June, 1920 T H E JOURNAL OF I N D U S T R I A L A N D ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY 593

SOME NOTES ON THE BAUMg HYDROMETER scales are now based on mathematical formulas, and
By George H. Taber t h a t t h e formula which has t h e most authority in this
GULF REFININGCo.,PITTSBURGH,
PENNSYLVANIA country for liquids heavier t h a n water is
Received December 10, 1919
After t h e name crude oil and t h e names of some of
its products, t h e first thing likely t o come t o t h e at-
tention of anybody engaging in t h e petroleum busi-
ness, or studying i t theoretically or practically, is a
reference t o what is called the “Baume gravity” of and for liquids lighter t h a n water-
t h e oils; b u t i t is a conservative assertion t h a t a very
large majority of the users of the Baume hydrometer
a n d its readings are under some one or more mis-
apprehensions in regard t o t h e instrument, its princi-
ples or their application. It is quite likely, as some
readers may point out, t h a t t h e present writer shares 145 being what is called t h e modulus of the former scale,
in some of these misapprehensions, but, if so, they are and 140 t h a t of t h e latter.
self-inflicted and of long standing. Examining the formula for liquids heavier t h a n
Baume hydrometers are of the constant-weight, water, we see t h a t Be.: = the reciprocal of the specific
variable-volume type. As a n aid t o understanding gravity multiplied by 145, and the product subtracted
what the Baume instrument is, and what i t is not, i t from 145; and t h a t t h e greater the specific gravity,
will be well first t o consider t h e constant-weight, t h e greater t h e equivalent Be., degrees. From t h e
variable-volume specific gravity hydrometer, which i t formula for liquids lighter t h a n water, we see t h a t
is precisely like except in its stem divisions and num- Be.: = the reciprocal of the specific gravity multiplied
bers. by 140, and t h e product diminished by 140 less IO;
T h e basic principle of all hydrometers is t h a t a and t h a t t h e greater t h e specific gravity, t h e smaller
floating body displaces an amount of liquid equal t o the equivalent Be., degrees. The deduction of I O
its own weight. As the weight of the hydrometer from the modulus, which is in effect deducting t h e
under consideration is constant, t h e same weight of all modulus and adding I O t o the result, shows t h a t
liquids is displaced by i t when floating freely in them, water is 10’ by this scale, instead of o o as by t h e
a n d t h e specific gravities of t h e liquids vary inversely heavy scale.
as the volumes displaced, these volumes being indicated Since, as previously stated, t h e specific gravity
by marks on t h e stem of t h e hydrometer, accompanied varies inversely as t h e volume of liquid displaced,
by numbers giving t h e corresponding specific gravities. if the stem of a specific gravity hydrometer were
Since t h e numbers marked on t h e stem delimit equal divided t o show equal increments of immersion, t h e
increments of specific gravity, and t h e volumes im- corresponding specific gravity numbers would form a
mersed vary as t h e reciprocals of these numbers, t h e harmonic series; and since t h e equivalent Baume
successive volumes will necessarily form a harmonic degree numbers are reciprocals of a harmonic series of
series, t h e differences between t h e successive terms specific gravities, modified only by being multiplied
of which will increase as t h e specific gravities de- by a constant and added t o another constant, they
crease; t h a t is, t h e spaces between t h e divisions show- form a n arithmetic progression, a n d if these Baume
ing equal increments of specific gravity increase in degree numbers were applied t o such a scale, we should
width from t h e bottom t o t h e t o p of t h e stem. T h e have an equispaced scale with equicrescent numbers,
same thing may be stated in another way: namely, or in fact a Baume scale,-heavy or light according
if t h e successive specific gravities marked on t h e stem t o t h e conversion formula used.
be considered as abscissas of a rectangular hyperbola, The following are some frequently misunderstood
t h e constant k of whose equation equals t h e volume points:
immersed when t h e hydrometer is floating in water, I-The name is Baume, not Beaume.
t h e successive total volumes immersed will corre- 2-Specific gravity numbers are ratios, not degrees.
spond t o t h e ordinates of t h e hyperbola. Baume numbers are degrees, not ratios.
It will be seen from t h e preceding paragraph t h a t 3-The Baume scale is not inaccurate, and i t is not
if, reversing t h e usual practice, t h e stem of t h e specific unscientific. From its equispaced divisions, i t is
gravity hydrometer were graduated with equispaced likely t o be more correctly divided in t h e making, t h e
divisions t o show t h e volume immersed, t h e corre- correctness of its graduations can be more easily
sponding specific gravities would not decrease by equal checked, a n d almost anyone can interpolate its mark-
decrements, b u t these decrements would decrease in ings readily by t h e eye, whereas correct, rapid inter-
amount from t h e bottom t o the top of t h e stem. polation between specific gravity graduations is
Disregarding t h e principles upon which the gradua- practically impossible. Of course, in significance,
tion a n d markings of t h e stems of Baume hydrometers Baume degrees are inferior t o specific gravity ratios,
were originally Eased, a n d t h e object of their adoption, and i t requires one more step in calculation t o convert
and without going into details as t o t h e differences in them into pounds per gallon or other absolute density
scales which have prevailed in t h e past-some of which standards; however, the Baume scale has become so
still persist-it suffices t o state here t h a t Baume fastened t o the petroleum business t h a t in all prob-
 5 94 T H E J O U R N A L OF I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y Vol. 12, No. 6

ability the world's supply of crude oil would be exhausted of the constituents into specific gravities (or weights
before it could be pried loose. per volume, like lbs. per gallon), make the calculation
4-AS is well known, t h e specific gravity of a mixture on these. and convert the result by the formula into
of equal volumes of two liquids when there is no the corresponding Baume degrees.
contraction or expansion of volume from mixing, will As a concrete arithmetic example is more convincing
be the arithmetic mean of t h a t of each of the two t o some, and t o give a n idea of the possible error i n
constituents. If the reason for this is not obvious, averaging Baume degrees, consider a mixture of equal
change the specific gravities of the constituents t o volumes of liquids of IO' and 70' BC.,. Aver-
pounds per gallon by multiplying each by the number aging them by the BaumC degrees (which we have just
of pounds in a gallon of water a t 60' F. Say t h e proved an incorrect method), we should get 40' BB.,
results are, respectively, 6 and 8 lbs. per gallon. It is for the mixture. Averaging them by their equivalent
obvious t h a t if I gallon weighing 6 lbs. be mixed with I specific gravities 1.000 and 0.700 (the correct way),
gallon weighing 8 lbs., the result will. be 2 gallons we get 0.850 specific gravity, equal t o 34.7' BC.L.
weighing 14 lbs., I gallon of which mixture will weigh However, if weights are used instead of volumes,
7 lbs., 7 being the arithmetic mean of 6 and 8 ; and problems in alligation relating t o liquids can be per-
dividing 7 by t h e number of pounds in a gallon of water, formed directly with Baume degrees of either the heavy
we shall get the specific gravity of the mixture, which or light scale, as seen from t h e following considera-
i t will be seen must be t h e arithmetic mean of the tions, while they cannot be performed directly with
specific .gravities of t h e two constituents. By an specific gravities. Take t h e simplest case,-say equal
extension of this reasoning it will be seen t h a t the weights of two liquids, respectively, 0 ' BC., and
specific gravity of a mixture of any number of con- 95' BC.,. The arithmetic mean of the two is
stituents in any proportions can be calculated in t h e 47.5' BC.,. The specific gravities of the two con-
same way; in other words, all problems of alligation stituents are, respectively, 1.000 and 2.900. As their
medial and alligation alternate relating t o liquids weights are equal, the volumes may be taken, respec-
can be calculated directly b y their volumes and specific tively, as 29 and IO. 29 vols. of 1.000 sp. gr. a n d
gravities when there is no contraction or expansion 7 sp. gr. =
I O vols. of 2.900 sp. gr. average 1.487-
of volume resulting from the mixing. 59
Contrary, however, t o a somewhat generally held exactly 47. j o BC.,, which proves the contention in
opinion, such computations cannot be made by direct this simple case. By a laborious calculation, i t can be
use of Baum6 degrees of either the light or heavy demonstrated perhaps more conclusively. Take a lbs.
scale, although when the densities of the liquids are of I " Be., b lbs. of m o BC., c lbs. of n o Be. First,
fairly close together the error may not be prohibitive, multiply each number of Baume degrees b y t h e num-
b u t the further apart the constituents are in density, ber of lbs.; divide the sum of the products b y the sum
t h e greater the error. Let us test the simplest case as of t h e lbs., and t h e quotient will be the Baume degrees
follows: of the mixture. Second, convert the Baume degrees
Consider t h a t we have equal volumes of two liquids of each component into specific gravity. By use of t h e
of, respectively, a" BC., and b o BC.,. Take the arith- respective specific gravities, convert each number of
metic mean of the Baume degrees of the two con- pounds into gallons, perform the alligation in t h e
stituents, convert this mean into specific gravity and usual way, and convert t h e resulting specific gravity
equate i t t o the arithmetic mean of the equivalent into Baume degrees, when t h e result will be seen
specific gravities of the two constituents; solve the t o be t h e same as t h a t of t h e first operation where t h e
equation, and ascertain the relation necessary between Baume degrees were used directly.
a and b t o make the equation possible. From the foregoing it will be seen t h a t while specijic
We have gravities and weights per u n i t of volume are closely
I 4 0+--- 140 related t o each other (in the metric system they are
140
- 1 3 0 + a 130 b+ practically the same), B a u m b degrees, light or heavy,
are related, although more remotely, t o volumes per
a + b
130 f - 2 unit of weight. This fact and the deduction from i t
2
t h a t alligation problems dealing with the weights
which after expansion and reduction results in of the component and resultant liquids can be worked
+
a 2 - 2 ab b2 = o directly with Baumk degrees, may be well known,
a-b=o b u t the writer has never heard or seen them referred
a = b t o orally or in print.
or in words, the only case in which the degrees Baume 5-Frequently a would-be purist in nomenclature,
of a mixture of equal volumes of two liquids lighter who approaches the oil business from a scientific
t h a n water are the arithmetic mean of the degrees viewpoint, condemns t h e oil man for using. t h e ex-
B a u d of the constituents, is when both are the same. pression " B a u d gravity," and tries t o persuade him
The same result ( a = b ) would have been obtained t o say "Baume specific gravity," which is more cumber-
if we had taken a" BC., and b o BC., and made t h e some and further from being correct. If time in
conversions by the formula for t h e heavy scale. Conse- speaking and time and space in writing were of no
quently, in order to calculate the BaumC degrees of a importance, we might be absolutely precise and say,
mixture, i t is necessary to convert the Baume degrees for instance in using t h e light Baume scale: "The
June, 1920 T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E A’ GIN E E R I N G C H E M I S X R Y 593

oil is of a specific gravity equivalent t o 5 0 degrees information as t o t h e presence of organisms capable

Baum6.” However, this is entirely unnecessary, and of causing t h e active fermentation of certain sugars.
t h e expression, “The oil is 50 Baume gravity,” cannot T o this end i t is t h e practice t o inoculate a fermenta-
be misunderstood and is entirely justifiable. I n tion tube, of either t h e Smith or Durham type, with a
speaking of t h e “degrees gravity’’ of an oil, t h e refiner portion of t h e sample under examination, incubate
follows t h e practice of t h e brewer who speaks of t h e and await developments. While, of course, this
“degrees of gravity in a wort,” b u t happily for t h e method yields satisfactory results when proper pre-
brewer his gravity degrees are much more easily con- cautions regarding inoculation and incubation are
verted into specific gravities t h a n those of t h e re- observed, i t is believed t h a t , for rapidity and certainty,
finer. t h e modified construction of t h e t u b e pictured here
One meaning of t h e word gravity is “weight.” offers certain advantages over t h e forms commonly used.
Some refiners speak of ‘(weighing” an oil, where most,
meaning t h e same thing, call it “taking t h e gravity.”
The word gravity has done d u t y since t h e early days
for both specific gravities and for Baume degrees,
a n d its use in this way is convenient. When t h e figures
are attached there is little chance of misunderstanding
which one is meant; b u t in t h e case of oil, t h e common
expressions “higher gravity” and “lower gravity” have
directly opposite meanings, depending upon whether
t h e specific gravity or light Baume gravity is referred
to. The first time this came t o t h e writer’s attention
was when some thirty-seven years ago he heard two
oil manufacturers spend much of a n afternoon talking
at cross purposes, because when one spoke of a certain
equipment’s giving a higher or lower gravity in t h e
product, t h e speaker had in mind specific gravity,
while t h e other, who was unable t o agree with t h e
views expressed, understood Baume gravity t o be
meant. The writer then determined t h a t t o afford
himself t h e convenience of using t h e word gravity
without. being misunderstood, he would say in making
comparisons, “hemiei” or “lighter gravity,” which
would convey t h e same meaning whether applied t o
specific gravity or t o Baume degrees, and he has been
trying ever since t o persuade others t o use in such
cases t h e words “heavier” and “lighter” instead of
“higher” and “lower,” or “lower” and “higher,” b u t
with more or less lack of success.
A reprehensible expression often used in oil con-
tracts is “The oil shall be (say) 30’ gravity or better.” The bulb, instead of being symmetrical, is made
T h e meaning of t h e word “better” is obscure, as it trough shaped on its under side in order t o facilitate
depends on t h e opinion of t h e customer or a knowledge t h e falling of t h e growth t o t h e lowermost portion of t h e
of t h e use t o which t h e oil is t o be put, t o decide whether gas tube proper, with t h e results t h a t as t h e gas is
i t would be better if i t were heavier, or better if it were liberated i t rises vertically and is trapped without an
lighter. occurrence of appreciable loss through t h e bulb, as is
T o return t o t h e subject in t h e beginning of this t h e case when the Smith type is used.
subhead, i t is probable t h a t if our theoretic friends A very small quantity of fairly coarse acid-washed
wish t o do away with t h e use in t h e oil business of t h e sand introduced into t h e depression aids materially
convenient and time-honored word “gravity” as in t h e disengagement of the gas as i t is formed.
applied both t o specific gravities and Baum6 degrees, It has been found t h a t within a given time t h e
a n d t h e convenient and time-honored combination volume of gas collected in a tube of this type is about
“Baumi: gravity” as applied t o t h e latter, they will three times as great as is t h e case when t h e Smith t y p e
have t o first kill off all t h e old-timers and then at least is used, t h e inoculum being t h e same both qualita-
t h e second and third generations. tively and quantitatively.
From this fact it follows t h a t this form of t u b e
A MODIFIED FORM OB THE SMITH FERMENTATION presents t h e additional advantages of enabling t h e
TUBE bacteriologist t o secure evidence more quickly as t o
By Aubrey Vail Fuller t h e identity of t h e organism concerned by t h e cus-
SERVICE BIJREA_U,
AMERICANSUGAR REFINING COMPANY,
NEWYORK,N. Y . tomary “analysis” of t h e gas formed b y t h e soda
Received February 16, 1920 absorption method; and, further, t h a t t h e results so
It is frequently t h e case, especially in dealing with obtained will be more accurate for a given period of
commercial problems, t h a t t h e analyst desires early incubation.