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Michael Mosher · Kenneth Trantham

Brewing Science:
A Multidisciplinary
Approach
Second Edition
Brewing Science: A Multidisciplinary
Approach
Michael Mosher • Kenneth Trantham

Brewing Science:
A Multidisciplinary
Approach
Second Edition
Michael Mosher Kenneth Trantham
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry Department of Physics and Physical Science
University of Northern Colorado University of Nebraska at Kearney
Greeley, CO, USA Kearney, NE, USA

ISBN 978-3-030-73418-3    ISBN 978-3-030-73419-0 (eBook)


https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73419-0

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2017, 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface

To the Student

What do your professors do at the end of a day at college? Many, the authors
included, will enjoy a craft brew and discuss the day’s successes and opportunities
for improvement. Thus began the discussion for the beginnings of this book.
“Wouldn’t it be awesome,” we thought, “if we could highlight the science that goes
into brewing? The students would just love a brewing science class!”
And that is what you’ll find here. This text represents the topics that are taught in
our courses in the Introduction to Brewing. These courses are very popular at our
institutions. We’ve tried to write from your perspective and provide not only the
processes that you’ll encounter in the brewery, but also provide the reasons why
those processes are completed and the science behind them.
Every few pages, you’ll find CHECKPOINT boxes. These are designed to pro-
vide you with a chance to take a break and confirm that you’ve gathered the key
topics of the discussion to that point. This is also how we’ve constructed the images
that accompany the discussion. When they appear in the text, it is important to take
a break from reading and examine the figures in detail. (Some professors, the authors
included, find great quiz and test questions by looking at the figures.)
We sincerely hope that you enjoy your studies of this exciting topic. One thing
you’ll note from the start of your reading, brewing science requires an understand-
ing of a wide range of topics from biology to chemistry to physics to history to
almost every subject taught on campus. The purpose of the book is not to make you,
the student, a physical chemist or a fluids engineer, but to give you a sense of what
is possible in the brewery. And, it will provide you with an understanding behind
why things are done the way they are in the brewery. Brewing science can be very
technical, but our hope is that you find the subject just as fascinating as we do.

To the Instructor

The first incarnation of the course described by the topics in this text was directed
at the general studies level. The science discussed in that type of course is more
descriptive and general in nature. We found that the class attracted a wide range of

v
vi Preface

majors with varying interest levels. This class is still taught at the University of
Nebraska Kearney. However, we have found that the class also attracted those with
more than a passing interest in brewing and wanted to dive deeper into the rich sci-
ence that surrounds the craft brewing industry. So, we’ve included the detail that is
appropriate for those courses that do this, such as the course taught at the University
of Northern Colorado.
The text is written from a process-centric approach to uncover the principles
behind brewing science. Instead of a discussion of brewing from the perspective of
the four main ingredients (water, malt, hops, and yeast), this text is formatted and
written from the perspective of the steps taken to manufacture beer (malting, mill-
ing, mashing, boiling, etc.). The topics are focused more on the technical aspects
and design principles of brewing. As the students uncover the process of mashing,
they explore the background chemistry needed to fully develop their understanding.
As we explore wort chilling, we dive into the background in thermodynamics that
explains this process. Thus, students learn what they need to understand as they
need to know it.
We hope that this text will provide you, the instructor, with the greater detail
needed behind each of the processes in the brewery and the insight into the interre-
lationships between the individual processes. We realize that there are parts of the
book that may be mathematically challenging to a general audience. But, the lan-
guage of science is mathematics – and with practice and motivation to be success-
ful, the general audience can succeed.
Within each chapter are CHECKPOINT questions that provide key questions
that students should be able to accomplish. At the end of each chapter are questions
that expand upon these in-chapter questions. The summary section at the end of
each chapter is also helpful in directing students as they move through the text.
Finally, each chapter contains at least one laboratory experiment that can help
explain the material in the chapter. Both of the authors’ courses in this subject have
related laboratories that we’ve noted are extremely useful in developing student
interest and motivation, and providing confirmation of topics in the course.
Additional “laboratory experiments” can be obtained by modifying the laboratory
analyses found in the American Society of Brewing Chemists Methods of Analysis
resource.
It is our sincere hope that you, the instructor, find the information in this text to
be helpful to you and your students irrespective of the level of your introductory
course in brewing science. As the standalone text, or used in conjunction with hand-
outs and additional readings, the material inside should be helpful to your students.
Whether they are beginning their studies for a diploma in brewing from the Institute
of Brewing and Distilling, satisfying a general studies requirement, or reading for
interest, the student is sure to find interest in this topic.

Greeley, CO, USA Michael Mosher


Kearney, NE, USA Kenneth Trantham
Preface to the Second Edition

As our courses in brewing science have matured and expanded, we noted that the
emphasis on certain topics within the field has changed. In addition, there were
many additional topics that we wanted to add to the text. Hence, the construction of
the second edition of this text was not only recommended by our students, but also
needed by our students as they studied for exams.
There are a number of changes to the text from the first edition. These changes
focus on the addition of a new chapter on clarification and filtration techniques and
technologies, more information on food safety and best practices, and an enhanced
section on the history of brewing beer.
Along the way, we’ve added more detailed images to show cutaway views of the
equipment used in brewing. These images allow us to dive inside the different ves-
sels and see where things are located and how the processes work. Our hope is that
you, the reader, will benefit from these images and better understand how a modern
brewery works.
The CHECKPOINT boxes remain throughout the text. These boxes ask key
questions to confirm that the major points are finding their way into your toolbox as
you read each chapter. Further checks include the questions at the end of the chap-
ters. These can be used as homework questions or as jumping-off points to further
explore the major topics of each chapter. To round off each chapter, you’ll find labo-
ratory experiments that help those who prefer a hands-on approach to learning about
the subject.
As before, we hope that you find this text to be a good introduction to the field of
brewing science. The subject is very interesting and with the sheer number of differ-
ent topics (from biology to chemistry to physics to engineering) there is surely
something here for everyone.

Greeley, CO, USA Michael Mosher


Kearney, NE, USA Kenneth Trantham

vii
Contents

1 Introduction to Brewing Science����������������������������������������������������������    1


1.1 Science and the Brewer������������������������������������������������������������������    1
1.1.1 The Scientific Method��������������������������������������������������������    1
1.2 What Is Beer?����������������������������������������������������������������������������������    3
1.3 Some Common Conventions����������������������������������������������������������    4
1.3.1 Volume��������������������������������������������������������������������������������    5
1.3.2 Temperature������������������������������������������������������������������������    7
1.3.3 Weight ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   10
1.4 Yes Virginia, Beer Contains Alcohol����������������������������������������������   11
1.5 A Short History of Beer in the World ��������������������������������������������   14
1.5.1 The Very Early Years����������������������������������������������������������   14
1.5.2 Beer in Europe Before 1500 ����������������������������������������������    17
1.5.3 Colonization and the New World����������������������������������������   24
1.5.4 Beer in Post-1700 Europe ��������������������������������������������������   29
1.5.5 Beer in the Far East������������������������������������������������������������   29
1.6 Beer in the United States����������������������������������������������������������������   31
1.6.1 Beer Unites the Nation��������������������������������������������������������   31
1.6.2 Expansion Across the West ������������������������������������������������   32
1.6.3 Temperance and Prohibition ����������������������������������������������   32
1.6.4 Prohibition in the United States������������������������������������������   34
1.6.5 Post-prohibition������������������������������������������������������������������   35
1.6.6 Returning to the Home��������������������������������������������������������   36
1.7 The Current Market for Beer����������������������������������������������������������   37
Laboratory Exercises�������������������������������������������������������������������������������   44
Familiarization with Laboratory Measurements. ��������������������������������   44
Exploring the Internet��������������������������������������������������������������������������   45
2 Beer Styles����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   47
2.1 Judging Beer ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   47
2.1.1 Beer Styles��������������������������������������������������������������������������   48
2.1.2 Conforming to a Style��������������������������������������������������������   48
2.2 Parameters That Classify a Beer Style��������������������������������������������   50
2.2.1 Physical Parameters������������������������������������������������������������   50

ix
x Contents

2.3 Common Beer Styles����������������������������������������������������������������������   55


2.3.1 Lagers����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   56
2.3.2 Ales ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   59
2.3.3 Hybrids��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   63
2.4 Historical Beer Styles ��������������������������������������������������������������������   63
2.5 How to Sample and Taste Beer ������������������������������������������������������   64
2.5.1 Beer Glasses������������������������������������������������������������������������   65
2.5.2 Serving Temperature ����������������������������������������������������������   66
2.5.3 Sampling and Tasting����������������������������������������������������������   67
Laboratory Exercises�������������������������������������������������������������������������������   71
Density Measurements������������������������������������������������������������������������   71
SRM Determination ����������������������������������������������������������������������������   72
3 Molecules and Other Matters ��������������������������������������������������������������   73
3.1 The Atom����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   73
3.1.1 Compounds ������������������������������������������������������������������������   76
3.2 Laws that Govern Atoms, Molecules, and Ionic Compounds��������   80
3.3 The World of Carbon-Containing Molecules����������������������������������   84
3.3.1 Basic Functional Groups in Brewing����������������������������������   84
3.3.2 Amino Acid Polymers��������������������������������������������������������   90
3.3.3 Drawing Organic Molecules ����������������������������������������������   91
3.3.4 Naming Organic Molecules������������������������������������������������   93
3.4 Reactions of Organic Molecules ����������������������������������������������������   95
3.4.1 Oxidation and Reduction����������������������������������������������������   96
3.4.2 Condensation Reactions������������������������������������������������������   96
3.4.3 Isomerization Reactions������������������������������������������������������   97
3.4.4 Radical Reactions���������������������������������������������������������������   97
3.4.5 Maillard Reactions��������������������������������������������������������������   98
Laboratory Exercises������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 101
Building Models in 3-D ���������������������������������������������������������������������� 101
4 Overview of the Brewing Process �������������������������������������������������������� 103
4.1 Overview of the Process ���������������������������������������������������������������� 103
4.1.1 Agricultural ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 103
4.1.2 Malting�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 105
4.1.3 Milling�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 107
4.1.4 Mashing������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 108
4.1.5 Lautering and Sparging������������������������������������������������������ 111
4.1.6 Boiling�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 114
4.1.7 Fermenting�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 115
4.1.8 Maturing������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 116
4.1.9 Filtering������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 117
4.1.10 Packaging���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 118
4.2 Cleaning and Sterilizing������������������������������������������������������������������ 118
4.3 Inputs and Outputs�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 120
4.3.1 Water ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 120
4.3.2 Grains and Malts ���������������������������������������������������������������� 121
Contents xi

4.3.3 Hops������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 125


4.3.4 Yeast������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 127
4.3.5 Finished Product ���������������������������������������������������������������� 128
Laboratory Exercises������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 131
Sketch the Overview���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 131
Research on Barley������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 131
5 Malting and Water �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 133
5.1 Biology of Barley���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 133
5.1.1 The Barley Corn������������������������������������������������������������������ 134
5.1.2 Barley and the Farmer�������������������������������������������������������� 135
5.1.3 Barley Diseases and Pests�������������������������������������������������� 137
5.1.4 Sorting and Grading������������������������������������������������������������ 138
5.2 Malting Barley�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 140
5.2.1 Germination of Barley�������������������������������������������������������� 140
5.2.2 Equipment Used in Malting������������������������������������������������ 143
5.2.3 Problems Arising from Malting������������������������������������������ 148
5.3 Maillard Reactions�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 149
5.4 Water – The Most Important Ingredient����������������������������������������� 152
5.4.1 Types of Water�������������������������������������������������������������������� 152
5.4.2 What’s in the Water? ���������������������������������������������������������� 156
5.4.3 pH���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 162
Laboratory Exercises������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 166
Germination of Barley ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 166
6 Milling and Mashing������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 167
6.1 Milling�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 167
6.1.1 Purpose of Milling�������������������������������������������������������������� 167
6.1.2 Equipment Used in Milling������������������������������������������������ 168
6.2 Purpose of Mashing������������������������������������������������������������������������ 169
6.3 Equipment Used in Mashing���������������������������������������������������������� 170
6.3.1 Cereal Cookers�������������������������������������������������������������������� 171
6.3.2 Mash Mixer and Mash Kettles�������������������������������������������� 173
6.3.3 Mash Tun���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 176
6.3.4 Processes in Mashing���������������������������������������������������������� 177
6.4 Enzymes and What They Are���������������������������������������������������������� 177
6.5 Chemistry While Resting���������������������������������������������������������������� 179
6.5.1 Starch���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 179
6.5.2 Phytase�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 185
6.5.3 Proteases and Peptidases���������������������������������������������������� 186
6.5.4 Glucanase���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 187
6.5.5 Alpha-Amylase ������������������������������������������������������������������ 187
6.5.6 Beta-Amylase���������������������������������������������������������������������� 189
6.5.7 Mashout������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 190
xii Contents

6.6 Efficiency of Extraction������������������������������������������������������������������ 190


6.6.1 Efficiency Calculations ������������������������������������������������������ 191
6.6.2 Mash pH������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 192
6.6.3 Mash Thickness������������������������������������������������������������������ 193
Laboratory Exercises������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 196
The Effect of Temperature and pH on Mashing Efficiency ���������������� 196
7 Lautering and Sparging������������������������������������������������������������������������ 199
7.1 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 199
7.2 Fluid Physics: Static Case�������������������������������������������������������������� 200
7.2.1 Pressure ������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 200
7.2.2 Pascal’s Law������������������������������������������������������������������������ 201
7.3 Fluid Physics: Dynamic Case �������������������������������������������������������� 205
7.3.1 Conservation of Mass: The Continuity Equation���������������� 206
7.3.2 Bernoulli’s Principle and Laminar Flow���������������������������� 208
7.3.3 Pressure and Hydraulic Head���������������������������������������������� 211
7.3.4 Head and Pump Dynamics�������������������������������������������������� 212
7.3.5 Darcy’s Law and Laminar Flow in Porous Media�������������� 220
7.4 Equipment Used in Sparging and Lautering ���������������������������������� 230
7.4.1 Batch Sparging�������������������������������������������������������������������� 231
7.4.2 Fly Sparging������������������������������������������������������������������������ 231
7.4.3 Mash Filter�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 233
7.5 When Do We Stop Sparging?��������������������������������������������������������� 234
Laboratory Exercises������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 239
Exploring Darcy’s Law������������������������������������������������������������������������ 239
8 Wort Boiling������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 241
8.1 Why Boil the Wort?������������������������������������������������������������������������ 241
8.2 The Equipment of the Boil�������������������������������������������������������������� 244
8.2.1 Metals and Heating ������������������������������������������������������������ 245
8.2.2 Corrosion���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 249
8.2.3 Methods for Heating ���������������������������������������������������������� 250
8.2.4 Direct Fire Vessels�������������������������������������������������������������� 252
8.2.5 Calandria ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 254
8.2.6 Other Heating Systems ������������������������������������������������������ 257
8.3 Heat and Temperature �������������������������������������������������������������������� 258
8.3.1 Types of Energy������������������������������������������������������������������ 258
8.4 Heat Capacity and Heat Transfer���������������������������������������������������� 261
8.4.1 Phase Transition – Boiling�������������������������������������������������� 262
8.4.2 Power���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 263
8.5 Hops in the Boil������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 264
8.5.1 The Hop Flower Revisited�������������������������������������������������� 265
8.5.2 Hop Oil Constituents���������������������������������������������������������� 265
8.5.3 Modified Hop Oils�������������������������������������������������������������� 269
Contents xiii

Laboratory Exercises������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 273


Hop Tea and Identifying Flavors����������������������������������������������������������   273
Determination of Percent Hop Acids in Hops��������������������������������������   274
Determination of Wort Viscosity During Boil ������������������������������������   275
9 Cooling and Fermenting������������������������������������������������������������������������ 277
9.1 Setting the Stage ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 277
9.2 Wort Chilling���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 278
9.2.1 Heat Exchangers ���������������������������������������������������������������� 279
9.2.2 Multiple-Stage Heat Exchangers���������������������������������������� 286
9.3 Equipment Used in Fermentation �������������������������������������������������� 287
9.3.1 Refrigeration ���������������������������������������������������������������������� 288
9.3.2 Fermenters, CCV, and Round Squares�������������������������������� 309
9.4 Yeast������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 313
9.4.1 Yeast Morphology�������������������������������������������������������������� 315
9.4.2 Yeast Metabolism���������������������������������������������������������������� 317
9.4.3 Products of Yeast���������������������������������������������������������������� 322
Laboratory Exercises������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 325
The Effect of Sugars on Fermentation ������������������������������������������������ 325
10 Maturation and Carbonation��������������������������������������������������������������� 327
10.1 The Purpose of Maturation ���������������������������������������������������������� 327
10.1.1 Secondary Fermentation ������������������������������������������������ 328
10.1.2 Warm Maturation������������������������������������������������������������ 329
10.1.3 Cold Maturation�������������������������������������������������������������� 332
10.1.4 Other Adjustments���������������������������������������������������������� 334
10.2 Equipment Used in Maturation���������������������������������������������������� 337
10.2.1 The Cold Maturation Tank���������������������������������������������� 337
10.2.2 Cask Conditioning���������������������������������������������������������� 339
10.3 Carbonation���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 341
10.3.1 The Principles of Carbonation���������������������������������������� 341
10.3.2 Equipment Used to Carbonate���������������������������������������� 344
10.3.3 Issues with Carbonation�������������������������������������������������� 346
Laboratory Exercises������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 348
Diacetyl Determination in Beer ����������������������������������������������������������   348
Adjusting the Color������������������������������������������������������������������������������   350
11 Clarification and Filtration ������������������������������������������������������������������ 353
11.1 Introduction���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 353
11.2 Colloids and Colloidal Stability���������������������������������������������������� 354
11.2.1 What Is a Colloid?���������������������������������������������������������� 354
11.2.2 Formation of Colloids in Beer���������������������������������������� 355
11.2.3 Turbidity Measurements ������������������������������������������������ 356
11.2.4 Shelf Life������������������������������������������������������������������������ 357
11.3 Clarification���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 358
11.3.1 During Boiling���������������������������������������������������������������� 359
11.3.2 During Fermentation������������������������������������������������������ 359
xiv Contents

11.3.3 During Maturation���������������������������������������������������������� 360


11.3.4 The Centrifuge���������������������������������������������������������������� 360
11.4 Filtration���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 362
11.4.1 Principles of Filtration���������������������������������������������������� 362
11.4.2 Filtration Equipment ������������������������������������������������������ 364
11.4.3 Issues with Filtration������������������������������������������������������ 370
Laboratory Exercises������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 373
Filtration���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 373
12 Packaging������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 375
12.1 Introduction���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 375
12.2 Carbonation and Other Gases ������������������������������������������������������ 375
12.2.1 Pressure Loss in Transferring Liquids���������������������������� 375
12.2.2 Other Gases Used in “Carbonation” ������������������������������ 378
12.3 Packaging�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 381
12.3.1 Small Pack���������������������������������������������������������������������� 382
12.3.2 Large Pack���������������������������������������������������������������������� 389
12.4 Pasteurization�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 392
12.4.1 Tunnel Pasteurization������������������������������������������������������ 395
12.4.2 Flash Pasteurization�������������������������������������������������������� 396
12.4.3 Other Methods of Pasteurization������������������������������������ 398
Laboratory Exercises������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 400
Thermal Expansion of Water �������������������������������������������������������������� 400
13 Quality Assurance and Quality Control���������������������������������������������� 403
13.1 What Is Quality? �������������������������������������������������������������������������� 403
13.2 Quality Control ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 404
13.2.1 Methods in Quality Control�������������������������������������������� 405
13.3 Quality Assurance ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 407
13.3.1 Good Brewery Practice �������������������������������������������������� 409
13.3.2 Addressing Production Using 5Why and PDCA������������ 410
13.4 Addressing Product Safety������������������������������������������������������������ 412
13.4.1 FSMA������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 414
13.4.2 HACCP �������������������������������������������������������������������������� 415
13.5 Sensory Analyses�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 416
13.5.1 Types of Sensory Evaluations ���������������������������������������� 417
13.6 Safety in the Brewery�������������������������������������������������������������������� 419
13.6.1 Worker Safety ���������������������������������������������������������������� 420
Laboratory Exercises������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 424
Turbidity in Beer���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 424

Appendices������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 425

Index���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 441
Introduction to Brewing Science
1

1.1 Science and the Brewer

Master brewers know a lot about the process and the product that they make. In
most cases, they’ve spent a considerable number of years at their craft, experiment-
ing with different malts and grains, different yeasts, and different processes until
they’ve arrived at what they consider to be the perfect beer. Any courses or training
that the master brewer takes are extremely rigorous, often involving multiple months
or years of intensive study and potentially even an apprenticeship under an experi-
enced master brewer. Those years of training to master the art of brewing beer
require not only mastery of the processes and recipes, but also an understanding of
how the science behind the process results in a particular flavor or product profile.
Many brewers would agree that knowing the science of brewing is important to
the process of brewing beer. Not only does the science govern how hop oils protect
beer from minor spoilage or how barley must be sprouted before it can be used to
make beer, but the general principles used to practice science guide the brewer every
day. What principle helps a brewer make everyday decisions?

1.1.1 The Scientific Method

The scientific method is a process of thinking about problems. The method is out-
lined in Fig. 1.1. Brewers, or anyone for that matter, that use this process methodi-
cally arrive at the answer to a problem, or develop a law or theory based on
observations. This is the same way of thinking about the world around us that scien-
tists use every day. An example helps guide us to understanding the scientific method.
A brewer starts with an observation. For example, suppose they notice that a
recently brewed batch of beer has a buttered popcorn flavor. The brewer would then
develop an educated guess, called a hypothesis, which would attempt to explain the
origin or cause of the off-flavor. For example, the brewer may hypothesize that the

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M. Mosher, K. Trantham, Brewing Science: A Multidisciplinary Approach,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73419-0_1
2 1 Introduction to Brewing Science

Fig. 1.1 The scientific method. A researcher makes observations, develops a hypothesis, and then
tests the hypothesis with carefully designed experiments. This is a cyclical process that eventually
results in a proven hypothesis that can either be called a theory or a law

temperature of the water used in the process was too hot. Then, the brewer would
perform an experiment to try to eliminate that flavor, in this case by reducing the
temperature in the next batch of beer. After making more observations (tasting the
beer, running laboratory analysis of flavor components, etc.), the brewer would then
compare those results to the original hypothesis. If the observations did not fit the
original hypothesis, the brewer would modify the hypothesis and return to the brew-
ery to perform another experiment. Then, they would modify or re-create the
hypothesis and test it out in the brewery. This cyclical process would continue until
the hypothesis did not need modification after repeated experiments. The brewer
would have found the answer to the observation and know what to do if that situa-
tion ever arose again. When the hypothesis is confirmed in such a manner, the
hypothesis is elevated to become a law or a theory.
A law is a tested and proven hypothesis that explains the initial problem. Laws
do not explain why the problem occurs, but simply what happens. In our previous
example, the brewer may eventually discover after multiple experiments that when
the serving tap for the beer is cleaned immediately before use, the off-flavor disap-
pears. The brewer’s hypothesis would then become a law: Cleaning the beer tap
removes the buttered popcorn flavor in the beer.
A theory, on the other hand, is a tested and proven hypothesis that explains why
something happens. Theories are the most definitive statements that can be made.
They are not just statements that identify the outcome of a particular step in the
brewery. They predict the outcome by providing a detailed explanation of why that
outcome occurs at any level of observation. To a brewer, and any scientist, a theory
is the best statement that one can have about a process. Let’s say, for example, the
brewer does experimentation that shows bacteria in the tap line cause the buttery
flavor in the beer. The hypothesis then becomes a theory: Because there are bacteria
Other documents randomly have
different content
The Sabbath day, that is, the day of rest, is to be kept holy. In two
ways it should differ from other days; it is to be a day of rest and also
a holy day. We keep it as a day of rest by not doing on it any kind of
work; we keep it as a holy day by devoting the greater part of it,
since we are free from our ordinary occupation, to prayer and to
reading the Bible.

We are thankful to God for having commanded us to keep the


Sabbath, and give expression to our feeling of gratitude in our
prayers, especially at the beginning and the end of the Sabbath;
thus, on Friday evening, before the meal, we praise God for
sanctifying the Sabbath by a prayer called Kiddush, “sanctification,”
and on Sabbath evening, after the close of the Sabbath, we recite
the Habhdalah, in which God is praised for the distinction made
between Sabbath and the six week-days. [255]

The Israelites were told to remember the Sabbath day; that is, the
well-known day of rest, the same day which was instituted as a day
of rest in connection with the manna. On five days they collected one
omer of the manna, on the sixth day two omers for each person; on
the seventh day no manna was collected nor was any found, and the
Israelites were commanded to bake and to cook on the sixth day not
only for the sixth day, but also for the seventh, on which day baking
and cooking was not to be done. This same seventh day we are told
in the fourth commandment to remember to keep holy, that we
should not forget it, or choose another day instead of it. It is the
same seventh day on which God rested after the six days of the
Creation, and which “he blessed and sanctified.”

It is to be a day of rest not only for ourselves; we must not have work
done for us by our children, or by our servants, or by strangers; even
our cattle must rest. After six days of work we enjoy the blessing of
one day’s rest, and are rendered more fit to work another six days.
The harder we work on six days, the more welcome is the rest of the
seventh day to us. When Moses repeated the commandments, he
laid special stress on the rest of the servants, reminding the
Israelites that they themselves had once been slaves, and must
therefore recognise the necessity of granting a day of rest to their
servants.

It is not to be a day of mere idleness. Complete idleness leads to evil


thoughts and evil deeds. Whilst our body rests our mind should be
occupied with holy [256]thoughts; we should commune with God,
reflect on His works, learn from them the power, wisdom, and
goodness of God, study the Word of God, listen to the instruction of
our teachers and preachers, and altogether try to raise ourselves
into a loftier sphere.

On the day of rest we reflect on the works of God, on the work of


Creation which He completed in six days, and thus by keeping the
Sabbath we testify to our belief in God as the Creator of the
Universe. On this account it is that the Creation is referred to in this
commandment as the reason why rest was enjoined for the seventh
day. “For in six days,” &c.

“Therefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath day;” the rest on the
seventh day is a blessing to those who have worked hard during the
preceding six days; it is a blessing to those who spend the Sabbath
in a proper manner. “And he hallowed it” by giving man an
opportunity to sanctify himself by more frequent communion with the
Most Holy.

The fourth commandment tells us—

To remember
(1.) to keep the same day as Sabbath which
has been set apart as such from the beginning.
To abstain
(2.) on that day from all kind of work.
To devote
(3.) part of the day to our sanctification.

Fifth Commandment.

“Honour thy father and thy mother: that thy days may be long upon
the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee.”

The strongest desire that animates a father and a mother is to see


their children good and happy. [257]From the first day of their
existence children are guarded by the watchful eyes of their parents
that no evil may befall them. How delighted are father and mother
when they notice the progress of their child in health and strength, in
heart and soul! What an amount of trouble and anxiety parents
undergo when they see their child suffering! No sacrifice is too great
for them so long as it ensures the child’s well-being. It is painful to
them to be compelled to deny their child anything, or to rebuke or to
punish it. To this they are impelled only by the anxiety for the welfare
of the child. The mutual affection between parent and child is one
which nature has implanted. Without it the home would be the
dwelling of misery and misfortune; with it comfort and happiness
flourish therein. The loving parents have pleasure in whatever they
do for the benefit of the child, and the affectionate child is delighted
with the goodness of its parents.

“Honour thy father and thy mother,” says the Almighty to us. How
does a child honour father and mother? In the eyes of the child
father and mother must be the king and the queen of the house,
however small that may be. Every word that comes from their mouth,
every desire that they express, must be regarded as of the greatest
importance, and be well remembered by the child. When the king or
the queen speaks, all present stand and listen respectfully; their
words are read by every one with the greatest interest. So it must be
with the words of our parents. Whenever they tell us to do or not to
do a thing, obedience is a blessing to us; disobedience is the chief
cause of all misery and trouble. We feel pleasure and honour in
[258]being able to do something that gratifies our parents, and we like
to give them at times some material token of our affection. The best
present we can give them is a good heart, sincere love that prompts
us to avoid everything that would grieve them, and to do everything
we can to give them pleasure and to make them happy.

This is one of the few laws the reward of which is distinctly stated,
“That thy days may be long upon the land, which the Lord thy God
giveth thee.” We can easily understand the good effect of keeping
the fifth commandment. Pleasure and contentment contribute a good
deal to the health and well-being of man, whilst anger, trouble, and
dissatisfaction produce ill-health and weakness. The mutual affection
between parent and child is therefore the cause that the days of both
the parents and the children are prolonged, and the harmony and
happiness of the house firmly established. The blessing attending
children’s obedience and love towards their parents does not end
here. The whole State consists of small homes and families, and the
greater the well-being of the individual homes, the greater is the well-
being of the whole country. Thus the child by acting in accordance
with this Divine commandment contributes its share towards the
prosperity of the whole country.

When our parents are not present, we should, out of love towards
them, obey those who take their place, as, e.g., our elder brothers or
sisters, our guardians, and our teachers, since all these only do what
the parents would themselves like to do were the opportunity granted
them.
We are bound to honour our parents not only so [259]long as we are
under their care and live in their house, but also when we have left
our parents’ home, and have become independent. Even when they
have become old, weak, and poor, and we support them, we must
not forget the natural relation between parent and child, and the
honour due to parents from their children must still be shown to
them. When they have departed from this life, and we are no longer
able to show our feeling of love and respect in the usual way, we
must honour their name and memory, and hold in respect the wishes
and commands which they expressed when still alive. Death is no
bar to true love and sincere affection.

Thus we obey the fifth commandment—

By listening
(1.) respectfully to the words of our parents and
obeying what they say.
By doing
(2.) that which pleases them, and avoiding that
which would displease them.
By supporting
(3.) them when they are weak and poor by all
our best exertion and with genuine pleasure.
By honouring
(4.) their name and memory after their death.
By being
(5.) obedient to our elder brothers or sisters, to our
guardians, and to our teachers.

Sixth Commandment.

“Thou shalt not murder.”

Murder is a most terrible thing; we shudder at the sound of the word,


even at the mere idea of it. We wonder how it is possible that a
person should be so wicked, so cruel, and so unnatural as to take
the [260]life of another human being! One who can do such a thing
must have lost all human feeling, and is rather a brute than a being
created in the image of God. But, unfortunately, there have been and
there are such wicked people. We read in the Bible that a dispute
arose between the two sons of Adam, and the one, Cain, slew the
other, Abel. He repented it, but he could not restore to his brother the
life which he had taken. The severest punishment is therefore
inflicted on those who have committed this crime.

This commandment and those which follow it have their root in the
principle, “Love thy fellow-man as thyself,” applied to the life (sixth
commandment), the home (seventh commandment), the property
(eighth commandment), and the honour of our fellow-man (ninth
commandment). We wish to enjoy life as long as possible; it must
therefore be our desire to see our fellow-man enjoy the longest
possible life. But we must not rest satisfied with the mere desire. An
earnest desire is followed by acts dictated by it. We must try our
utmost, even as we do with regard to ourselves, to preserve the life
of our fellow-man. We have, e.g., seen before how by obeying the
fifth commandment we lengthen not only our own life, but also that of
our parents, whilst by breaking this law we shorten their life as well
as our own.

By supporting the poor and nursing the sick we may be the means of
increasing a human life by many days or even years, whilst by
neglecting the duty of charity we neglect to save the life of our fellow-
man when it is in our power to do so.—Another instance of criminal
neglect it would be if a person saw another [261]in actual danger of
life, and did not try everything in his power to save him.

Without having directly broken the sixth commandment, without


having taken the life of our neighbour by violence, we may still be
guilty of having shortened his life and caused his untimely death.
Talebearers and slanderers, e.g., often undermine the peace and
happiness of an individual, and even of a whole family, and sow the
seed of misery and ruin where well-being and prosperity seemed
well established.

The sixth commandment enjoins that we should respect the life of


our fellow-man, and forbids us therefore—

To take
(1.) it by violent means.
To do
(2.)anything by which the peace and well-being of our
fellow-man might be undermined.
To neglect
(3.) anything in our power to save our neighbour
from direct or indirect danger of life.

Seventh Commandment.

“Thou shalt not commit adultery.”

The institution of marriage is of very ancient date. When Eve had


been formed out of the rib of Adam, and was brought to him, he
exclaimed, “She is bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh,” and the
account of the first marriage concludes thus: “Therefore man shall
leave his father and his mother and cleave unto his wife, and they
shall be one flesh” (Gen. ii. 24). Every married couple, husband and
wife, bind themselves by a solemn promise to be true and faithful to
each other, to remain throughout life united in love [262]and affection,
and to establish a home founded on purity and sanctity. Adultery is
the breaking of this promise. That love and affection which unites
man and wife cannot be shared by a third person without involving a
breach of the seventh commandment.

Jewish homes have always been distinguished by sanctity and


purity. In order to retain this distinction it is necessary that we should
be trained in this virtue from our childhood. Our language must be
pure and holy; unclean and indecent expressions must never be
uttered in our homes, either by the old or by the young. The purer
our speech is, the more sanctified will our heart be. Bad society often
corrupts the heart of the young through bad example in words and
conduct. It is therefore essential that immoral persons should not
come in contact with our children; that everything that is contrary to
the virtue of modesty (‫‏צניעות‬‎) should be rigorously excluded from
Jewish homes.

The seventh commandment forbids:—

Faithlessness
(1.) of a man to his wife, or a woman to her
husband.
The(2.)
use of improper and indecent language.
Immodest
(3.) conduct.
Associating
(4.) with immoral persons.

Eighth Commandment.

“Thou shalt not steal.”

We do not like that any one should take a part of our property
without our knowledge or consent. An old saying of the Rabbis
teaches: “Let the property [263]of thy neighbour be as dear in thy
eyes as thine own” (Aboth ii. 12); that is to say, as you do not wish a
diminution or destruction of what is yours, so you must not cause a
diminution or destruction of what belongs to your neighbour.

By secretly taking anything for ourselves that does not belong to us,
we steal, and break the eighth commandment.
This commandment has also a wider sense, and forbids every illegal
acquisition of property, whether it be directly by theft or robbery, or by
cheating, by embezzlement or forgery. Property acquired by any of
these or similar means may be considered as stolen property, and is
by no means a blessing to him who possesses it. Even if human
justice does not reach the evil-doer, he is watched by an All-seeing
Eye, and will in due time receive his full punishment.

This commandment prohibits:—

Theft
(1.)and robbery.
All kinds
(2.) of fraud and dishonesty.

Ninth Commandment.

“Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour.”

It gives us pain to hear that others speak ill of us. “Let the honour of
thy neighbour be as dear to thee as thine own” (Aboth ii. 10). We
must therefore not speak ill of our neighbour. But it is not only the
speaking ill of others that this commandment forbids; we must not
say of our fellow-man anything that is not true. If we are called as a
witness in a [264]court of justice, we must be most careful that every
word we utter be perfectly true. We must weigh our words well and
guard ourselves against stating as facts things about which we are
not quite certain. If we are careless we may become false witnesses,
and may even be guilty of perjury.

The consequences of false evidence are of a very grave nature; it


misleads the judge, perverts justice, ruins innocent people; and the
false witness himself—whether he sinned with intention or by
carelessness—will not escape punishment.
God declared through the mouth of the prophet Zechariah (v. 4): “I
will bring forth the curse, saith the Lord of hosts, and it shall enter
into the house of the thief and into the house of him that sweareth
falsely by my name; and it shall remain in the midst of his house, and
shall consume it, with the timber thereof and the stones thereof.”

In order to guard ourselves against the possibility of such a crime,


we must train ourselves in speaking the exact truth in everything,
however trifling it may appear to us. Even in their play children must
be careful in what they utter. Idle talk, gossip, frequently leads us to
speak of our neighbours what is not in harmony with facts. Though
we may believe it to be harmless and to have no evil consequence, it
has in reality very pernicious results; for we get into the habit of
being careless about our words, and of ignoring the line that parts
truth from falsehood, and when we have then to speak on more
important things, or even in a court of justice, we may prove
ourselves equally careless. There is a proverb (Prov. xix. 5): [265]“A
faithful witness is he who doth not lie, but he who uttereth lies will be
a false witness;” i.e., the conduct of a witness with regard to truth in
ordinary and less important utterances is a test of his trustworthiness
in more important matters.

The ninth commandment—

Forbids
(1.) us to give false evidence; and
To utter
(2.) an untruth of any kind whatever.
It commands
(3.) us to be careful in our utterances.

Tenth Commandment.

“Thou shalt not covet thy neighbours house; thou shalt not covet thy
neighbour’s wife, nor his man-servant, nor his maid-servant, nor his
ox, nor his ass, nor any thing that is thy neighbour’s.”

The coveting which the tenth commandment forbids is the root from
which the crimes forbidden in the four preceding commandments
spring. Coveting is a desire to possess what we cannot get in an
honest and legal manner. An instance of such coveting is the desire
of Ahab to possess the vineyard of Naboth. It must have been more
than an ordinary desire, for it led him to most wicked acts (1 Kings
xxi.).

It is not every desire that is prohibited. If we see a thing that pleases


us, we begin to feel a desire for its possession. Our reason must
then step in and tell us whether we can obtain it in an honest way or
not. In the latter case we must conquer our desire and suppress it,
lest it obtain the mastery over us.

We must work and try to make progress. We cannot be blamed if we


are not quite content with our [266]present condition, and wish to
improve it. Without such a desire all industry and progress would
disappear. But we must consider that the improvement of our
material condition, the increase of our property, is not the whole
mission of man. We must not forget that we have a higher mission:
to improve our heart and our moral conduct, and to make ourselves
worthy of being called “the children of God.” The increase of our
property must not impede the progress of the purity and goodness of
our heart.

The tenth commandment—

Forbids
(1.) us to covet that which does not belong to us; and
Commands
(2.) us to suppress any such desire when it rises
in our heart.
Note 1.—There is another way of enumerating the Ten Commandments, namely,
to combine the first and the second into one, and to divide the tenth into two. The
Masoretic text seems to point in this direction; for there is no pause between the
first and the second commandments, while there is one in the middle of the tenth.
The inference from the Masoretic text, however, is not quite certain. It is possible
that the first two commandments were joined closely together in order to separate
more pointedly those commandments in which God speaks of Himself in the first
person from those in which He speaks of Himself in the third person; or, to use the
words of the Midrash, to separate the first two, which the Israelites heard directly
from God, from the rest, which they heard through Moses. The last commandment
was, on account of its great importance, given in two different forms. In the first the
general term “house” is employed; in the second the various elements constituting
the “house” are enumerated instead. The two forms of the commandment are
separated by the [267]sign of a pause, because each of them is complete in itself.
Tradition supports our division of the Decalogue. “I am” (‫‏אנכי‬‎) and “Thou shalt not
have” (‫‏לא יהיה לך‬‎) are mentioned in Talmud and Midrash, also in Targum, as two
distinct commandments. According to Philo (On the Ten Comm.) and Josephus
(Antiq. III. v. 5), the verse, “Thou shalt have … before me” belongs to the first
commandment.

The text of the Decalogue, as repeated by Moses in the plain of Moab (Deut. v. 6–
8), differs from the original (Exod. xx. 2–14). One of the differences, the first word
of the fourth commandment—‫‏זכור‬‎, “Remember,” in Exodus, and ‫‏שמור‬‎, “Observe,”
in Deuteronomy—is pointed out in Midrash and Talmud, and also in the hymn for
the Eve of Sabbath, beginning, “Come, my friend” (‫‏לכה דודי‬‎). Tradition explains the
first expression as referring to affirmative commandments, and the second to
prohibitions; it further teaches that “both expressions were spoken by God
simultaneously;” that is to say, the fourth commandment in Deuteronomy, though
different in form, does not imply anything that has not been revealed by God on
Mount Sinai. The same applies to all points of difference.

Why did Moses introduce the alterations? Ibn Ezra, in his Commentary on the
Decalogue, is of opinion that the question need not be asked, or answered if
asked, because in the repetition of a Divine message the original words may be
changed so long as the sense remains intact. But the addition of the phrase, “as
the Lord thy God commandeth thee” in two cases, and the reference to the
deliverance from Egyptian servitude, substituted (in Deut.) in the fourth
commandment for the reference to the Creation (in Exod.), lead us to think that the
changes were not introduced unintentionally or without any purpose. The repeated
Decalogue is a portion of an address in which Moses exhorted a new generation in
the plains of Moab to obey the Divine Law. It is, therefore, not unlikely that he
made additions [268]and alterations for the sake of emphasis, where he noticed a
certain laxity among those whom he addressed. Having come in contact with
heathen nations and observed their rites in connection with their sacred days, the
Israelites may have been inclined to imitate them; they were therefore exhorted to
sanctify the Sabbath in the way God commanded; hence also the more emphatic
“Observe,” ‫‏שמור‬‎.—A similar reason may have caused the addition of the same
phrase, “as the Lord, &c.,” to the fifth commandment. The participation of a portion
of the Israelites in the licentious feasts of the Moabites and Midianites disturbed
the peace of their homes and loosened the sacred family tie. Moses therefore
points to the Divine origin of the law commanding obedience to parents, and also
emphasises the blessings which it will yield by adding the words, “and in order that
it may be well with thee.”—The change of circumstances has also caused another
alteration in the fourth commandment. During the forty years which the Israelites
were compelled to spend in the wilderness, they almost forgot the condition of their
former servitude; the new generation did not know it at all, and they grudged their
slaves the one day of rest in the week. They were therefore reminded of their
servitude in Egypt, and were asked to remember it in order that they might, out of
gratitude to the Almighty, keep the Sabbath as He commanded them.

Another indication that changed circumstances caused the alterations is noticed in


the tenth commandment. Having arrived at the border of Palestine, the Israelites
were about to take possession of houses and fields, and two and a half tribes were
already in possession of landed property. The term “house” (‫‏בית‬‎), which at first
denoted “the home” or “the household,” including the wife, was now in the minds of
the people chiefly “a permanent building.” “The wife,” the centre and the chief
element in the home, was therefore substituted for “the house” in the first part of
[269]the commandment, and vice versâ, “the house” for “the wife” in the second
part, where appropriately “nor his field” has been added.—The substitution of
“Thou shalt not desire” (‫‏לא תתאוה‬‎) for the original “Thou shalt not covet” (‫‏לא תחמוד‬‎)
may have been intended to teach the Israelites that all kinds and degrees of desire
were forbidden, and to remind them of the consequences of desire which they had
experienced at “the graves of the desire” (‫‏קברות התאוה‬‎Num. xi.).—One more
important alteration is to be noticed, the conjunctive “and” (‫ְו‬‎)‫ ‏‬before the seventh
and the following commandments, which served to create in the minds of the
hearers the idea that the crimes forbidden in the second part of the Decalogue are
to some extent connected, and that he who broke one of these commandments
was likely to break the others also. We are thus bidden to be on our guard, and to
take good care that none of them be violated by us.
Note 2.—Ibn Ezra, in his Commentary on Exodus xx. 9, says: “Rabbi Jehudah ha-
levi asked me why it is said in the Decalogue, ‘who brought thee out of the land of
Egypt, out of the house of bondage,’ and not ‘who created heaven and earth.’ My
answer was as follows: Know that those who believe in God have not all the same
kind of faith. Some believe because they were told of His existence by others;
those who believe in God because the holy Torah teaches this belief possess a
higher degree of faith. If an unbeliever argues with either of these, they are not
able to refute his argument. Those, however, who study sciences—Astronomy,
Botany, Zoology, and Anthropology—learn to understand the works and the ways
of God, and from these the Creator Himself. The words ‘I am the Lord thy God’ can
only be understood by the wise and intelligent of all nations. For they all see that
God has made heaven and earth. But there is this difference: the Israelites believe
that the Creation has taken place five thousand years ago: non-Israelites assume
that God has been continually creating [270]from eternity. Now, God wrought signs
and wonders in Egypt by which He delivered the Israelites out of Egypt, and thus
showed them His Divine justice and goodness. In reference to these miracles it is
said, ‘Thou hast been shown to know that the Lord is God;’ all Israelites, wise and
simple, equally witnessed His miracles. The beginning of the Decalogue, therefore,
‘I am the Lord thy God,’ is well understood by the wise; but for the rest of the
nation the words ‘who brought thee out,’ &c., have been added, in order that all
without exception should understand it.”

Note 3.—Don Isaac Abarbanel, in his Commentary on Exodus xx., says: “The Ten
Commandments are distinguished from the other Divine precepts in three things:
they were directly communicated by God to the Israelites, not through a prophet;
they were revealed to a whole nation at once; and they were written on the two
tables of stone by the finger of God. Such distinction necessarily indicates a
greater intrinsic value of the Ten Commandments. My opinion is therefore that they
are laws of a general character, and principles including all the 613 precepts which
the Holy One, blessed be He, gave to His people. E.g., love and worship of God.
sanctification of His Name, submission to His judgment, fear of God, reverence of
His sanctuary, and other duties towards God; Passover, Tabernacles, Tefillin,
Mezuzah, and such other precepts as are ‘a memorial of the departure from
Egypt;’ the separation of the first-born, tithes, &c.—all these duties are implied in
the first commandment. Also Rabbi Levi ben Gershon and the Gaon Saadiah
assume that all the 613 precepts are implicitly contained in the Decalogue.
Although all precepts involving practice (‫‏מצוות מעשיות‬‎) are implied in the
Decalogue, and even allusions to each one of the thirteen principles of faith may
be discovered in it, there is no precept concerning our faith. It has already been
proved by Rabbi Chisdai that by the Divine commands we are either [271]told to do
a certain thing, or told not to do a certain thing; but what we have to believe or not
to believe the Almighty taught us through signs, wonders, and revelation. The
words ‘I am the Lord thy God, who brought thee out of the land of Egypt, out of the
house of bondage,’ teach a certain truth, a principle from which many of the 613
precepts may be derived, but which is in itself no commandment.—The Decalogue
(‫‏עשרת הדברים‬‎) must therefore not be understood as designating ten
commandments, but ‘ten words’ or ‘ten paragraphs’ indicated in the Hebrew text
by the pauses, or spaces left between two paragraphs.

“The ‘ten words’ were written on two tables, five on each. The first five, containing
positive and negative precepts, with the announcement of reward and punishment,
were exclusively addressed to the Israelites. The latter five are simple prohibitions
without any mention of punishment; because they were addressed to man as man,
and include only such laws as are also suggested to him by human reason,
without direct revelation.”

Rabbi R. S. Hirsch, in his Commentary on Exodus xx., says in reference to the first
commandment: “As this verse is not understood as a mere declaration, but as a
commandment (‫‏מצוה‬‎), it does not say ‘I am thy God,’ but ‘I, the Lord, shall be thy
God,’ and thus contains as the foundation of all our duties towards God an
exhortation to acknowledge the sovereignty of God, ‫‏קבלת עול מלכות שמים‬‎.

“The so-called ‘belief in the existence of God,’ as ancient and modern theologians
generally express this idea, differs widely from that which underlies this
fundamental doctrine of Judaism. The truth which affords me the foundation of a
Jewish life is not the belief that there is a God, or that there is only one God, but
the conviction that this One, Only, and true God is my God; that He has created
and formed me, has placed me here, and given me certain duties; that He
constantly makes and forms me, preserves, protects, [272]directs, and guides me;
not the belief that I, an accidental product of the Universe whose First Cause He
was millions of years ago, am through a chain of thousands of intervening beings
related to Him, but the belief that every moment of my existence is a direct
personal gift from the Almighty and All-good, and that every moment of my life
ought to be spent in His service; not the knowledge that there is a God, but the
recognition of God as my God, as the sole Cause of my fate, and my sole Guide in
all that I do, gives me the foundation for my religious life. The response to the
exhortation, ‘I shall be thy God,’ is ‘Thou art my God.’ ”

Note 4.—The importance attached to the Decalogue may be gathered from the
various attempts made, on the one hand, to classify the Divine laws according to
the Ten Commandments, showing that the latter contain all the 613 precepts; and,
on the other hand, to find in such important passages as the Shema and Leviticus
xix. a parallel for each of the Ten Commandments. (Jerus. Talm. Ber., chap. i.;
Rabboth, Vayyikra ad locum.)
[Contents]

II. General Moral Principles.

The Ten Commandments, flowing as it were from the one source, “I


am the Lord thy God,” branch off in all directions, and penetrate all
man’s relations, guide him in his conduct towards God, towards his
fellow-men and towards himself, and teach him how to rule his
thought, his speech, and his actions. When the Almighty proclaims to
us, “I am the Lord thy God,” we willingly respond, “Thou art my God.”
But this declaration involves also duties on our part, the fulfilment of
which is the natural consequence and the verification of our
response. If our words, “Thou [273]art my God,” come from our
hearts, and are not empty sounds, uttered merely by the lips, we
must be conscious of the duties they impose on us. These are:—

Duties
A. towards God, as our Master, Creator, and Father.
Duties
B. towards our fellow-men, as children of one God.
Duties
C. towards ourselves, as the object of God’s
Providence.

A. Duties towards God.

(a.) Duties of the Heart.


1. Fear of God. ‫‏יראת השם‬‎—The true knowledge of God, of His
Wisdom and Greatness, as visible in His works, leads us to fear
God; that is, to fear doing anything that might displease Him and
make us unworthy of His love. It is not a fear that terrifies us and
drives us away from His presence; on the contrary, it draws us
nearer to Him, and causes us to try to become more and more
worthy of His love.

“And now, O Israel, what doth the Lord thy God require of thee but to
fear the Lord thy God?” (Deut. x. 12).

“If thou wilt not observe to do all the words of this law that are written
in this book, that thou mayest fear this name which is to be honoured
and revered, the Lord thy God; then the Lord will make thy plagues
wonderful” (Deut. xxviii. 58).

“The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge” (Prov. i. 7). [274]

“The beginning of wisdom is the fear of the Lord” (Ps. cxi. 10).

“The fear of the Lord is to hate evil” (Prov. viii. 13).

“The fear of the Lord prolongeth days” (Prov. x. 27).

“Fear God, and keep his commandments; for this is the whole duty
of man” (Eccles. xii. 13).

“He who possesses learning but is without fear of God, resembles a


treasurer who has the key for the inner door, but not for the outer
one” (Babyl. Talm. Sabb. 31b).

“Everything is in the hand of God except the fear of God” (Babyl.


Talm. Ber. 33b). 3
2. Love of God. ‫‏אהבת השם‬‎—The true fear of God is associated with
the love of God. The latter means the constant longing for
communion with Him, feeling happy and joyful when with Him, but
unhappy and miserable when without Him. Love of God creates in us
an anxiety to do everything in our power that might please the
Almighty. He who is filled with love of God is ‫‏חסיד‬‎, pious; he does not
rest content with doing what he is commanded, but anxiously seeks
the opportunity of fulfilling a Divine command; he is ‫‏רודף אחר המצות‬‎,
“eager in the pursuit of Mitsvoth.” The fear of God is the beginning of
knowledge, but love of God is the aim and end of all our religious
thinking and striving.

“Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thine heart, and with all thy
soul, and with all thy might” (Deut. vi. 5). [275]

“The Lord preserveth all those who love him (Ps. cxlv. 20).

“Thou wilt show me the path of life. In thy presence is fulness of joy;
in thy right hand there are pleasures for evermore” (Ps. xvi. 11).

“As the hart panteth after the water brooks, so panteth my soul after
thee, O God” (Ps. xlii. 2).

“Blessed are they who dwell in thy house: they will be still praising
thee” (Ps. lxxxiv. 5).

“The desire of our soul is to thy name, and to the remembrance of


thee” (Isa. xxvi. 8).

“I will rejoice in the Lord; I will joy in the God of my salvation” (Hab.
iii. 18).

3. Gratitude towards God.—All that we possess, the very breath we


breathe, is a present received at the hands of the Almighty.
Whatever success we desire to achieve, whatever undertaking we
desire to accomplish, we must ourselves first strive for it to the
utmost of our power, and this done, we may hope for the Divine
blessing. When we have attained what we sought, we are warned
against believing that “our power and the strength of our hand hath
gotten us this wealth.” We are to “remember the Lord our God, for it
is he that giveth us power to get wealth” (Deut. viii. 17–18).

“For all things come of thee, and of thine own hand have we given
thee” (1 Chron. xxix. 14).

“Whoso offereth the sacrifice of thanksgiving glorifieth me” (Ps. l.


23).

“Though all sacrifices should cease, the sacrifice of thanksgiving will


never cease” (Vayyikra Rabba ix.).

4. Reverence for His Name.—The more we fear and love God, the
deeper and the more intense is our feeling [276]of reverence for
everything which is connected in our thoughts with the name of the
Almighty. Whenever we enter a place dedicated to His worship, or
open the Book that bears His name, or celebrate the days set apart
as “seasons of the Lord,” this feeling of reverence overcomes us,
and finds expression in our conduct. The reverence for the name of
God impels us also to respect ministers and teachers who spend
their life in spreading the knowledge of God and His Will.

“How awful is this place! this is none other but the house of God”
(Gen. xxviii. 17).

“I will come into thy house in the multitude of thy mercy: and in thy
fear will I worship toward thy holy temple” (Ps. v. 8).

“When I will publish the name of the Lord, ascribe ye greatness unto
our God” (Deut. xxxii. 3).

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