
• Refracted Ray: A ray of light that changes its path when passes through a refracting
surface is said to be refracted ray.

• Emergent Ray: A ray of light which emerges out into the original medium after
refraction is said to be an emergent ray.
• Lateral Displacement: The perpendicular shift in the path of light, seen when it emerges
out from the refracting medium is called lateral displacement.

Grade – 10 7
 • Angle of Incidence (i): The angle formed between the normal and incident ray is called
angle of incidence.
• Angle of Refraction (r): The angle formed between the refracted and normal ray is called
angle of refraction.
• Angle of Emergence (e): The angle formed between the normal and emergent ray is
called angle of emergence.
• DRAN: When a ray of light travels from denser medium to rarer medium it bends away
from the normal.
• RDTN: When a ray of light travels from rarer medium to denser medium, it bends
towards the normal.
• During Refraction:
(i) Angle of incidence = Angle of emergence.
(ii) Incident ray and emergent ray are parallel.
• Laws of Refraction:
(i) The incident ray, the normal ray and the refracted ray, all lie in the same plane.
(ii) The ratio of the sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a
constant quantity for the two-given media. This law is also known as Snell’s law.
sin i/ sin r
This constant value is called the refractive index of the second medium with respect to the
first.
Materials Required
A drawing board, 4-6 all pins, white sheet of paper, rectangular glass slab, a protractor, a scale,
a pencil and thumb pins.
Procedure
1. Take a soft drawing board. Fix a white sheet on it with the help of thumb pins.
2. Place the rectangular glass slab in the Centre of the white paper and draw its outline
boundary with pencil.
3. Mark this rectangular figure obtained as ABCD.
4. On one side of this figure, i.e., AB take one-point E, draw a perpendicular EN and label it
as normal ray.
5. With the help of a protractor draw one angle of 30° with the EN. Fix two pins P and Q on
the ray of this angle, the distance between the pins should be more than 4-5 cm.
6. Put the glass slab on the rectangular figure ABCD.
7. See through the glass slab from side CD and fix pin R and S such that when seen through
the glass slab all
the pins lie in straight line, [i.e., Pins P, Q, R and S should lie in straight line when seen
through the glass slab], ‘
8. Now, remove the pins P, Q, R and S one by one and draw small circles around the pin
points.
9. Remove the glass slab.
10.Join points R and S such that it meets CD at point F.
Draw perpendicular to CD at point F as N’M’.
11.Join points E and F with the pencil.
12.Measure the angles formed at AB and CD, i.e., the incident angle, refracted angle and
emergent angle.
Grade – 10 8
 13.Extend ray PQ with scale and pencil in dotted line. It will be parallel to ray FRS. The
distance between these two parallel rays is called lateral displacement (d).
14.Measure the lateral displacement.
15.Repeat the above procedure for angles 45° and 60°.
Diagram

ABCD = Glass slab

EN and FM’ = Normal rays
P, Q, R, S = All pins ∠PEN = ∠i = incident angle = 30°
∠MEF = ∠r = refracted angle
∠SFM’= ∠e = emergent angle = 30° ~ 31°
d = lateral displacement.

Observations Table
Angle of incidence Angle of refraction Angle of emergence ∠i – ∠e
S.No.
∠i = ∠PEN ∠r = ∠MEF ∠e = ∠SFM’ ∠PEN – ∠SFM’
1. 30° 28° 30° 0°
2. 45° 43° 44.8° 0.2°
3. 60° 56° 59.8° 0.2°
During performing this experiment, ∠i – ∠e may not be zero at times as shown above due to
human error.
Conclusion
1. The angle of incidence is nearly equal to the angle of emergence.

Grade – 10 9
 2. The angle of refraction is less than angle of incidence because light is travelling from
rarer to denser optical medium.
3. The lateral displacement remains the same for different angles of incidences.
4. When the light ray travels from optically rarer medium (air) to optically denser medium
(glass) the light bends towards the normal.
Precautions
1. The glass slab should be perfectly rectangular with all its faces smooth.
2. The drawing board should be soft so that pins can be easily fixed on it.
3. The angle of incidence should lie between 30° and 60°.
4. All pins base should lie in straight line.
5. While fixing the pins P and Q or the pins R and S, care should be taken to maintain a
distance of about 5 cm between the two pins.
6. Draw thin lines using a sharp pencil.
7. Use a good quality protractor having clear markings.
8. Place the protractor correctly to measure the angles.
9. Perpendiculars should be drawn correctly.
Sources of Error
1. The glass slab should not have any air-bubbles.
2. All measurement of angles using protractor should be done accurately

Grade – 10 10
 EXPERIMENT: 3
Aim
To trace the path of the rays of light through a glass prism.
Theory
• A prism has a triangular base and three triangular lateral surfaces. These surfaces are
inclined to each other.
Refraction of light through a prism
• In the given figure, ABC represents the base of a glass prism. Let PE be the incident ray
of light on face AB of the prism. EF represents the bending of light when it enters the
prism and hence show the refraction of light.
• RS is the emergent ray at face AC of the prism.
The angle D shows the angle of deviation.
The ∠BAC of the prism is called the angle of the prism and it is denoted by ‘A’.

• In the figure, the relation between

• angle of incidence ∠i, i. e., ∠PQN
• angle of refraction ∠r, i.e., ∠FEN,
• angle of deviation ∠D, i.e., ∠HGF and
• angle of prism ∠A, i.e., ∠BAC. ∠A + ∠D = ∠i + ∠e
Materials Required
A white sheet, soft board, thumb pins, 4-6 all pins, prism, pencil, scale, protractor, drawing
board.
Procedure
1. Fix a white sheet on a drawing board using drawing pins.
2. Place a glass prism on it in such a way that it rests on its triangular base. Trace the outline
of the prism using a pencil.
3. Draw a thin line NEN normal (perpendicular) to face AB of the prism. Also draw a
straight line PE making an angle preferably between 30° and 60° as shown in figure.
4. Fix two pins at a distance of 5 cm from each other on the line PE as shown in the figure,
later mark these points of pins as P and Q.
5. Look at the images of the pins, fixed at P and Q, through the other face of the prism, i.e.,
AC.

Grade – 10 11
 6. Fix two more pins, at points R and S vertically such that the feet of pins at R and S appear
to be on the same straight line as the feet of the images of the pins P and Q when viewed
through the face AC of the prism.
7. Remove the pins and the glass prism.
8. Join and produce a line joining R and S, let this line meet the prism at point F.
9. Extend the direction of incident ray PQE till it meets the face AC. Also extend
(backwards) the emergent ray SRF so that these two lines meet at a point G.
10.Mark the angle of incidence ∠i, angle of refraction ∠r and the angle of emergence ∠e and
∠D as shown in the figure.
11.Repeat the experiment for more angle of incidence preferably between 30° and 60°.
Observations
1. The light ray enters the prism at surface AB, bends towards the normal on refraction.
2. At surface AC of the prism, this light ray bends away from the normal because it travels
from a glass to air.
3. The peculiar shape of the prism makes the emergent ray bend at an angle to the direction
of the incident ray. This angle is called the angle of deviation (∠D).
Conclusion
1. The light ray, i.e., the incident ray first bends towards the normal when it gets refracted in
the prism and while leaving the prism it bends away from the normal.
2. The angle of deviation first decreases with the increase in angle of incidence ∠i. It attains
a minimum value then increases with further increase in angle of incidence.
Precautions
1. A sharp pencil should be used for drawing the boundary of the prism.
2. Use soft board and pointed pins.
3. The pins should be fixed at a distance of 5 cm or more.
4. The pins should be fixed vertically and immediately encircled after they are removed.
5. While viewing the col-linearity of pins and images, the eye should be kept at a distance
from the pins so that all of them can be seen simultaneously. The col-linearity of all the
four pins can be confirmed by moving the head slightly to either side while viewing them.
They all appear to move together.
6. The angle of incidence should be between 30° and 60°.
7. Proper arrows should be drawn for the incident ray, refracted ray and emergent ray.

Grade – 10 12
 EXPERIMENT: 4
Aim
To study the dependence of potential difference (V) across a resistor on the current (I) passing
through it and determine its resistance. Also plot a graph between V and I.
Theory
• Ohm’s Law: The potential difference, V across the ends of a given metallic wire in an
electric circuit is directly proportional to the current flowing through it, provided its
temperature is the same. This is Ohm’s law.
V∝I
.’. V = IR, (Here R = Constant for the given metallic wire)
• The SI unit of resistance is Ohm (Ω).
R=VI
• One Ohm: If the potential difference across the ends of a conductor is 1 volt and the
current flowing through it is 1 ampere, then the resistance of the conductor R is 1 ohm.

• Factors affecting resistance:

• The nature of resistor (a conductor having some resistance.)
• The length of the resistance. (R ∝ l)
(Resistance increases as the length of the wire is increased)
• The area of cross-section of the resistor. R∝1A
(Resistance decreases with the increase in the cross-section area of the wire)
• Circuit Diagram:

• In a circuit ammeter is always connected in series and voltmeter is connected in parallel

across the points between which potential difference is to be measured.
• A straight line graph obtained between V and I verify the Ohm’s law.
• Least Count: It is very important to find the least count of ammeter and voltmeter before
using them.

Grade – 10 13
If in the ammeter, there are 10 divisions from 0 to 0.1 A then each division indicates 0.01 A.
A. To calculate the least count of ammeter.
Range of ammeter = AR…………………….
Number of divisions in ammeter = AN…………………………..
.’. Least count of ammeter = ARAN= …………….. ampere.
B. To calculate the least count of voltmeter.
Range of voltmeter = VR……………………
Number of divisions in voltmeter = VN
.’. Least count of voltmeter = VRVN = ………………. volt.
Materials Required
A battery, an insulated copper wire (cut into 10 pieces), a key, an ammeter, a voltmeter, a
rheostat, a resistor and a piece of sand paper.
Procedure
1. Keep the devices as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Connect them with the connecting wires and keep the key open.
3. Positive terminal of the battery is connected to the positive terminal of the ammeter.
4. Check the +ve and -ve terminals of voltmeter before connecting it in the circuit.
5. Once the circuit is connected, insert the key and check the rheostat, adjust its slider and
see whether the ammeter and voltmeter readings are shown.
6. By using the slider of rheostat take three different readings of current 1 and voltmeter V.
7. Record your observations in the observation table.
8. Calculate resistance of a given resistor by formula R=VI.
9. Plot a graph of voltmeter reading and current reading. On x axis take V and on y axis take
I.
10.Resistance increases with increase in temperature of pure metals.
Observation Table
A. Least count of ammeter and voltmeter
S. No. Ammeter (A) Voltmeter (V)
1. Range 0 – 0.5 A 0-0.1 V
2. Least Count 0.01 A 0.01 V
3. Zero Error (e) 0 0
4. Zero Correction 0 0
B. For reading of ammeter and voltmeter

Grade – 10 14
 Current in Ampere Potential difference in
S. (I) (Ammeter Volts (V) Resistance in Ohms
No. Reading) (Voltmeter Reading) R = V/I(Ω)
Observed Corrected Observed Corrected

1. 0 0.02 0 0.04 R1 =2 Ω
2. 0 0.03 0 0.06 R2 = 2 Ω
3. 0 0.04 0 0.08 R3 = 2Ω

Conclusions
1. The value of R is found to be same and constant in all three readings.
2. The resistance of a resistor is ratio of potential difference V and current I.
3. The graph of V and I is a straight line. This shows that V∝I. This verifies Ohm’s law.
Precautions
1. The connecting wires should be thick copper wires and the insulation of their ends should
be removed using the sand paper.
2. Connections should be tight otherwise some external resistance may introduce in the
circuit.
3. Connections should be made as per the circuit. Before closing the circuit show the
connections to the teacher to take the readings.
4. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resister such that the current enters at
the positive terminal and leaves at the negative terminal of the ammeter.
5. Voltmeter should always be connected in parallel to resistor.
6. Calculate the least count of voltmeter and ammeter correctly.
7. The pointers of the ammeter and voltmeter should be at zero mark when no current flows
through the circuit.
8. Current should be passed through the circuit for a short time while taking observations;
otherwise current would cause unnecessary heating in the circuit. Heating may change the
resistance of resisters.

Grade – 10 15
 EXPERIMENT: 5 (A)
Aim
Experiment To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in series.
Theory
• Resistance of a wire can be increased or decreased depending on its combinations and
connections in a circuit.
• Resistors are joined in the circuit in two different methods, i.e., in series and in parallel.
• If two resistors named as R1 and R2 are joined end to end they are said to be connected in
series.

• In such a case the ammeter reading, i.e., current flowing through all two resistors will be
same but the potential difference across each resistor will be different. Hence, the total
potential difference V is the combination of two different volts obtained across each
resistor.
.’. If R1 and R2 are connected in series,
R = R1+ R2
Where current I = constant
But potential difference V = V1 + V2
∴ On applying Ohm ’s law to the three resistors separately, we get
V1 = IR1 …(1)
V2 = IR2 …(2)
Total V = V1 + V2
V = IR1 + IR2
V = I(R1 + R2)
This proves that total resistance R for connection in series combination is:
R = R1 + R2
Materials Required
• Two resistors of different values for example,
R, = 1 Ω, R, = 2Ω.
• Battery of 6 volt.
• Ammeter, plug key, connecting wires, a piece of sand paper, voltmeter and rheostat.
Procedure
1. Make the connections according to the diagram given below.
2. Do not ‘on’ the key.
3. Connect ammeter in series and voltmeter in parallel and rheostat in series in the circuit.
4. Carefully check the +ve and -ve terminals of the battery, voltmeter and ammeter, and the
connections as shown in Fig. I.
5. Record the ammeter reading and the voltmeter reading by inserting the key.
6. By adjusting rheostat note three readings.
7. Now connect voltmeter in parallel one by one to individual resistance as shown in Fig. II
and note down the readings.
8. Plug the key. Measure the potential difference across the first resistor. Let it be V1 .

Grade – 10 16
 9. Similarly, measure the potential difference across the second resistor, separately. Let the
value be V2.
10.Calculate the relationship between V, V1, and V2.

Observation Table For Resistance In Series

Result
1. The calculated value of Rs = R1 + R2 = 3 Ω
2. The experimental value of Rs = 3 Ω
The above two values are close to each other.
Hence, Rs = R1 + R2 is verified.
Precautions
1. The connecting wires should be thick copper wires and the insulation of their ends should
be removed using the sandpaper.
2. Connections should be tight otherwise some external resistance may introduce in the
circuit.
3. Connections should be made as per the circuit.
4. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor such that the current enters at
the positive terminal and leaves at the negative terminal of the ammeter.
5. Voltmeter should always be connected in parallel to resistor.
6. Calculate the least count of voltmeter and ammeter correctly.

Grade – 10 17
 7. The pointers of the ammeter and voltmeter should be at zero mark when no current flows
through the circuit.
8. Current should be passed through the circuit for a short time while taking observations;
otherwise, a current would cause unnecessary heating in the circuit. Heating may change
the resistance of resistors.

EXPERIMENT: 5 (B)
Aim
To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in parallel.
Theory
• When the resistors are connected in parallel with a combination of cells or battery, in such
case the total current I, is equal to the sum of the separate value of current through each
branch of the combination.
i.e., I=I1+I2+I3+…..

• In the above circuit let R be the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination of
resistors.
∴ By applying Ohm’s law we have
I=V/Rp …(1)

Grade – 10 18
 • On applying Ohm’s law to each resistor we get

When resistors are connected in parallel combination the total resistance is reciprocal sum
of the individual resistances.
i.e., 1/Rp = (1/R1) + (1/R2)
• Current is constant in series circuit. Hence, we cannot connect bulb and room heater in
series because their current requirement is different.
• Hence such devices are connected in parallel so that the current is divided through the
different electrical gadgets.
• The total current is always decreased when resistors are connected in parallel.
• When the resistors are connected in parallel then the equivalent resistance of the parallel
combination of the resistors is always low.
Materials Required
A battery, a plug key, connecting wires, an ammeter, a voltmeter, rheostat, a piece of sand
paper and two resistors of different value.
Procedure
1. Keep the key off and make all the connections as shown in the given figure I.
2. When the circuit is connected appropriately insert the key.
3. Note three readings of ammeter and voltmeter for the resistors R1 and R2 separately.
4. Now connect the circuit as shown in figure II below.
5. The resistors are connected in parallel and voltmeter is also connected in parallel.
6. Use the rheostat and record three different readings of ammeter and voltmeter.
7. Remove the key.
8. Do the calculations from the observation table.
Circuit Diagrams

Grade – 10 19
Observation Table For Resistance In Parallel

Ammeter
Voltmeter Mean Value
Resistor No. of Reading in R=V/I
Reading in of Resistance
Used Observations Ampere (in Ohm)
Volts (V) (Ohm)
(I)

(a) 0.01 0.01 1

R
1
st (b) 0.02 0.02 1 R1 = 1 Ohm
(I Resistor)
(c) 0.04 0.04 1
R
2
(a) 0.02 0.01 2
(2nd Resistor)
R (b) 0.06 0.03 2 R2 = 2 Ohm
2
(2nd Resistor) (c) 0.08 0.04 2

1/Rp = Rp = 0.67
(1/R1)+ (1/R2) Ohm
(a) 0.026 0.04 0.67
(Parallel 1/Rp =1.5
Combination) Ohm

Result
1. The calculated value of 1/Rp = (1/R1) + (1/R2) = 1.5 Ω
2. The experimental value of 1/Rp = 1.5 Ω
3. The equivalent resistance (Rp) is less than the individual resistance (R1 or R2)
Precautions
1. The connecting wires should be thick copper wires and the insulation of their ends should
be removed using the sand paper.
2. Connections should be tight otherwise some external resistance may introduce in the
circuit.
3. Connections should be made as per the circuit.
4. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor such that the current enters at
the positive terminal and leaves at the negative terminal of the ammeter.
5. Voltmeter should always be connected in parallel to resistor.
6. Calculate the least count of voltmeter and ammeter correctly.
7. The pointers of the ammeter and voltmeter should be at zero mark when no current flows
through the circuit.

Grade – 10 20
 8. Current should be passed through the circuit for a short time while taking observations;
otherwise, current would cause unnecessary heating in the circuit. Heating may change
the resistance of resistors.

Grade – 10 21