DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF HIGHER ORDER

Introduction:
Differential Equations are extremely helpful to solve complex mathematical problems
in almost every domain of Engineering, Science and Mathematics. Engineers will be
integrating and differentiating hundreds of equations throughout their career, because
these equations have a hidden answer to a really complex problem. Mathematicians and
Researchers like Laplace, Fourier, Hilbert etc., have developed such equations to make
our life easier. Various Transforms from Time Domain to Frequency Domain or vice
versa in Engineering is only possible because of Differential Equations. In real life
situations, people use such equations for solving complex fluid dynamics problems, and
finding the right balance of weights and measures to build stuff like a Cantilever Truss.
Other applications include free vibration analysis, Simple mass-spring system, Damped
mass-spring system, forced vibration analysis, Resonant vibration analysis, simple
harmonic motion, simple pendulum, pressure Change with altitude, velocity profile in
fluid flow, vibration of springs, Discharge of a capacitor, Newton‟s second law of motion
and many more.

dn y d n-1y d n-2 y
Definition: An equation of the form + P1 (x) + P2 (x) +…+ Pn (x)y = Q(x)
dx n dx n-1 dx n-2
where P1 (x), P2 (x), P3 (x)…Pn (x) and 𝑄(𝑥) (functions of 𝑥) are continuous is called a linear
differential equation of order n.

Linear Differential Equations With Constant Coefficients

dn y d n-1y d n-2 y
Def: An equation of the form + P1 + P2 +…+ Pn y = Q(x) where
dx n dx n-1 dx n-2
P1 , P2 , P3  Pn , are real constants and 𝑄(𝑥) is a continuous function of 𝑥 is called an linear
differential equation of order „ 𝑛‟ with constant coefficients.
d 2 d2 n dn
Note: 1. Operator 𝐷 = ;𝐷 = ; …………………… 𝐷 =
dx dx 2 dx n

dy d2 y dn y
𝐷𝑦 = ; 𝐷2𝑦 = 2 ;…………………… 𝐷n 𝑦 =
dx dx dx n
1
2.Operator Q =  Qdx i e 𝐷-1𝑄 is called the integral of 𝑄.
D
To find the general solution of 𝒇(𝑫). 𝒚 = 𝟎 :
Here f(D) = D n + P1D n-1 + P2 D n-2 +…+ Pn is a polynomial in 𝐷.

Now consider the auxiliary equation: 𝑓(𝑚) = 0

i.e f(m) = m n + P1m n-1 + P2 m n-2 +…+ Pn  0 where P1 , P2 , P3 …Pn are real constants.

Let the roots of 𝑓(𝑚) = 0 be m1 , m2 , m3 …mn .

Depending on the nature of the roots we write the complementary function

as follows:
Consider the following table
S.No Roots of A.E Complementary function(C.F)
𝑓(𝑚) = 0
1. 𝑚1, 𝑚2, . . 𝑚n are yc = c1e m1x + c 2e m2 x +…c n e mn x
real and distinct.
2. 𝑚1, 𝑚2, . . 𝑚n and
two roots are equal y c = (c1 + c 2 )e m1x + c3e m3x +…c n e mn x
i.e., 𝑚1, 𝑚2 are
equal and real (i.e
repeated twice)
&the rest are real
and different.
3. 𝑚1, 𝑚2, . . 𝑚n are y c = (c1 + c 2 x + c3 x 2 )e m1x + c 4e m4 x +…c n e mn x
real and three roots
are equal i.e.,
𝑚1, 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 are
equal and real (i.e
repeated thrice)
&the rest are real
and different.
4. Two roots of A.E yc = eαx (c1cosβx + c2sinβx) + c3e m3x +…c n e mn x
are complex say
+ 𝑖 , − 𝑖 and
rest are real and
distinct.
5. If ±i are repeated yc = eαx (c1 + c2 x)cosβx + (c3 + c4 x)sinβx  + c5em5x +…cnemn x
twice & rest are real
and distinct
6. If ±i are y = eαx (c1 + c2 x + c3x 2 )cosβx + (c4 + c5 x + c6 x 2 )sinβx 
c
repeated thrice & +c7 e +…c n e mn x
m7 x

rest are real and

distinct
7. If roots of A.E. yc = eαx c1cosh βx + c2sinh βx  + c3e m3x +....... + c n e mn x
irrational say
   and rest
are real and distinct.

Solved Problems
𝒅𝟑 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
1. Solve 𝒅𝒙𝟑 − 𝟑 𝒅𝒙 + 𝟐𝒚 = 𝟎

Sol : Given equation is of the form 𝑓(𝐷). 𝑦 = 0

Where f(D) = (D3 - 3D + 2)y = 0

Now consider the auxiliary equation 𝑓 (𝑚) = 0

f(m) = (m3 - 3m + 2)y = 0  (𝑚 − 1) (𝑚 − 1) (𝑚 + 2) = 0

  𝑚 = 1, 1, −2
Since m1 and m 2 are equal and m 3 is -2

𝑦𝑐 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐3 𝑒 −2𝑥
2. Solve (𝑫4−𝟐𝑫3−𝟑𝑫2+𝟒𝑫 + 𝟒)𝒚 = 𝟎
Sol : Given 𝑓(𝐷) = (𝑫4−𝟐𝑫3−𝟑𝑫2+𝟒𝑫 + 𝟒)𝒚 = 𝟎 …(1)
Auxiliary equation is 𝑓(𝑚) = 0

 m4 - 2m3 -3m2 + 4m + 4 = 0 …(2)

By inspection 𝑚 + 1 is its factor.
(m +1)(m3 - 3m 2 + 4) = 0 …(3)

By inspection m+1 is factor of (m3 - 3m2 + 4) .

 (3) is  m +1 m +1  m2 - 4m + 4  = 0

 (m +1) 2 (m - 2) 2 = 0
 m = -1, -1, 2, 2
Hence general solution of (1) is
y = (c1 + c 2 x)e -x + (c3 + c 4 x)e 2x

3. Solve (𝑫4 +𝟖𝑫2 + 𝟏𝟔) 𝒚 = 𝟎

Sol : Given 𝑓 𝐷 = (𝑫4 +𝟖𝑫2 + 𝟏𝟔) 𝒚 = 𝟎
Auxiliary equation 𝑓(𝑚) = (𝑚4 +8 𝑚2 + 16) = 0
(𝑚2 + 4)2 = 0
(𝑚 + 2𝑖)2 (𝑚 + 2𝑖)2 = 0
𝑚 = 2𝑖 ,2𝑖 , −2𝑖 , −2𝑖
Here roots are complex and repeated
Hence general solution is
𝑦c = [(𝑐1+𝑐2𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 𝑐3 + 𝑐4𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥)]
4. Solve 𝒚′′ + 𝟔𝒚′ + 𝟗𝒚 = 𝟎 ; 𝒚(𝟎) = −𝟒 , 𝒚𝟏(𝟎) = 𝟏𝟒
Sol : Given equation is 𝒚′′ + 𝟔𝒚′ + 𝟗𝒚 = 𝟎
Auxiliary equation 𝑓 𝐷 𝑦 = 0 ⟹ 𝐷2 + 6𝐷 + 9) 𝑦 = 0
A.equation 𝑓(𝑚) = 0  (𝑚2 +6𝑚 + 9) = 0
 𝑚 = −3 , −3
𝑦𝑐 = (𝑐1+𝑐 2𝑥)𝑒-3x -------------------> (1)
Differentiate of (1) w.r.to 𝑥  𝑦′ = (𝑐 1+𝑐 2𝑥)(−3𝑒-3x ) + 𝑐2(𝑒-3x )
 Given 𝑦′ (0) = 14  𝑐1 = −4 & 𝑐2 = 2
Hence we get 𝑦 = (−4 + 2𝑥) (𝑒-3x )
5. Solve 𝟒𝒚′′′ + 𝟒𝒚′′ + 𝒚′ = 𝟎
Sol : Given equation is 𝟒𝒚′′′ + 𝟒𝒚′′ + 𝒚′ = 𝟎
That is (4𝐷3+4𝐷2+𝐷)𝑦 = 0
Auxiliary equation 𝑓(𝑚) = 0
4𝑚3 +4𝑚2 + 𝑚 = 0

𝑚(4𝑚2 +4𝑚 + 1) = 0 ⇒ 𝑚 (2m +1) 2 = 0

𝑚 = 0 , −1/2 , −1/2
𝑦 = 𝑐1 + (𝑐2 + 𝑐 3𝑥) 𝑒-x/2
6. Solve (𝑫2 − 𝟑𝑫 + 𝟒) 𝒚 = 𝟎
Sol : Given equation (𝑫2 − 𝟑𝑫 + 𝟒) 𝒚 = 𝟎
A.E. is 𝑓(𝑚) = 0
𝑚2−3𝑚 + 4 = 0

3 ± 9 -16 3 ± i 7
m= =
2 2

3 7
α ± iβ  i
2 2
3
2
7 7
y = e (c1cos x + c2sin x)
2 2
To Find General solution of 𝒇(𝑫) 𝒚 = 𝑸(𝒙)
It is given by 𝑦 = 𝑦c + 𝑦p
i.e. 𝑦 = 𝐶. 𝐹 + 𝑃. 𝐼
Where the P.I consists of no arbitrary constants and P.I of 𝑓 (𝐷) 𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥)
1
Is evaluated as 𝑃. 𝐼 = 𝑓 𝑄(𝑥)
𝐷

Depending on the type of function of 𝑄(𝑥) , P.I is evaluated .

1 2
1. Find (x )
D
1 2 x3
Sol : (x ) =  x 2dx =
D 3
 1
2.Find Particular value of (x)
D +1
1 1
Sol : (x) = e -x  xe x dx (By definition 𝐷+𝛼 𝑄 = 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 𝑄 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥 𝑑𝑥
D +1

= e-x (xe x - e x )
=𝑥−1
General methods of finding Particular integral :
1
P.I of 𝑓(𝐷)𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥), when is expressed as partial fractions.
f(D)

1. Solve (D2 + a 2 )y = secax

Sol : Given equation is …(1)
Let f(D) = D 2 + a 2

The AE is 𝑓(𝑚) = 0 i.e m2 + a 2 = 0 …(2)

The roots are 𝑚 = −𝑎𝑖 , −𝑎𝑖

yc = c1cosax + c2sinax

1 1  1 1 
yp = secax = - secax …(3)
2
D +a 2
2ai  D - ai D + ai 


1 cosax - isinax
secax = eiax  secaxdx = eiax  dx
D - ai cosax
 i 
= eiax  (1- itanax)dx = eiax  x + logcosax  …(4)
 a 
1  i 
Similarly we get secax = e-iax  x - logcosax  …(5)
D + ai  a 
From (3),(4) and (5), we get
1  iax  i   i 
yp =  e  x + logcosax  - e-iax  x - logcosax  
2ai   a   a 

x(eiax - e-iax ) 1 (eiax + e-iax )

= + 2 (logcosax)
2ai a 2
x 1
= sinax + 2 cosaxlog(cosax)
a a
The general solution of (1) is
x 1
y = y c + y p = c1cosax + c 2sinax + sinax + 2 cosaxlog(cosax)
a a
Rules For Finding P.I In Some Special Cases

Type 1: P.I of 𝑓 (𝐷)𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥) where 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 , where „𝑎‟ is constant.

1 1 ax 1 ax
Case1.P.I = .Q(x) = e = e
f(D) f(D) f(a)
When 𝑓(𝑎) ≠ 0
i.e In 𝑓(𝐷), put 𝐷 = 𝑎 and Particular integral will be calculated.

Case 2: If 𝑓(𝑎) = 0 then the above method fails. Then if f  D  =  D - a    D  (i.e „𝑎‟ is
k

repeated root k times).

1 ax 1 k
Then 𝑃. 𝐼 = e . x provided  (a)  0
 (a) k!

Type 2: P.I of f(D)y = Q(x) where 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥 or 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥 where „𝑎‟ is

1
constant then 𝑃. 𝐼 = Q(x) .
f(D)
Working Rule :
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥
Case 1: In 𝑓(𝐷) put D2 = -a 2  f(-a 2 )  0 then 𝑃. 𝐼 = 𝑓(−𝑎 2 )

Case 2: If 𝑓(−𝑎2) = 0 then 𝐷2 + 𝑎2 is a factor of  (D 2 ) and hence it is a factor of 𝑓(𝐷).

Then let f(D) = (D2 + a 2 ) (D2 ) .

sinax sinax 1 sinax 1 -xcosax
Then = 2 2 = =
f(D) (D + a ) (D )  (-a ) D + a
2 2 2 2
  -a 2  2a

cosax cosax 1 cosax 1 xsinax

= 2 2 = =
f(D) (D + a ) (D )  (-a ) D + a
2 2 2 2
  -a 2  2a

Type 3: P.I for 𝑓(𝐷)𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥) where 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥k where 𝑘 is a positive integer, 𝑓(𝐷) can
be expressed as f(D) = [1   (D)]
1 1
Express   [1   (D)]1
f(D) [1   (D)]
1
Hence 𝑃. 𝐼 = Q(x)
[1   (D)]

= [1   (D)]1 x k
 Type 4: P.I of 𝑓(𝐷)𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥) when 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑒ax 𝑉 where „𝑎‟ is a constant and 𝑉 is
function of 𝑥. where 𝑉 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥 or 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥 or 𝑥k
1
Then 𝑃. 𝐼 = Q(x)
f(D)
1 ax
= e V
f(D)

 1  1
= eax  V & V is evaluated depending on 𝑉.
 f(D + a)  f(D + a)
Type 5: P.I of 𝑓(𝐷)𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥) when 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥𝑉 where 𝑉 is a function of 𝑥.
1
Then P.I = Q(x)
f(D)
1
= V
f(D)

 1  1
= x - f'(D)  V
 f(D)  f(D)
Type 6: P.I. of 𝑓(𝐷)𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥) where 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥m 𝑣 where 𝑣 is a function of 𝑥.
1 1 m
When P.I. = ×Q(x) = x v, where v = cosax or sinax
f(D) f(D)
1 m 1 m iax
i. P.I. = x sinax = I.P.of x e
f(D) f(D)
1 m 1 m iax
ii. P.I. = x cosax = R.P.of x e
f(D) f(D)
Formulae

1. = (1 – 𝐷)-1 = 1 + 𝐷 + 𝐷2 + 𝐷3 + − − − − − − − − − − − − −

2. = (1 + 𝐷)-1 = 1 − 𝐷 + 𝐷 2 − 𝐷3 + − − − − − − − − − −

3. = (1 – 𝐷)-2 = 1 + 2𝐷 + 3𝐷2 + 4𝐷3 + − − − − − − − − −

-2
4. = 1 + 𝐷 = 1 − 2𝐷 + 3𝐷2 − 4𝐷3+ − − − − − − − −

-3
5. = 1– 𝐷 = 1 + 3𝐷 + 6𝐷2 + 10𝐷 3 + − − − − −

6. = (1 + 𝐷)-3 = 1 − 3𝐷 + 6𝐷2 − 10𝐷 3 + − − − − − − − −

Solved Problems
1. Solve (4D2 - 4D + 1)y = 100
1 -1
Sol : A.E is 4m 2 - 4m +1 = 0  (2m -1) 2 = 0  m = ,
2 2
x
2
C.F = (c1 + c2 x)e

100 100e0x 100

Now P.I = 2
= 2
= 2
 100 { since 100e0x  100 }
4D - 4D +1 (2D -1) (0 -1)
x
Hence the general solution is y = C.F + P.F = (c1 + c2 x)e  100
2

2. Solve the differential equation (D2 + 4)y = sinh2x + 7 .

Sol : Auxillary equation is m2 + 4 = 0

 m2 = -4  m = ±2i
 C.F is yc = c1cos2x + c2sin2x …(1)
To find P.I :
1
yp = 2
(sinh2x + 7)
D +4

1  e2x + e-2x 
= 2  + 7e0 
D +4 2 
1 e2x 1 e-2x e0
= . 2 + + 7
2 D + 4 2 D2 + 4 (D 2 + 4)
e2x e-2x 7
= + +
2(4 + 4) 2(4 + 4) (0 + 4)

e2x + e-2x 7 1 7
= + = sinh2x + …(2)
16 4 8 4
y = yc + yp

1 7
= c1cos2x + c 2sin2x + sinh2x +
8 4

3. Solve (D + 2)(D -1)2 y = e-2x + 2sinhx

Sol : The given equation is

(D + 2)(D -1) 2 y = e-2x + 2sinhx …(1)

This is of the form f(D)y = e-2x + 2sinhx

A.E is f(m) = 0  (m + 2)(m -1) 2 = 0  m = -2,1,1
The roots are real and one root is repeated twice.
 C.F is yc = c1e-2x + (c 2 + c3 x)e x .

e-2x + 2sinhx e-2x + e x - e-x

P.I = = = y p1 + y p2 + y p3
(D + 2)(D -1) 2 (D + 2)(D -1) 2

e-2x
Now y p1 =
(D + 2)(D -1) 2

Hence f(-2) = 0. Let f(D) = (D -1) 2 . Then  (2)  0 and m  1

e-2x x xe-2x
 yp1 = =
9 9
ex
and y p2 = . Here f(1)=0
(D + 2)(D -1) 2

ex x 2 x 2ex
= =
(3)2! 6

e-x
and y p3 =
(D + 2)(D -1) 2

e-x e-x
Putting 𝐷 = −1, we get y p3 = =
(1)(-2) 2 4

The general solution is y = yc + y p + y p + y p

1 2 3

xe-2x x 2ex e-x

i.e y = c1e-2x + (cc + c3 x)e x + + -
9 6 4
4. Solve the differential equation (D2 + D + 1)y = sin2x .

Sol : A.E is m2 + m +1 = 0

-1± 1- 4 -1± 3i
m= =
2 2
-x
x 3 x 3
 yc = e  c1cos
2
+ c 2sin  …(1)
 2 2 

sin2x sin2x
yp = 2
=
D + D +1 -4 + D +1
sin2x (D + 3)sin2x (D + 3)sin2x
To find P.I : = = =
D-3 D2 - 9 -4 - 9
Dsin2x + 3sin2x 2cos2x + 3sin2x
= =
-13 -13
 -x
 x 3 x 3 1
 y = yc + y p = e 2  c1cos + c 2sin  - (2cos2x + 3sin2x)
 2 2  13
5. Solve (D2 - 4)y = 2cos 2 x

Sol : Given equation is (D2 - 4)y = 2cos 2 x …(1)

Let f(D) = D2 - 4 A.E is f(m) = 0 i.e m2 - 4 = 0

The roots are 𝑚 = 2, −2. The roots are real and different.
 C.F = yc = c1e 2x + c 2e-2x

1 1
P.I = y p = (2cos 2 x) = 2 (1+ cos2x)
2
D -4 D -4
e0x cos2x
= 2
+ 2 = P.I1 + P.I 2
D -4 D -4
e0x e0x 1
P.I1 = y p1 = 2
[Put D=0] = =-
D -4 -4 4
cos2x cos2x
P.I 2 = y p2 = 2
= [Put D2 = -22 = -4 ]
D -4 -8
The general solution of (1) is y = yc + y p + y p1 2

1 cos2x
y = c1e 2x + c 2e -2x - -
4 8
6. Solve (D2 + 1)y = sinxsin2x

Sol : Given D.E is (D2 +1)y = sinxsin2x

A.E is m2 +1 = 0  m = ±i
The roots are complex conjugate numbers.
C.F is yc = c1cosx + c2sinx
w.k.t 2sinAsinB=cos(A-B)–cos(A+B)
sinxsin2x 1 cosx - cos3x
P.I = = = P.I1 + P.I 2
(D2 +1) 2 (D2 +1)
1 cosx
Now P.I1 =
2 D 2 +1
Put D2 = -1 we get D2 +1 = 0
1 xsinx xsinx  cosax x 
 P.I1 = =  Case of failure : D2 + a = 2a sinax 
2 2 4
1 cos3x
and P.I 2 = -
2 D 2 +1
Put D 2 = -9, we get
1 cos3x cos3x
P.I 2 = - =
2 -9 +1 16
xsinx cos3x
General solution is y = y c + y p1 + y p2 = c1cosx + c 2sinx + +
4 16
7. Solve the differential equation (D3 - 3D2 -10D + 24)y = x + 3 .

Sol : The given D.E is (D3 - 3D2 -10D + 24)y = x + 3

A.E is m3 -3m2 -10m + 24 = 0

⟹m=2 is a root.
The other two roots are given by m2 - m - 2 = 0
 (m - 2)(m +1) = 0
⟹m=2 (or) m = -1
One root is real and repeated, other root is real.
C.F is y c = e 2x (c1 + c 2 x) + c3e -x

x +3 1 x3 + 3
yp = =
3 2
(D - 3D -10D + 24) 24  D3 - 3D 2 -10D 
1+  
 24 
-1
1 1+ D3 - 3D 2 -10D 
24   (x + 3)
=
24 
1   D3 - 3D 2 -10D  
= 1-    (x + 3)
24   24 
1  10  24x + 82
=  x +3+  =
24  24  576
General solution is y = y c + y p

24x + 82
 y = e 2x (c1 + c 2 x) + c3e -x +
576
8. Solve the differential equation (D2 - 4D + 4)y = e2x + x 2 + sin3x .

Sol : The A.E is (m 2 - 4m + 4) = 0  (m - 2)2 = 0  m = 2, 2

 y c = (c1 + c 2 x)e 2x …(1)

 1
To find y p : y p = 2
(e2x + x 2 + sin3x)
D - 4D + 4
e 2x x2 sin3x
= 2
+ 2
+ 2
(D - 2) (D - 2) D - 4D + 4
x 2 2x x2 sin3x
= e + 2
+
2!  D  -9 - 4D + 4
4 1- 
 2
-2
x 2 2x 1  D  2 (4D - 5)sin3x
= e + 1-  x -
2 4 2  (5 + 4D)
x 2 2x 1  2D 3D 2  2 (4D - 5)sin3x
= e + 1+ + x -
2 4 2 4  16D 2 - 25
x 2 2x x 2 x 3 (12cos3x - 5sin3x)
= e + + + -
2 4 2 8 -144 - 25
x 2 2x x 2 x 3 (12cos3x - 5sin3x)
= e + + + + …(2)
2 4 2 8 169

2x x 2 2x x 2 x 3 (12cos3x - 5sin3x)
y = yc + yp = (c1 + c2 x)e + = e + + + +
2 4 2 8 169
9. Solve the differential equation (D2 + 4)y = xsinx .

Sol: Auxiliary equation is m2 + 4 - 0  m2 = (2i)2

 m = ±2i. The roots are complex and conjugate.
Hence Complementary Function, yc = c1cos2x + c2sin2x
1
Particular integral, y p = 2 xsinx
D +4
1
= I.P of 2
xeix
D +4
1 1
= I.P ofeix 2
x = I.P of eix 2 x
(D + i) + 4 D + 2Di + 3
-1
eix  D 2 + 2Di 
= I.P of  1+  x
3  3 
 D 2 + 2Di
eix 
= I.P of  1- + ...  x
3 3 
e  2 
ix

 1- Di  x  D (x) = 0, etc 
2
= I.P of
3  3  
1  2
= I.P of (cosx + isinx)  x - i 
3  3
1 2 
=  - cosx + xsinx 
3 3 
Hence the general solution is
 1 2 
y = yc + y p = c1cos2x + c 2sin2x +  xsinx - cosx 
3 3 
Where c1 and c2 are constants.

1
Other Method (using type 5): y p = 2
xsinx
D +4
 2D  sinx
= x - 2  2
 D + 4 D + 4
xsinx 2(Dsinx) xsinx 2cosx
= - = -
3 3(D2 + 4) 3 9
Hence the general solution is
1 2 
y = yc + y p = c1cos2x + c 2sin2x +  xsinx - cosx 
3 3 
10. Solve the Differential equation(𝑫2+𝟓𝑫 + 𝟔)𝒚 = 𝒆x

Sol : Given equation is (𝐷2+5𝐷 + 6)𝑦 = 𝑒x

Here 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑒 x
Auxiliary equation is 𝑓(𝑚) = 𝑚2+5𝑚 + 6 = 0
𝑚2+3𝑚 + 2𝑚 + 6 = 0
𝑚(𝑚 + 3) + 2(𝑚 + 3) = 0
𝑚 = −2 𝑜𝑟 𝑚 = −3
The roots are real and distinct

𝐶. 𝐹 = 𝑦c= c1e-2x + c 2e-3x

1
Particular Integral= 𝑦p= Q(x)
f(D)
1 1
= 2
ex = ex
D + 5D + 6 (D + 2)(D + 3)
Put 𝐷 = 1 𝑖𝑛 𝑓(𝐷)
1
𝑃. 𝐼 = ex
(3)(4)

1 x
Particular Integral = 𝑦p = e
12
General solution is y = y c + y p

ex
y = c1e-2x + c2e-3x +
12
11. Solve y''- 4y' + 3y = 4e3x , y(0) = -1, y'(0) = 3

Sol : Given equation is y'' - 4y' + 3y = 4e3x

d 2 y dy
i.e 2
- 4 + 3y = 4e3x it can be expressed as
dx dx
D2 y - 4Dy + 3y = 4e3x

(D2 - 4D + 3)y = 4e3x

Here 𝑄(𝑥) = 4𝑒3x; 𝑓(𝐷) = 𝐷 2−4𝐷 + 3
Auxiliary equation is 𝑓(𝑚) = 𝑚2−4𝑚 + 3 = 0
𝑚2− 3𝑚 − 𝑚 + 3 = 0
𝑚(𝑚 − 3) − 1(𝑚 − 3) = 0 ⟹ 𝑚 = 3 𝑜𝑟 1

The roots are real and distinct. 𝐶. 𝐹 = yc = c1e3x + c 2e x

1
P.I= yp = Q(x)
f(D)
1
= 2
4e3x
D - 4D + 3
1
= 4e3x
(D -1)(D - 3)
Put 𝐷 = 3
4e3x 4 e3x x'
yp = = = 2 e3x = 2xe3x
 3-1 D - 3 2  D - 3 1!
General solution is 𝑦 = 𝑦c+𝑦p
y = c1e3x + c 2e x + 2xe3x …(3)
Equation (3) differentiating with respect to „𝑥‟
y' = 3c1e3x + c 2e x + 2e3x + 6xe3x …(4)
By data, 𝑦(0) = −1 , 𝑦′(0) = 3
From (3), −1 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 …(5)
From (4), 3 = 3𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 2
3𝑐1 + 𝑐2 = 1 …(6)
Solving (5) and (6) we get 𝑐1 = 1 and 𝑐2 = −2
𝑦 = −2𝑒x + (1 + 2𝑥) 𝑒3x
12. Solve y'' + 4y' + 4y = 4cosx + 3sinx, y(0) = 0, y'(0) = 0
Sol : Given differential equation in operator for
 (D2 + 4D + 4)y = 4cosx + 3sinx
A.E is 𝑚2+4𝑚 + 4 = 0
(𝑚 + 2)2= 0 then 𝑚 = −2, −2
C.F is yc = (c1 + c 2 x)e-2x
4cosx + 3sinx
P.I is= yp = 2
put D2 = -1
(D + 4D + 4)

4cosx + 3sinx (4D - 3)(4cosx + 3sinx)

yp = =
(4D + 3) (4D - 3)(4D + 3)
(4D - 3)(4cosx + 3sinx)
=
16D2 - 9
(4D - 3)(4cosx + 3sinx)
yp =
-16 - 9
-16sinx +12cosx -12cosx - 9sinx -25sinx
= = = sinx
-25 -25
General equation is 𝑦 = 𝑦c+𝑦p
y = (c1 + c 2 x)e-2x + sinx …(1)
By given data 𝑦(0) = 0, 𝑐 1 = 0 and
Differentiating (1) w.r.t „𝑥‟, y' = (c1 + c 2 x)(-2)e -2x + e -2x (c 2 ) + cosx …(2)

given y'(0) = 0
Substitute in (2)  −2𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 1 = 0 𝑐2 = −1
Required solution is y = -xe-2x + sinx
13.Solve (𝑫2+𝟗)𝒚 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑𝒙
Sol : Given equation is (𝐷2+9)𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥
A.E is 𝑚2+9 = 0
 m = ±3i
yc = C.F = c1cos3x + c2sin3x
cos3x cos3x
y p = P.I = 2
= 2 2
D +9 D +3
x x
= sin3x = sin3x
2(3) 6
x
General equation is 𝑦 = 𝑦c+𝑦p y = c1cos3x + c 2sin3x + sin3x
, 6
14.Solve y''' + 2y'' - y' - 2y = 1- 4x 3
Sol : Given equation can be written as
(D3 + 2D2 - D - 2)y = 1- 4x 3

A.E is m3 + 2m2 - m- 2 = 0
(m2 -1)(m + 2) = 0

m 2 = 1 or m = -2
𝑚 = 1, −1, −2
C.F= c1e x + c 2e-x + c3e-2x

1 -1
P.I = (1- 4x 3 ) =
3 2
(D + 2D - D - 2)  (D + 2D 2 - D) 
3
3
2 1-  (1- 4x )
 2 
-1
-1  (D3 + 2D2 - D) 
= 1-  (1- 4x 3 )
2 2 

-1  (D3 + 2D2 - D) (D3 + 2D2 - D) 2 (D3 + 2D2 - D)3 

= 1+ + + +… (1- 4x 3 )
2 2 4 8 
-1  1 3 
1+  D + 2D2 - D  +  D 2 - 4D3  +  -D3   1- 4x 3 
1 1
= 
2 2 4 8 
-1  5 3 5 2 1 
= 1- D + D - D  (1- 4x 3 )
2 8 4 2 
-1  5 5 1 
=  (1- 4x 3 ) - (-24) + (-24x) - (-12x 2 ) 
2 8 4 2 
-1
=  -4x 3 + 6x 2 - 30x +16 
2

= [2x 3 - 3x 2 +15x -8]

The general solution is
𝑦 = 𝐶. 𝐹 + 𝑃. 𝐼

y = c1e x + c 2e -x + c3e -2x +[2x 3 - 3x 2 +15x - 8]

15.Solve (D3 - 7D2 +14D - 8)y = excos2x
Sol : Given equation is
(D3 - 7D2 +14D -8)y = e x cos2x

A.E is (m3 - 7m 2 +14m -8) = 0

 (𝑚 − 1)(𝑚 − 2)(𝑚 − 4) = 0
Then 𝑚 = 1,2,4
C.F= c1e x + c 2 e 2x + c3e 4x

e x cos2x
P.I=
(D3 - 7D 2 +14D -8)
1
= ex cos2x
(D +1) - 7(D +1)2 +14(D +1) -8
3

 1 ax 1 
 P.I = e v = eax v
 f(D) f D + a  

1
= ex cos2x
(D - 4D2 + 3D)
3

1
= ex cos2x
(D - 4D2 + 3D)
3

1
= ex cos2x (Replacing 𝐷2 with -22)
(-4D + 3D +16)
1
= ex cos2x
(16 - D)
16 + D
= ex cos2x
(16 - D)(16 + D)
16 + D
= ex cos2x
256 - D 2
16 + D
= ex cos2x
256 - (-4)2

ex
= (16cos2x - 2sin2x)
260
2e x ex
= 8cos2x - sin2x  = 8cos2x - sin2x 
260 130
General solution is 𝑦 = 𝑦c + 𝑦p
ex
y = c1e x + c2e2x + c3e4x + 8cos2x - sin2x 
130
16.Solve (D2 - 4D + 4)y = x 2sinx + e2x + 3

Sol : Given (D2 - 4D + 4)y = x 2sinx + e2x + 3

A.E is (m 2 - 4m + 4) = 0
 (m - 2) 2 =0 then m=2,2

C.F= (c1 + c 2 x)e 2x

x 2sinx + e2x + 3 1 1 1
P.I= 2
= 2
(x 2sinx) + 2
e2x + (3)
(D - 2) (D - 2) (D - 2) (D - 2) 2
1 1
Now 2
(x 2sinx) = 2
(x 2 ) (I.P of eix )
(D - 2) (D - 2)
1
= I.P of 2
(x 2 )eix
(D - 2)
1
= I.P of (eix ) 2
(x 2 )
(D + i - 2)
1
I.P of (eix ) 2
(x 2 )
(D + i - 2)
On simplification, we get
1 1
2
(x 2sinx) = (220x + 244)cosx + (40x + 33)sinx 
(D + i - 2) 625

1 2x x 2 2x
and e = e ,
(D - 2) 2 2
1 3
2
(3) =
(D - 2) 4

1 x2 3
P.I= (220x + 244)cosx + (40x + 33)sinx  + e2x +
625 2 4
y=yc+yp
1 x2 3
y = (c1 + c2 x)e2x + (220x + 244)cosx + (40x + 33)sinx  + e2x +
625 2 4
17.Solve the differential equation 𝑫𝟑 + 𝟏 𝒚 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏).
Sol : Given D.E is 𝐷3 + 1 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥 − 1)
The A.E is 𝑚3 + 1 = 0
⟹ 𝑚 + 1 𝑚2 − 𝑚 + 1 = 0 𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 (𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )
1±𝑖 3
⟹ 𝑚 = −1,
2
𝑥 3 3
𝐶. 𝐹 = 𝑐1 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑒 2 [𝑐2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑐3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥]
2 2
1
𝑃. 𝐼 = cos⁡
(2𝑥 − 1)
𝐷3 +1
 Putting 𝐷2 = 𝑎2 = −4 then we have
1 1+4𝐷
P.I= 1−4𝐷 cos 2𝑥 − 1 = 1−16𝐷2 [cos 2𝑥 − 1 ]

Again putting 𝐷2 = 𝑎2 = −4 then we have

1
P.I= 65 [cos 2𝑥 − 1 − 8sin⁡
(2𝑥 − 1)]

∴ General solution is = 𝐶. 𝐹 + 𝑃. 𝐼
𝑥 3 3 1
𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑒 2 𝑐2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑐3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + [cos 2𝑥 − 1 − 8sin⁡
(2𝑥 − 1)]
2 2 65
18. Solve 𝑫𝟐 − 𝟒𝑫 + 𝟒 𝒚 = 𝟖𝒙𝟐 𝒆𝟐𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒙.
Solution: Given equation is 𝐷2 − 4𝐷 + 4 𝑦 = 8𝑥 2 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥
Let 𝑓 𝐷 = 𝐷2 − 4𝐷 + 4 . A.E. is 𝑓 𝑚 = 0  𝑚2 − 4𝑚 + 4 = 0 (𝑚 − 2)2 = 0
∴ 𝑚 = 2,2. Hence C.F. is 𝑦𝑐 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥
8𝑒 2𝑥 𝑥 2 sin 2𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥
Now P.I. = = 8𝑒 2𝑥
𝐷 2 −4𝐷+4 𝐷+2)2 −4(𝐷+2)+4

𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 1 2 2𝑖𝑥
∴ 𝑦𝑝 = 8𝑒 2𝑥 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 8𝑒 2𝑥
𝑥 𝑒
𝐷2 𝐷2
𝑥2 1 1
= 8𝑒 2𝑥 𝐼. 𝑃. 𝑜𝑓 𝑒 2𝑖𝑥 2
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑃. 𝐼. = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑉 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑉
𝐷+2𝑖 𝑓 𝐷 𝑓 𝐷+𝑎

𝑥2 𝑒 2𝑖𝑥 𝐷 −2
= 8𝑒 2𝑥 𝐼. 𝑃. 𝑜𝑓 𝑒 2𝑖𝑥 𝐷 2
= 8𝑒 2𝑥 𝐼. 𝑃. 𝑜𝑓 1 + 2𝑖 (𝑥 2 )
4𝑖 2 1+ −4
2𝑖

𝑒 2𝑖𝑥 2𝐷 3𝐷 2
= 8𝑒 2𝑥 𝐼. 𝑃. 𝑜𝑓 1− + … 𝑥2
−4 2𝑖 4𝑖 2

2𝑥
𝑒 2𝑖𝑥 2 2𝑥 3
= 8𝑒 𝐼. 𝑃. 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 − + 2
−4 𝑖 2𝑖
𝑒 2𝑖𝑥 3
= 8𝑒 2𝑥 𝐼. 𝑃. 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 2 + 2𝑖𝑥 − 2 = −2𝑒 2𝑥 𝐼. 𝑃. 𝑜𝑓 cos 2𝑥 +
−4

𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥𝑥2+2𝑖𝑥−32= −2𝑒2𝑥2𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥+𝑥2−32sin2𝑥

∴ The general solution is 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑝

3
i.e.𝑦 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 2𝑒 2𝑥 2𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 2 sin 2𝑥 .
𝒅𝒙
19. Solve 𝑫𝟐 + 𝟏 𝒙 = 𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒕 given 𝒙 = 𝟎, 𝒅𝒕 = 𝟎 𝒂𝒕 𝒕 = 𝟎.

Solution: Given D.E. is 𝐷2 + 1 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡

A.E. is 𝑚2 + 1 = 0  𝑚 = ±𝑖. Thus C.F. = 𝑥𝑐 = 𝑐1 cos 𝑡 + 𝑐2 sin 𝑡
𝑡 cos 2𝑡 2𝐷 cos 2𝑡
Now, P.I. = 𝑥𝑝 = = 𝑡 − 𝐷 2 +1 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐷2 = −4
𝐷 2 +1 𝐷 2 +1
2𝐷 cos 2𝑡 2𝐷 co s 2𝑡 𝑡 cos 2𝑡 2𝐷𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡
= 𝑡 − −4+1 = 𝑡 − −3 = −
−4+1 −3 −3 9
 𝑡 cos 2𝑡 4𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑡
∴ 𝑥𝑝 = + .
−3 9

∴ The general solution is 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑐 + 𝑥𝑝

𝑡 cos 2𝑡 4𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑡
i.e. 𝑥 = 𝑐1 cos 𝑡 + 𝑐2 sin 𝑡 − 3
+ ……………..(1)
9

Given 𝑥 = 0 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 0 ∴ 1  0 = 𝑐1 − 0 + 0𝑐1 = 0.

Differentiating (1) w.r.t „t‟, we get
𝑑𝑥 2𝑡 sin 2𝑡 cos 2𝑡 8
= 𝑐2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 + − + 9 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡……………(2) [since 𝑐1 = 0]
𝑑𝑡 3 3
𝑑𝑥 1 8 −5
Also given = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0 ∴ (2)  0 = 0 + 𝑐2 + 0 − 3 + 9 𝑐2 = .
𝑑𝑡 9

Substituting both 𝑐1 &𝑐2 values in (1), we get the required solution as

−5 sin 𝑡 𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 4 sin 2𝑡
𝑥= − + .
9 3 9

Linear equations of second order with variable coefficients

d2 y dy
An equation of the form 2
+ P  x  + Q(x)y = R (x), where 𝑃(𝑥), 𝑄(𝑥), 𝑅(𝑥) are real
dx dx
valued functions of „𝑥‟is called linear equation of second order with variable coefficients.
Variation of Parameters:
This method is applied when 𝑃, 𝑄 in above equation are either functions of „𝑥‟ or real
constants but 𝑅 is a function of „𝑥‟.
Working Rule :
1. Find C.F. Let C.F= yc = c1u(x) + c 2 u(x)
vRdx uRdx
2. Take 𝑃. 𝐼 = y p = 𝐴𝑢 + 𝐵𝑣 where 𝐴 = -  and B = 
uv' - vu' uv' - vu'
3. Write the G.S. of the given equation y = y c + y p

d2 y
1.Apply the method of variation of parameters to solve + y = cosecx
dx2
Sol : Given equation in the operator form is (D2 +1)y = cosecx …(1)

A.E is (m 2 +1) = 0
 m = ±i
The roots are complex conjugate numbers.
C.F is yc = c1cosx + c2sinx
Let 𝑦p= 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 be P.I. of (1)
dv du
u -v = cos 2 x + sin 2 x = 1
dx dx
𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 are given by
 vRdx sinxcosecx
𝐴 = - = - dx = - dx = -x
uv' - vu' 1
uRdx
𝐵=  uv 1
- vu1 
= cosx.cosecxdx =  cotxdx = log(sinx)

 y p = -xcosx + sinx.log(sinx)

General solution is 𝑦 = 𝑦c + 𝑦p.

y = c1cosx + c2sinx - xcosx + sinx.log(sinx)

2.Solve (D2 - 2D + 2)y = extanx by method of variation of parameters.

Sol : A.E is m2 - 2m + 2 = 0

2 ± 4 -8 2 ± i2
m = = = 1± i
2 2
We have yc = e x (c1cosx + c 2sinx) = c1e x cosx + c 2e x sinx

= c1 (u) + c 2 (u)

where u = e x cosx, v = e x sinx

du dv
= e x (-sinx) + e x cosx, = e x cosx + e x sinx
dx dx
dv du
u -v = e x cosx(e x cosx + e x sinx) - e xsinx(e x cosx - e x sinx)
dx dx
= e2x (cos 2 x + cosxsinx - sinxcosx + sin 2 x) = e2x
Using variation of parameters,
vR ex tanx
A = - = - 2x (ex sinx)dx
dv du e
u -v
dx dx
 sin 2 x  (1- cos 2 x)
= - tanxsinxdx =   dx  =  dx
 cosx  cosx
=  (secx - cosx)dx = log(secx + tanx) - sinx

uR
B = dx
dv du
u -v
dx dx
ex cosx.ex tanx
= dx =  sinxdx = -cosx
e2x
General solution is given by 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝐴𝑢 + 𝐵𝑣
i.e y = c1e x cosx + c 2e x sinx +[log(secx + tanx) - sinx]e x cosx - e x cosxsinx
 or y = c1e x cosx + c 2e x sinx +[log(secx + tanx) - 2sinx]e x cosx

3.Solve the differential equation (𝑫2 + 𝟒) 𝒚 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐𝒙 by the method of variation of

parameters.
Sol : Given equation is (𝐷2 + 4) 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐2𝑥 …..(1)
∴ A.E is 𝑚2 +4 = 0 ⇒ 𝑚 = ± 2𝑖
The roots are complex conjugate numbers.
∴ 𝑦𝑐 = 𝐶. 𝐹 = 𝑐1 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥
Let 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑃. 𝐼 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥
Here 𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥, 𝑣 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐2𝑥.
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
∴ 𝑑𝑥 = -2 s𝑖𝑛2𝑥 and 𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
∴u𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥) (2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥) – (𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥) (−2𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

= 2 cos22x + 2 sin22x = 2(cos22x + sin22x) = 2

𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 are given by :
𝑣𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2𝑥 1 1 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥
A=- 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢 dx = - 𝑑𝑥 = − 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑢 −𝑣 2 2 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥
⇒A= 4
𝑢𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2𝑥 1 𝑥
B= 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢 dx = 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 = 2
𝑢 −𝑣 2 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 𝑥
∴ yp = P. I = (cos2x) + 2 (sin2x)
4

∴ The general solution is given by :

𝑦 = 𝑦c + 𝑦p = C.F. + P.I
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 𝑥
i.e., 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + (𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥) + (𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥)
4 2

4.Solve 𝑫𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒚 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒙 by the method variation of parameters.

𝑑2𝑦
Sol: Given 𝐷2 + 𝑎2 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑥 i.e 𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑥 --------(1)
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Now compare equation (1) with 𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑝 𝑥 + 𝑄(𝑥)𝑦 = 𝑅(𝑥) then
𝑑𝑥

𝑃 = 0, 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑎2 and 𝑅 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑥

The solution of (1) is 𝑦 = 𝐶. 𝐹 + 𝑃. 𝐼
Finding C.F :
The A.E of (1) is 𝑚2 + 𝑎2 = 0 ⟹ 𝑚 = ±𝑎𝑖
∴ 𝐶. 𝐹 = 𝑐1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥 = 𝑐1 𝑢 + 𝑐2 𝑣
 Here 𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥 and 𝑣 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥
Finding P.I : 𝑃. 𝐼 = 𝐴𝑢 + 𝐵𝑣

𝑣𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑥 −1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑎𝑥 −1 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑎𝑥

Where 𝐴 = 𝑑𝑥 = − = 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑢 𝑣 ′ −𝑣𝑢′ 𝑎 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥
−1
= [ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥]
𝑎
−1 1
𝐴=
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥
𝑎2 𝑎2
𝑢𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑥 1 −1
𝐵= ′
𝑑𝑥 = = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥
𝑢𝑣 − 𝑣𝑢′ 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
−1 1
Therefore 𝑃. 𝐼 = 𝐴𝑢 + 𝐵𝑣 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥 +
𝑎2
−1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥
𝑎2

Therefore the general solution is 𝑦 = 𝐶. 𝐹 + 𝑃. 𝐼

−1 1
i.e 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥 +
𝑎2
−1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥
𝑎2
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝟐
5. Solve 𝒅𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚 = by the method of variation of parameters.
𝟏+𝒆𝒙
2
Solution: Given equation in the operator form is 𝐷2 − 1 𝑦 = 1+𝑒 𝑥 … … … … … … . (1)

A.E. is 𝑚2 − 1 = 0 𝑚 = ±1. The roots are real and different.

C.F. is 𝑦𝑐 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥 . Let 𝑦𝑝 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑥 where A & B are functions of x.
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
Let 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 & 𝑣 = 𝑒 −𝑥 . Then 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 = −2

Now A and B are given by

𝑣𝑅 2
𝐴=− 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥 where 𝑅 = 1+𝑒 𝑥
𝑢 −𝑣
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2
𝑒 −𝑥 1 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥 1
∴𝐴= − 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑑𝑥
−2 1 + 𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥 1 + 𝑒𝑥
1 1
=− − 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑥 − log 1 + 𝑒 𝑥
𝑒𝑥 1 + 𝑒𝑥
2
𝑢𝑅 𝑒𝑥
1+𝑒 𝑥
And 𝐵 = − 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥 = (1 + 𝑒 𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥 = −log⁡
𝑢 −𝑣 −2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

∴ 𝑦𝑝 = −1 + 𝑒 𝑥 log 1 + 𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 log⁡
(𝑒 𝑥 + 1)
∴ The general solution is 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑝
i.e.𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥 − 1 + 𝑒 𝑥 log 1 + 𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 log⁡
(𝑒 𝑥 + 1)
Equations reducible to linear ODE with constant coefficients :
Cauchy-Euler Equations (Homogenous Linear Differential Equation)
A linear differential equation of the form

𝑑𝑛 𝑦 𝑑𝑛 −1 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛 −1 𝑑𝑥 𝑛 −1 + …… + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑋 -- (1)

i.e, 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 𝐷𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛 −1 𝐷𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝐷 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑋 , 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐷 = 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 …… (2)

where 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … . . 𝑎𝑛 are constants and X is either constant or a function of x only is
called a homogenous linear differential equation .These are also known as Cauchy – Euler
equations.
Method of solution of homogenous linear differential equation
𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 𝐷𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛 −1 𝐷𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝐷 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑋….. (1)
In order to solve (1) introduce a new independent variable z such that
𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥 or log 𝑥 = 𝑧 so that 1 𝑥 = 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 …… (2)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 1 𝑑𝑦
Now , = . 𝑑𝑥 = , using (2) ……(3)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑥 𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑
or 𝑥 = or 𝑥𝐷=𝑥 = = 𝐷1 , say …….(4)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 1 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑 𝑑𝑦
Again𝑑𝑥 2 = = = − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑧 +
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧
1 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 1 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑2𝑦
= − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑧 + . 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑧 + , by (2)
𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑧 2
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
or 𝑥 2 𝐷2 = 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2 = − = (𝐷1 2 − 𝐷1 )𝑦 = 𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 𝑦 … … . (5)
𝑑𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧

and so on , proceeding likewise , we can show that

𝑑𝑛 𝑦
𝑥 𝑛 𝐷𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 𝐷1 − 2 … … 𝐷1 − 𝑛 + 1 𝑦 …….(6)

Substituting the above values of 𝑥, 𝑥𝐷, 𝑥 2 𝐷2 , 𝑥 3 𝐷3 … … . 𝑥 𝑛 𝐷𝑛 in (1) and thus changing the
independent variable from 𝑥 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 , we have
𝑎0 𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 … . 𝐷1 − 𝑛 + 1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝐷1 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑍
𝑜𝑟 𝑓 𝐷1 𝑦 = Z ……..(7)
Where Z is now a function of Z only .
Working rule for solving linear homogenous differential equation
𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 𝐷𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛 −1 𝐷𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝐷 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑋 ………(1)
Step I:Put 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 𝑜𝑟 𝑧 = log 𝑥 , 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 > 0
𝑑 𝑑
Step II: Assume that 𝐷1 = 𝑑𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷 ≡ . Then we have
𝑑𝑥

𝑥𝐷 = 𝐷1 , 𝑥 2 𝐷 2 = 𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 , 𝑥 3 𝐷3 = 𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 𝐷1 − 2 and so on.
Then (1) reduces to 𝑓 𝐷1 𝑦 = 𝑍, where Z is now function of z only ………(2)
Step III : (2) gives the general solution 𝑦= ∅ 𝑧 ………(3)
Since 𝑧 = log 𝑥 , the desired solution is 𝑦 = ∅ log 𝑥 𝑥 > 0 ………(4)
Solved Problems:
1. Solve the following differential equations:
i) 𝒙 𝟐 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒚 = 𝟑 𝒙 𝟐
ii) 𝒙𝒚𝟑 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟏 𝒙
iii) (𝒙𝟐 𝑫𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙𝑫 + 𝟒)𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙𝟐
iv) 𝒙𝟐 𝑫𝟐 − 𝟐𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏 𝒙

Sol. i) Given 𝑥 2 𝑦2 + 𝑦 = 3 𝑥 2 or ( 𝑥 2 𝐷2 + 1 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 where 𝐷 ≡ 𝑑 𝑑𝑥

Let 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 and 𝐷1 ≡ 𝑑 𝑑𝑧 so that 𝑥 2 𝐷2 = 𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1

∴ (1) ⇒ 𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 + 1 𝑦 = 3𝑒 2𝑧 𝑜𝑟 𝐷1 2 − 𝐷1 + 1 𝑦 = 3𝑒 2𝑧
Its auxiliary equation is 𝐷1 2 − 𝐷1 + 1 = 0 so that 𝐷1 = 1 ± 𝑖 3 /2
1
𝑐1 cos(𝑧 3 2) + 𝑐2 sin( 𝑧 3 2) 𝑐1 cos(𝑧 3 2) +
𝑧
C.F = 𝑒 2 = 𝑒𝑧 2

𝑐2sin(𝑧32)

1
3 3
= 𝑥 2 𝑐1 cos log 𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin log 𝑥 as 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧
2 2

c1 and c2 being arbitrary constants

1 1
P.I =𝐷 2 − 𝐷 +1 3𝑒 2𝑧 = 3 𝑒 2𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 2
= 𝑥2
1 1 22 −2+1

Hence the general solution is 𝑦 = 𝐶. 𝐹 + 𝑃. 𝐼

1
3 3
i.e, 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 𝑐1 cos log 𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin log 𝑥 + 𝑥2
2 2
𝑑3𝑦 𝑑2𝑦 𝑑
Sol.ii)Given𝑥 3 + 𝑥2 =𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 3 𝐷3 + 𝑥 2 𝐷2 𝑦 = 𝑥 , 𝐷≡
𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

……(1)
𝑑
Let 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 (or 𝑧 = log 𝑥) and 𝐷1 ≡ 𝑑𝑧

So that 𝑥 2 𝐷2 = 𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 , 𝑥 3 𝐷3 = 𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 𝐷1 − 2 . Then (1) transforms to

𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 𝐷2 − 2 + 𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑧 𝑜𝑟 𝐷1 3 − 2𝐷1 2 + 𝐷1 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑧
∴ Auxiliary equation is 𝐷1 3 − 2𝐷1 2 + 𝐷1 = 0 so that 𝐷1 = 0 , 1 , 1
C.F = 𝑐1 𝑒 0𝑧 + 𝑐2 + 𝑐3 𝑧 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 𝑐3 log 𝑥 𝑥 , 𝑎𝑠 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = log 𝑥
 1 1 1 1 1
P.I = 3 2 𝑒𝑧 = 2
𝑒𝑧 = 2
𝑒 𝑧 , as 𝑒𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 𝑑𝑧=𝑒 𝑧
𝐷1 −2𝐷1 +𝐷1 𝐷1 −1 𝐷1 𝐷1 −1 𝐷1

𝑧2
= 𝑒𝑧
2!

= 𝑥 2 log 𝑥 2
, since 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = log 𝑥

The required solution is 𝑦 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 𝑐3 log 𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 log 𝑥 2

,
c1 , c2 and c3 being arbitrary constants
Sol.iii) Given 𝑥 2 𝐷2 − 3𝑥𝐷 + 4 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 ……(1)
Let 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 (𝑜𝑟 𝑧 = log 𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷1 ≡ 𝑑 𝑑𝑧 . Then (1) becomes
𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 − 3𝐷1 + 4 𝑦 = 2𝑒 2𝑧 or 𝐷1 − 2 2 𝑦 = 2𝑒 2𝑧
2
Its auxiliary equation is 𝐷1 − 2 = 0 so that 𝐷1 = 2,2
∴ C.F = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑧 𝑒 2𝑧 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑧 𝑒 𝑧 2
= 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 log 𝑥 𝑥 2 , since x = ez and z =
log x
1 𝑧2
P.I = 𝐷1 −2 2
2𝑒 2𝑧 = 2 𝑒 2𝑧 = 𝑧 2 𝑒 𝑧 2
= log 𝑥 2 𝑥 2
2!

Hence the required solution is y = C.F + P.I,

i.e, y = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 log 𝑥 𝑥 2 + log 𝑥 2 𝑥 2
Sol.iv) Given 𝑥 2 𝐷2 − 2 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 −1 where 𝐷 ≡ 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 ……….(1)

Let 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 (𝑜𝑟 𝑧 = log 𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷1 ≡ 𝑑 𝑑𝑧 . Then (1) becomes

𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 − 2 𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑧 + 𝑒 −𝑧 or 𝐷1 2 − 𝐷1 − 2 𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑧 + 𝑒 −𝑧
Its auxiliary equation is 𝐷1 2 − 𝐷1 − 2 = 0 so that 𝐷1 = 2 , −1
∴ 𝐶. 𝐹 = 𝑐1 𝑒 2𝑧 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑧 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑧 2
+ 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑧 −1
= 𝑐1 𝑥 2 + 𝑐2 𝑥 −1 ,as 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧
1 1 1
P.I = 𝐷 2 −𝐷 −2 𝑒 2𝑧 + 𝑒 −𝑧 = 𝑒 2𝑧 + 𝑒 −𝑧
1 1 𝐷1 −2 𝐷1 +1 𝐷1 −2 𝐷1 +1
1 1 1 1 1 𝑧 1 𝑧 1
=𝐷 𝑒 2𝑧 + 𝑒 −𝑧 = 3 1! 𝑒 2𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑧 = log 𝑥 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 −1 , 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧
1 −2 2+1 𝐷1 +1 −1−2 3 1! 3
1
∴Solution is 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑥 2 + 𝑐2 𝑥 −1 + 3 log 𝑥 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 −1 , where

𝑐1 , 𝑐2 are aribitrary constants

𝑑3𝑦 𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2. Solve 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 = log 𝑥 + 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 2

Sol. Given 𝑥 3 𝐷3 + 3𝑥 2 𝐷2 + 𝑥𝐷 + 1 𝑦 = log 𝑥 + 𝑥 where 𝐷 ≡ 𝑑 𝑑𝑥

……..(1)
Let 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 (𝑜𝑟 𝑧 = log 𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷1 ≡ 𝑑 𝑑𝑧 . Then (1) becomes
𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 𝐷2 − 2 + 3𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 + 𝐷1 + 1 𝑦 = 𝑧 + 𝑒 𝑧 or
 (𝐷1 3 + 1)𝑦 = 𝑧 + 𝑒 𝑧
1±𝑖 3
Its auxiliary equation is(𝐷1 3 + 1) = 0 so that 𝐷1 = −1 , 2
𝑧 3 3
𝑐2 cos 𝑧 +𝑐3 sin 𝑧
C.F = 𝑐1 𝑒 −𝑧 + 𝑒 2 2 2

1 3 3
𝑐2 cos log 𝑥+ 𝑐3 sin log 𝑥
= 𝑐1 𝑥 −1 + 𝑥 2 2 2

1 1 1 1 −1
P.I = (𝐷 3 (𝑧 + 𝑒 𝑧 ) = 𝐷 3 𝑒𝑧 + 3 𝑧 = 13 +1 𝑒 𝑧 + 1 + 𝐷1 3 𝑧
1 +1) 1 +1 𝐷1 +1

1 𝑒𝑧 𝑥
= 2 𝑒 𝑧 + 1 − 𝐷1 3 + ⋯ . . 𝑧 = +𝑧 = + log 𝑥
2 2

∴ The required solution is y= C.F+ P.I

1 3 3
𝑐2 cos log 𝑥+ 𝑐3 sin log 𝑥 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑥 −1 + 𝑥 2 2 2 +2 + log 𝑥

3. Solve 𝑥 2 𝐷 2 − 𝑥𝐷 + 2 𝑦 = 𝑥 log 𝑥

Sol. Given 𝑥 2 𝐷2 − 𝑥𝐷 + 2 𝑦 = 𝑥 log 𝑥 where 𝐷 ≡ 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 ………(1)

Let 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 (𝑜𝑟 𝑧 = log 𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷1 ≡ 𝑑 𝑑𝑧 . Then (1) becomes

𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 − 𝐷1 + 2 𝑦 = 𝑧𝑒 𝑧 or 𝐷1 2 − 2𝐷1 + 2 𝑦 = 𝑧𝑒 𝑧

auxiliary equation is 𝐷1 2 − 2𝐷1 + 2 = 0 giving 𝐷1 = 1 ± 𝑖

∴ C.F = 𝑒 𝑧 𝑐1 cos 𝑧 + 𝑐2 sin 𝑧 = 𝑥 𝑐1 cos log 𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin log 𝑥 , where 𝑐1 , 𝑐2
are arbitrary constants
1 1 1
P.I = 𝑧𝑒 𝑧 =𝑒 𝑧 z = 𝑒𝑧 𝐷 .𝑧
𝐷1 2 −2𝐷1 +2 (𝐷1 +1)2 −2 𝐷1 +1 +2 1
2 +1

−1
= 𝑒 𝑧 1 + 𝐷1 2 . 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 1 − 𝐷1 2 + ⋯ 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 . 𝑧 = 𝑥 log 𝑥 , using (1)
∴ The required solution is y= C.F+ P.I
𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑐1 cos log 𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin log 𝑥 + 𝑥 log 𝑥
𝑑3𝑦 𝑑2𝑦
4. Solve 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 = 10 𝑥 + 1 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 2

Sol. Given 𝑥 3 𝐷3 + 2𝑥 2 𝐷2 + 2 𝑦 = 10 𝑥 + 𝑥 −1 where 𝐷 ≡ 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 ……..(1)

Let 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 (𝑜𝑟 𝑧 = log 𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷1 ≡ 𝑑 𝑑𝑧 . Then (1) becomes

𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 𝐷2 − 2 + 2𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 + 2 𝑦 = 10 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑒 −𝑧
(𝐷1 3 − 𝐷1 2 + 2)𝑦 = 10𝑒 𝑧 + 10𝑒 −𝑧 …………(2)
A. E of 2 is 𝐷1 3 − 𝐷1 2 + 2 = 0 giving 𝐷1 = −1 , 1 ± 𝑖
∴ C.F = 𝑐1 𝑒 −𝑧 + 𝑒 𝑧 𝑐2 cos 𝑧 + 𝑐3 sin 𝑧 = 𝑐1 𝑥 −1 + 𝑥 𝑐2 cos log 𝑥 + 𝑐3 sin log 𝑥
 1 1
P. I coressponding to 10 𝑒 𝑧 = 10 2 𝑒 𝑧 = 10 𝑒 𝑧 = 5𝑥
(𝐷1 +1) 𝐷1 −2𝐷1 +2 2(1−2+2)
1 1 1
P. I coressponding to 10 𝑒 −𝑧 = 10 (𝐷 𝑒 −𝑧 = 10 . 1+2+2 𝑒 −𝑧
1 +1) 𝐷1 2 −2𝐷1 +2 (𝐷1 +1)
1 1 1
= 2 (𝐷 𝑒 −𝑧 = 2𝑒 −𝑧 𝐷 .1 = 2𝑒 −𝑧 𝐷 .1 = 2𝑒 −𝑧 𝑧
1 +1) 1 −1+1 1

−1
=2𝑥 log 𝑥
∴ The required solution is y = C.F+ P.I
𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑥 −1 + 𝑥 𝑐2 cos log 𝑥 + 𝑐3 sin log 𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 𝑥 −1 log 𝑥

Equations reducible to homogeneous linear form- Legendre‟s l inear equation

A linear differential equation of the form
𝑎0 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 𝑛 𝐷𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 𝑛−1
𝐷𝑛−1 + ⋯ . +𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 𝐷 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑋, … … . . 1
Where a,b,𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … … . . 𝑎𝑛 are constants and X is either a constant or a function of x
only, is called Legendre‟s l inear equation. Note that the index of 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 and the order of
derivative is same in each term of such equations.
Method of solution: To solve 1 , introduce a new variable z such that
𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 = 𝑧 … … . . 2
𝑑 𝑑
Let 𝐷1 = 𝑑𝑧 and D= … … … … . 3
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑧 𝑏
From 2 , we have 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎+𝑏𝑥 … … … 4
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑏 𝑑𝑦
∴ = = 𝑎+𝑏𝑥 , using 4 ……… 5
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑑𝑧 ⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 𝐷 = 𝑏𝐷1 ………. 6
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑏 𝑑𝑦
Again, 𝑑𝑥 2 = 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 , using 5
𝑑𝑥 𝑎+𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑧

𝑏2 𝑑𝑦 𝑏 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑏2 𝑑𝑦 𝑏 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
=− 2 𝑑𝑧
+ = − 2
+
𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥
𝑏2 𝑑𝑦 𝑏 𝑑2𝑦 𝑏
=− 2
+ 𝑎+𝑏𝑥 , using 4
𝑎 +𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧 2 𝑎+𝑏𝑥

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 2
= 𝑏 2
− ⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 2 𝐷2 𝑦 = 𝑏 2 𝐷12 − 𝐷1 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧
∴ 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 2 𝐷2 = 𝑏 2 𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 ……… 7
Similarly, 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 3 𝐷3 = 𝑏 3 𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 𝐷1 − 2 … … … . . 8 and so on.
Proceeding likewise, we finally have
𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 𝑛 𝐷𝑛 = 𝑏 𝑛 𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 𝐷1 − 2 … … . 𝐷1 − 𝑛 + 1
Substituting the above values of 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 𝑛 𝐷𝑛 , … … . 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 2 𝐷2 , 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 𝐷 etc in 1 ,
we have
𝑎0 𝑏 𝑛 𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 𝐷1 − 2 … … . 𝐷1 − 𝑛 + 1 + ⋯ . +𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏𝐷 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑍,………. 9
Which is a linear differential equation with constant coefficients in variables y and z; Z is
𝑒 𝑧 −𝑎
now function of z only and is obtained by using transformation 2 by replacing x by .
𝑏

Let a solution of 1 𝑏𝑒 𝑦 = 𝐹 𝑧 . Then, the required solution is given by

𝑦 = 𝐹 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 , as 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 = 𝑧
Working rule for solving Legendre‟s l inear equation, i.e.,
𝑎0 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 𝑛 𝐷𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 𝑛−1
𝐷𝑛−1 + ⋯ . +𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 𝐷 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑋, … … . . 1
Where a,b,𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … … . . 𝑎𝑛 are constants and X is either a constant or a function of x
𝑑
only and D= 𝑑𝑥

StepI: Introduce a new variable z such that

𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 = 𝑧 … … . . 2
𝑑
Step II: Assume that 𝐷1 = .Then, we have
𝑑𝑧

𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 𝐷 = 𝑏𝐷1 , 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 2 𝐷2 = 𝑏 2 𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 , 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 3 𝐷 3 = 𝑏 3 𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 𝐷1 − 2
and so on.
As a particular case , when 𝑏 = 1, we have
𝑎 + 𝑥 𝐷 = 𝐷1 , 𝑎 + 𝑥 2 𝐷2 = 𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 , 𝑎 + 𝑥 3 𝐷3 = 𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 𝐷1 − 2 and so
on.
Then (1) reduces to 𝑓 𝐷1 𝑦 = 𝑍, where Z is now function of z only. … … … … . (3)
Step III : We now use the methods of Chapter 5 to slove (3) and get a solution of form
𝑦 = 𝐹 𝑍 ……… 4
Using (2), the required solution is given by 𝑦 = 𝐹 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 ……….. 5
Solved Problems:
2
2𝑑 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
1. Solve 1 + 𝑥 2 + 1+𝑥 + 𝑦 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑔 1 + 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

2
2𝑑 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Sol. Given 1 + 𝑥 2 + 1+𝑥 + 𝑦 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑔 1 + 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

𝑑
1 + 𝑥 2 2 𝐷2 + 1 + 𝑥 𝐷 + 1 𝑦 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑔 1 + 𝑥 , 𝐷= …… 1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
Let 1 + 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 or log 1 + x = z. Also, let 𝐷1 = 𝑑𝑧 … … … . 2

Then, we have 1 + 𝑥 𝐷 = 𝐷1 , 1 + 𝑥 2 2 𝐷2 = 𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 and hence 1 gives

𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 + 𝐷1 + 1 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 or 𝐷1 2 + 1 𝑦 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 … … … 3
Its auxiliary equation is 𝐷1 2 + 1 = 0 so that 𝐷1 = 0 ± 𝑖
 ∴ C.F. = 𝑒 0𝑧 𝑐1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 + 𝑐2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 = 𝑐1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑔 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑔 1 + 𝑥 , using 2
Where 𝑐1 and 𝑐2 are arbitrary constants.
1 1
P.I. = 𝐷 2 +1 4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 = R.P. of 4𝑒 𝑖𝑧 , where R.P. stands for real part
1 𝐷12 +1
1 1
= R.P. of 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 . 4 =R.P. of 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 .4
𝐷12 +1 𝐷1 +𝑖 2 +1
1 1
= R.P. of 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 𝐷 2 +2𝐷𝑖 . 4 =R.P. of 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 𝐷 .4
1 2𝐷1 𝑖 1+ 1
2𝑖

𝑒 𝑖𝑧 1 𝐷1 −1 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 1 𝐷1
=R.P. of 1+ 4 =R.P. of 1− + ⋯ … 4n
2𝑖 𝐷1 2 2𝑖 𝐷1 2𝑖
1 1
= R.P. of 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 4𝑧 = 𝑅. 𝑃. 𝑜𝑓 −2𝑖𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 , as 𝑖 = −𝑖
2𝑖

= 2zsinz = 2log 1 + x sinlog 1 + x as log 1 + x = z.

∴Solution is y = c1 coslog 1 + x + c2 sinlog 1 + x + 2log 1 + x sinlog 1 + x
2
2𝑑 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2. Solve 𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥 2
+ 𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥
= 2𝑥 + 3 2𝑥 + 4

𝑑
Sol. Let 𝐷 = 𝑑𝑥

Given equation reduces to 𝑥 + 1 2 𝐷2 + 𝑥 + 1 𝐷 𝑦 = 4𝑥 2 + 14𝑥 + 12 … … . 1

𝑑
Let 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑒 𝑧 or 𝑧 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + 1 Also let 𝐷1 = 𝑑𝑧 … … … . 2

Then 𝑥 + 1 𝐷 = 𝐷1 and 𝑥 + 1 2 𝐷2 = 𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1
Hence, 1 gives
𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 + 𝐷1 𝑦 = 4 𝑒 𝑧 − 1 2
+ 14 𝑒 𝑧 − 1 + 12
𝐷1 2 𝑦 = 4𝑒 2𝑧 + 6𝑒 𝑧 + 2 … … . . 3
Auxiliary equation of 3 𝑖𝑠 𝐷1 2 = 0. giving 𝐷1 = 0,0.
∴ C.F. = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑧 𝑒 0𝑧 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑧 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + 1 , using 𝑧 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + 1
P.I. = 𝐷12 4𝑒 2𝑧 + 6𝑒 𝑧 + 2 = 𝐷1 2𝑒 2𝑧 + 6𝑒 𝑧 + 2𝑧 = 𝑒 2𝑧 + 6𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑒 𝑧 2 + 6𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑧 2
1 1

2 2
= 𝑥+1 + 6 𝑥 + 1 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + 1
Thus, P.I. = 𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 7 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + 1 2

∴ Solution is 𝑦 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + 1 + 𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 7 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + 1 2

,
where 𝑐1 and 𝑐2 are arbitrary constants
2
2𝑑 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
3. Solve 𝑥 + 1 −4 𝑥+1 + 6𝑦 = 6 𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

𝑑
Sol. Let 𝐷 = 𝑑𝑥 Given equation reduces to

𝑥 + 1 2 𝐷2 − 4 𝑥 + 1 𝐷 + 6 𝑦 = 6 𝑥 + 1 … . 1
 𝑑
Let 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑒 𝑧 or 𝑧 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + 1 Also let 𝐷1 = ………. 2
𝑑𝑧

Then 𝑥 + 1 𝐷 = 𝐷1 and 𝑥 + 1 2 𝐷2 = 𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 . So 1 gives

𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 − 4𝐷1 + 6 𝑦 = 6𝑒 𝑧
𝐷12 − 5𝐷1 + 6 𝑦 = 6𝑒 𝑧 … … . . 3
Auxiliary equation of 3 is 𝐷12 − 5𝐷1 + 6 = 0 giving 𝐷1 = 2,3.
∴ C.F. = 𝑐1 𝑒 2𝑧 + 𝑐2 𝑒 3𝑧 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑧 2
+ 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑧 3
= 𝑐1 𝑥 + 1 2
+ 𝑐2 𝑥 + 1 3

1 1
P.I. = 𝐷 2 −5𝐷 6𝑒 𝑧 = 6 12 − 5𝑥1 𝑒 𝑧 = 3𝑒 𝑧 = 3 𝑥 + 1 , 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑒 𝑧
1 1 +6 +6
2 3
∴ Solution is 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑥 + 1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 + 1 +3 𝑥+1 .
Where 𝑐1 and 𝑐2 are A.C .
𝑑
4. Solve 3𝑥 + 2 2 𝐷2 + 3 3𝑥 + 2 𝐷 − 36 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1, 𝐷 = 𝑑𝑥 .

Sol. Given 3𝑥 + 2 2 𝐷2 + 3 3𝑥 + 2 𝐷 − 36 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1 … … 1
𝑑
Let 3𝑥 + 2 = 𝑒 𝑧 or 𝑙𝑜𝑔 3𝑥 + 2 = 𝑧. Also let 𝐷1 = … … … . 2
𝑑𝑧

3𝑥 + 2 𝐷 = 3𝐷1 , 3𝑥 + 2 2 𝐷2 = 32 𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 . Then 1 gives

2
𝑒𝑧 − 2 𝑒𝑧 − 2
32 𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 + 3.3𝐷1 − 36 𝑦 = 3 +4 +1
3 3
𝑒𝑧 − 2
𝑧 𝑧
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 3𝑥 + 2 = 𝑒 ⇒ 3𝑥 = 𝑒 − 2 ⇒ 𝑥 =
3
1 4
9 𝐷1 𝐷1 − 1 + 𝐷1 − 4 = 3 𝑒 2𝑧 − 4𝑒 𝑧 + 4 + 3 𝑒 𝑧 − 2 + 1
1 1 1 1
9 𝐷12 − 4 = 3 𝑒 2𝑧 − 3 ⇒ 𝐷12 − 4 = 27 𝑒 2𝑧 − 27

Here auxiliary equation is 𝐷12 − 4 = 0 so that 𝐷1 = 2, −2.

∴ C. F. = c1 e2z + c2 e−2z = c1 ez 2
+ c2 ez −2
= c1 3𝑥 + 2 2
+ 𝑐2 3𝑥 + 2 −2

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
P.I. corresponding to 27 𝑒 2𝑧 = 27 𝐷 2 −4 𝑒 2𝑧 = 27 𝐷 𝑒 2𝑧 = 27 𝐷 𝑒 2𝑧
1 1 −2 𝐷1 +2 1 −2 2+2

1 1 1 𝑧 1 𝑧𝑛
= 𝑒 2𝑧 = 𝑒 2𝑧 , as 𝑛
𝑒 𝑎𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑧
108 𝐷1 −2 108 1! 𝐷1 −𝑎 𝑛!
1 1
= 108 𝑧 𝑒 𝑧 2
= 108 3𝑥 + 2 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 3𝑥 + 2 , using 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
P.I. corresponding to − 27 = − 27 𝐷 2 −4 . 1 = − 27 𝐷 2 −4 𝑒 0𝑧 = − 27 02 −4 𝑒 0𝑧 = 108
1 1

2 −2 1
∴ Solution is 𝑦 = 𝑐1 3𝑥 + 2 + 𝑐2 3𝑥 + 2 + 108 3𝑥 + 2 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 3𝑥 + 2 + 1

Where 𝑐1 and 𝑐2 are arbitrary constants