Ch 10 – Wave Optics

Wavefront:
It is defined as the continuous locus of all such particles of the medium which are vibrating in
the same phase at any instant.

Different types of wavefront:

Spherical Wavefront Cylindrical Wavefront Plane Wavefront

Note:

Huygen’s Postulates of Wave Theory:

Now, according to Huygens principle,
1. Each point of the wavefront is the source of a secondary disturbance and the wavelets
emanating from these points spread out in all directions with the speed of the wave.
2. These wavelets emanating from the wavefront are usually referred to as secondary
wavelets and
3. If we draw a common tangent to all these spheres, we obtain the new position of the
wavefront at a later time.
Huygen’s Geometrical Construction:
(a) Propagation of Spherical Wavefront:
If we know the shape of the wavefront at t = 0, then Huygens principle allows us to determine
the shape of the wavefront at a later time τ. Thus, Huygens principle is essentially a geometrical
construction.

➢ Let us consider a diverging wave and let F1F2 represent a portion of the spherical
wavefront at t = 0

➢ Thus, if we wish to determine the shape of the wavefront at t = τ, we draw spheres of

radius vτ from each point on the spherical wavefront where v represents the speed of the
waves in the medium.
➢ If we now draw a common tangent to all these spheres, we obtain the new position of
the wavefront at t = τ.
➢ The new wavefront shown as G1G2 in Fig. is again spherical with point O as the centre.
(b) Propagation of Plane Wavefront:

➢ Huygens geometrical construction for a plane wave propagating to the right.

➢ F1 F2 is the plane wavefront at t = 0.

➢ To find the new wavefront, draw spheres of radii vτ and draw a common tangent. G1G2 is the
wavefront at a later time τ.

➢ The lines A1A2, B1B2 … etc, are normal to both F1F2 and G1G2 and represent rays.

Note 1: Rays are always normal to wavefronts.

Note 2: No backward wavefront is possible. There cannot be backward flow of energy during
the propagation of a wave.
Laws of Reflection on the basis of Huygen’s wave theory:

➢ We consider a plane wave AB incident at an angle i on a reflecting surface MN.

➢ If v represents the speed of the wave in the medium and if τ represents the time taken by the
wavefront to advance from the point B to C then the distance BC = v τ

➢ In order the construct the reflected wavefront we draw a sphere of radius vτ from the point A as
shown in Fig.
➢ Let CE represent the tangent plane drawn from the point C to this sphere. Obviously
AE = BC = v τ

➢ If we now consider the triangles EAC and BAC we will find that they are congruent and
therefore, the angles i and r (as shown in Fig.) would be equal. This proves the first law of
reflection.

➢ Further, the incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray all lie in the same plane. This proves
the second law of reflection.

Laws of Refraction on the basis of Huygen’s wave theory:

➢ Let PP′ represent the surface separating medium 1 and medium 2, as shown in Fig.
➢ Let v1 and v2 represent the speed of light in medium 1 and medium 2, respectively.

➢ We assume a plane wavefront AB propagating in the direction A′A incident on the interface at
an angle i. Let τ be the time taken by the wavefront to travel the distance BC. Thus, BC = v1 τ

➢ In order to determine the shape of the refracted wavefront, we draw a sphere of radius v2τ from
the point A in the second medium (the speed of the wave in the second medium is v2).

➢ Let CE represent a tangent plane drawn from the point C on to the sphere. Then, AE = v2 τ and
CE would represent the refracted wavefront.
➢ If we now consider the triangles ABC and AEC, we readily obtain
𝐵𝐶 𝑣1 𝜏
sin i = = --------- (1)
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶

𝐴𝐸 𝑣2 𝜏
and sin r = = --------- (2)
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
where i and r are the angles of incidence and refraction, respectively.
➢ Thus we obtain
sin 𝑖 𝑣1
= --------- (3)
sin 𝑟 𝑣2
➢ From the above equation, we get the important result that if r < i (i.e., if the ray bends toward
the normal), the speed of the light wave in the second medium (v2) will be less than the speed
of the light wave in the first medium (v1). This prediction is opposite to the prediction from the
corpuscular model of light and as later experiments showed, the prediction of the wave theory
is correct.
➢ Now, if c represents the speed of light in vacuum, then,
𝑐
n1 =
𝑣1
𝑐
and n2 =
𝑣2
where n1 and n2 are known as the refractive indices of medium 1 and medium 2, respectively.
➢ In terms of the refractive indices, eqn. (3) can be written as
sin 𝑖 𝑛2
=
sin 𝑟 𝑛1
n1 sin i = n2 sin r
This is the Snell’s law of refraction.

➢ Note 1: If λ1 and λ2 denote the wavelengths of light in medium 1 and medium 2, respectively
and if the distance BC is equal to λ1 then the distance AE will be equal to λ2
(because if the crest from B has reached C in time τ, then the crest from A should have also
reached E in time τ ); thus,
𝜆1 𝐵𝐶 𝑣1
= =
𝜆2 𝐴𝐸 𝑣2

or
𝑣1 𝑣2
=
𝜆1 𝜆2

➢ The above equation implies that when a wave gets refracted into a denser medium (v1 > v2) the
wavelength and the speed of propagation decrease but the frequency ν (= v/λ) remains the
same.

➢ Note 2: Refraction at a rarer medium

• We now consider refraction of a plane wave at a rarer medium, i.e., v2 > v1.
• Proceeding in an exactly similar manner we can construct a refracted wavefront.
• The angle of refraction will now be greater than angle of incidence; however, we will still
have n1 sin i = n2 sin r.
 • We define an angle ic by the following equation
𝑛2
sin ic =
𝑛1
• Thus, if i = ic then sin r = 1 and r = 90°. Obviously, for i > ic, there cannot be any refracted
wave. The angle ic is known as the critical angle and for all angles of incidence greater than the
critical angle, we will not have any refracted wave and the wave will undergo known as total
internal reflection.

Behaviour of a Prism, Lens and Mirror

In Fig. (a) we consider a plane wave passing through a thin prism. Clearly, since the speed of
light waves is less in glass, the lower portion of the incoming wavefront (which travels through the
greatest thickness of glass) will get delayed resulting in a tilt in the emerging wavefront as shown in
the figure.
In Fig. (b) we consider a plane wave incident on a thin convex lens; the central part of the
incident plane wave traverses the thickest portion of the lens and is delayed the most. The emerging
wavefront has a depression at the centre and therefore the wavefront becomes spherical and converges
to the point F which is known as the focus.

In Fig. (c) a plane wave is incident on a concave mirror and on reflection we have a spherical
wave converging to the focal point F.
In a similar manner, we can understand refraction and reflection by concave lenses and convex
mirrors.
It is understood that the total time taken from a point on the object to the corresponding point
on the image is the same measured along any ray. For example, when a convex lens focusses light to
form a real image, although the ray going through the centre traverses a shorter path, but because of
the slower speed in glass, the time taken is the same as for rays travelling near the edge of the lens.
Interference

When two light waves of the same frequency and having zero or constant phase difference
travelling in the same direction superpose each other, the intensity in the region of superposition gets
redistributed, becoming maximum at some points and minimum at others. This phenomenon is called
interference of light.

Coherent and Incoherent Sources:

Two sources of light which continuously emit light waves of same frequency (or wavelength)
with a zero or constant phase difference between them are called coherent sources.

Two sources of light which do not emit light waves with a constant phase difference are called
incoherent sources.

Conditions for Constructive and Destructive Interference:

Conditions for Constructive Interference:

➢ Consider a point P for which S1 P = S2 P

Since the distances S1 P and S2 P are equal, waves from S1 and S2 will take the same
time to travel to the point P and waves that emanate from S1 and S2 in phase will also arrive, at
the point P, in phase.
Thus, if the displacement produced by the source S1 at the point P is given by
y1 = a cos ωt
then, the displacement produced by the source S2 (at the point P) will also be given by
y2 = a cos ωt
Thus, the resultant of displacement at P would be given by
y = y1 + y2 = 2 a cos ωt
Since the intensity is the proportional to the square of the amplitude, the resultant intensity will
be given by
I = 4 I0
where I0 represents the intensity produced by each one of the individual sources;
I0 is proportional to a2.
In fact at any point on the perpendicular bisector of S1S2, the intensity will be 4I0. The
two sources are said to interfere constructively and this is referred to as constructive
interference.
 ➢ We next consider a point Q [Fig. (a)] for which S2Q –S1Q = 2λ

The waves emanating from S1 will arrive exactly two cycles earlier than the waves from S2 and
will again be in phase [Fig. (a)].
Thus, if the displacement produced by S1 is given by
y1 = a cos ωt
then the displacement produced by S2 will be given by
y2 = a cos (ωt – 4π) = a cos ωt
where we have used the fact that a path difference of 2λ corresponds to a phase difference of
4π.
The two displacements are once again in phase and the intensity will again be 4 I0
giving rise to constructive interference.

Conditions for Destructive Interference:

We next consider a point R [Fig. (b)] for which S2R – S1R = –2.5λ

The waves emanating from S1 will arrive exactly two and a half cycles later than the waves
from S2 [Fig. b].
Thus if the displacement produced by S1 is given by
y1 = a cos ωt
then the displacement produced by S2 will be given by
y2 = a cos (ωt + 5π) = – a cos ωt
where we have used the fact that a path difference of 2.5λ corresponds to a phase difference of
5π.
The two displacements are now out of phase and the two displacements will cancel out
to give zero intensity. This is referred to as destructive interference.
Summary:

➢ If we have two coherent sources S1 and S2 vibrating in phase, then for an arbitrary point P
whenever the path difference,
S1P ~ S2P = nλ (n = 0, 1, 2, 3,...) ------- (1)
we will have constructive interference and the resultant intensity will be 4I0.

➢ On the other hand, if the point P is such that the path difference,
𝟏
S1P ~ S2P = (n+ 𝟐) λ (n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...) ------- (2)

we will have destructive interference and the resultant intensity will be zero.

Now, for any other arbitrary point G (Fig.c) let the phase difference between the two
displacements be 𝜙. Thus, if the displacement produced by S1 is given by
y1 = a cos ωt
then, the displacement produced by S2 would be
y2 = a cos (ωt + )
and the resultant displacement will be given by
y = y1 + y2
= a [cos ωt + cos (ωt + 𝜙 )]

y = 2 a cos (φ/2) cos (ωt + 𝝓/2)

The amplitude of the resultant displacement is 2a cos (𝜙 /2) and therefore the intensity at that
point will be
I = 4 I0 cos2 (𝝓/2)
If 𝜙 = 0, ± 2 π, ± 4 π,… which corresponds to the condition given by Eq. (1) we will
have constructive interference leading to maximum intensity. On the other hand, if 𝜙 = ± π, ±
3π, ± 5π … [which corresponds to the condition given by Eq. (2)] we will have destructive
interference leading to zero intensity.
Young’s double slit experiment

Qn: In Young’s double slit experiment to produce interference pattern, obtain the conditions
for constructive and destructive interference. Hence deduce the expression for the fringe
width.

➢ Suppose a narrow slit S is illuminated by monochromatic light of wavelength 𝜆.

➢ S1 and S2 are two narrow slits at equal distance from S.
➢ Being derived from same parent source S, the slits S1 and S2 act as coherent sources, separated
by a small distance d.

➢ Interference fringes are obtained on a screen placed at distance D from the sources S1 and S2.

➢ Thus spherical waves emanating from S1 and S2 will produce interference fringes on the screen.

Expression for Path Difference:

➢ Consider a point P on the screen at distance x from the centre O. The nature of the interference at the
point P depends on path difference,
p = S2P – S1P
From right-angled ΔS2BP and ΔS1AP,
𝑑 2 𝑑 2
S2P2 – S1P2 = [𝐷 2 + (𝑥 + 2 ) ] - [𝐷 2 + (𝑥 − 2 ) ]

(S2P – S1P) (S2P + S1P) = 2 x d

2𝑥d
S2P – S1P =
S2 P + S1 P

In practice, the point P lies very close to O. Therefore, S1P ≃ S2P = D.

2𝑥d
Hence, p = S2P – S1P =
2D
𝒙𝒅
Path difference, p=
𝑫

➢ Condition for Constructive Interference:

For bright fringes, path difference, p = n𝜆
𝑥𝑑
Now, p= = n𝜆
𝐷
𝒏𝝀𝑫
For nth bright fringe, x= where n = 0,±1, ±2, …
𝒅

➢ Condition for Destructive Interference:

1
For dark fringes, path difference, p = (𝑛 + 2) 𝜆
 𝑥𝑑 1
Now, p= = (𝑛 + 2
)𝜆
𝐷

𝟏 𝝀𝑫
For nth dark fringe, x = (𝒏 + 𝟐) 𝒅 where n = 0,±1, ±2, …

➢ Obviously, the central point O (in Fig.) will be bright because S1O = S2O (i.e., path
difference = 0) and it will correspond to n = 0. If we consider the line perpendicular to the
plane of the paper and passing through O then all points on this line will be equidistant from S1
and S2 and we will have a bright central fringe which is a straight line.

➢ Expression for fringe width (𝜷):

It is the separation between two successive bright or dark fringes.

For bright fringe, 𝛽 = xn+1 - xn

(𝑛+1)𝜆𝐷 𝑛𝜆𝐷
= -
𝑑 𝑑
𝝀𝑫
𝜷=
𝒅

𝝀𝑫
Similarly for dark fringe, 𝜷=
𝒅

Clearly both the bright and dark fringes are of equal width.

Note 1: Essential conditions for two light sources to be coherent:

1. The two waves must be continuous.

2. The two waves should be of same frequency or wavelength.
3. They should have a constant or zero phase difference.
4. Preferably, they should have equal amplitude.

Note: 2 Two conditions to obtain sustained interference of light:

1. The two light sources should be coherent.

2. The two light sources should be narrow and placed close to each other.

Note: 3 Why are coherent sources necessary to produce a sustained interference pattern?

Coherent sources have a constant phase difference. This ensures that the positions of maxima
and minima do not change with time i.e., a sustained interference pattern is obtained.

Note: 4 Why two independent monochromatic sources of light cannot produce a sustained
interference pattern?

The phase difference between the light waves originating from two independent
monochromatic sources will change rapidly with time. The two sources will not be coherent and
therefore will not produce a sustained interference pattern.
Diffraction
The phenomenon of bending of light around the corners of small obstacles or apertures and its
consequent spreading into the regions of geometrical shadow is called diffraction of light.
Diffraction is a general characteristic exhibited by all types of waves, be it sound waves, light
waves, water waves or matter waves.
Since the wavelength of light is much smaller than the dimensions of most obstacles, we do not
encounter diffraction effects of light in everyday observations.

Diffraction at a single slit

➢ A parallel beam of monochromatic light is emerging from source S. Thereby a plane wavefront
gets incident normally on a narrow slit LN of width a.
➢ The wavelets which are in same phase, diffracts after it emerges through slit LN. On a screen, a
broad pattern with a central bright region is seen.
➢ On both sides, there are alternate dark and bright regions, the intensity becoming weaker away
from the centre (Fig. b).

Calculation of path difference:

➢ We want the intensity at any point P on the screen. The straight lines joining P to the different
points L,M,N, etc., can be treated as parallel, making an angle θ with the normal MC.

➢ The basic idea is to divide the slit into much smaller parts, and add their contributions at P with
the proper phase differences.
➢ Different parts of the wavefront at the slit are treated as secondary sources. Because the
incoming wavefront is parallel to the plane of the slit, these sources are in phase.
➢ The path difference NP – LP between the two edges of the slit can be calculated exactly as for
Young’s experiment
NP – LP = NQ
[

= a sin θ
≈ aθ --------(1)
➢ Similarly, if two points M1 and M2 in the slit plane are separated by y, the
path difference, M2P – M1P ≈ yθ.
Central Maximum:

➢ The midpoint of the slit is M. A straight line through M perpendicular to the slit plane meets
the screen at C.
➢ At the central point C on the screen, the angle θ is zero. All path differences are zero and hence
all the parts of the slit contribute in phase. This gives maximum intensity at C.

Positions of minima:
➢ Experimental observation shown in Fig. (a) indicates that the intensity has a central maximum
at θ = 0 and other secondary maxima at θ ≈ (n+1/2) λ/a, and has minima (zero intensity) at
θ ≈ nλ/a, n = ±1, ±2, ±3, ....
➢ Consider first the angle θ where the path difference aθ is λ. Then,
θ ≈ λ /a --------(2)
➢ Now, divide the slit into two equal halves LM and MN each of size a/2.
➢ For every point M1 in LM, there is a point M2 in MN such that M1M2 = a/2.
➢ The path difference between M1 and M2 at P = M2P – M1P = θ a/2 = λ/2 for the angle chosen.
This means that the contributions from M1 and M2 are 180º out of phase and cancel in the
direction θ = λ/a. Contributions from the two halves of the slit LM and MN, therefore, cancel
each other.
➢ Equation (2) gives the angle at which the intensity falls to zero.
➢ In general, the intensity is zero for θ = nλ/a, with n being any integer (except zero).
➢ Also, the angular size of the central maximum increases when the slit width a decreases.

Positions of maxima:

1
➢ It is also easy to see why there are maxima at θ ≃ (n + 2) λ/a and why they go on becoming
weaker and weaker with increasing n.
3𝜆
➢ Consider an angle θ = which is midway between two of the dark fringes. Divide the slit into
2𝑎
three equal parts. If we take the first two thirds of the slit, the path difference between the two
ends would be
2 2𝑎 3𝜆
𝑎 𝜃= x = 𝜆
3 3 2𝑎
➢ The first two-thirds of the slit can therefore be divided into two halves which have a λ/2 path
difference. The contributions of these two halves are 180º out of phase and cancel each other.
Only the remaining one-third of the slit contributes to the intensity at a point between the
two minima. Clearly, this will be much weaker than the central maximum.
1
➢ One can similarly show that there are maxima at (n + 2) λ/a with n = 2, 3, etc. These become
weaker with increasing n, since only one-fifth, one-seventh, etc., of the slit contributes in these
cases. The photograph and intensity pattern corresponding to it is shown in Fig. b.

𝟏
➢ In general, the condition for secondary maximum is θ = (n + 𝟐) λ/a.
Note 1: (i) Angular width of central maximum:
The angular width of the central maximum is the angular separation between the
directions of the first minima on the two sides of the central maximum.

𝟐𝝀
Therefore, angular width of the central maximum = 2 𝜽 =
𝒂
(ii) Linear width of central maximum
If D is the distance of the screen from the single slit, then linear width of the central
maximum,
𝟐𝑫𝝀
𝛽0 = 𝐷 x 2𝜽 =
𝒂

Note 2: The central maximum of a diffraction pattern is twice as wide as any diffraction pattern
𝜆 𝜆 λ
Angular width of nth secondary maximum = θn+1 - θn = (𝑛 + 1) 𝑎 –𝑛 𝑎
=
a
Linear width of nth secondary maximum = Angular width x D
λD
𝛽=
a
which is, 𝜷𝟎 = 𝟐 𝜷

Differences between Interference and Diffraction

Sl. No Interference Diffraction

1. The interference pattern is by superposing The diffraction pattern is a superposition of a

two waves originating from the two continuous family of waves originating from
narrow slits. each point on a single slit.

2. The interference pattern has a number of The diffraction pattern has a central bright
equally spaced bright and dark bands. maximum which is twice as wide as the other
maxima.

3. All bright fringes are of same intensity. The intensity of bright fringes decreases as we
move away from central bright fringe, on either
side.

4. At an angle of 𝜆/𝑑, we get a bright fringe At an angle of 𝜆/𝑎, we get the first dark fringe in
in the interference pattern of two narrow the diffraction pattern of a single slit of width a.
slits separated by a distance d.