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in

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et

NAME
CLASS XII -
GROUP
YEAR 20 - 20

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PREPARED BY GOKULNATH ALAGESAN

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Determination of the specific resistance of the material of the
given coil using metre bridge.
2. Determination of the value of the horizontal component of the Earth’s
magnetic field using tangent galvanometer.
3. Comparison of emf of two cells using potentiometer.
4. Determination of the refractive index of the material of
the prism by finding angle of prism and angle of

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minimum deviation using spectrometer.
5. Determination of the wavelength of a composite light by normal
incidence method using diffraction grating and spectrometer
(The number of lines per metre length of the grating is given).

et
6. Investigation of the voltage-current (V-I) characteristics of
PN junction diode.
7. Investigation of the voltage-current (V-I) characteristics of Zener
diode.
8. Investigation of the static characteristics of a NPN Junction
transistor in common emitter configuration.
9. Verification of the truth table of the basic logic gates using integrated
circuits.
10.Verification of De Morgan’s theorems using integrated circuits.

1. SPECIFIC RESISTANCE OF THE MATERIAL OF THE COIL USING

METRE BRIDGE
AIM To determine the specific resistance of the material of the
given coil using metre bridge.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Meter bridge, galvanometer, key, resistance box, connecting wires,
Lechlanche cell, jockey and high resistance.

FORMULA Xπv2
(Ωm)
L
ρ=
where, ρ → Specific resistance of the given coil (Ωm)
X → Resistance of the given coil (Ω)
R → Known resistance (Ω)
L → Length of the coil (m)
r → Radius of the wire (m)
PROCEDURE

• A resistance box R is connected in the left gap and the unknown resistance X in the
right gap.
• A Lechlanche cell is connected across the wire of length 1 m through a key.
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• A sensitive galvanometer G is connected between the central strip and the jockey
through a high resistance (HR).
• With a suitable resistance included in the resistance box, the circuit is switched on.
• To check the circuit connections, the jockey is pressed near one end of the wire, say
A. The galvanometer will show deflection in one direction. When the jockey is
pressed near the other end of the wire B, the galvanometer will show deflection in
the opposite direction. This ensures that the circuit connections are correct.
• By moving the jockey over the wire, the point on the wire at which the galvanometer

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shows null deflection i.e., balancing point J is found.
• The balancing length AJ =l is noted. R(100-l)
• The unknown resistance X1 is found using the formula X =
1
l
• The experiment is repeated for different values of R.

et
• The same procedure is repeated aft er interchanging R and X.
• The unknown resistance Rl
X is found using the formula X =
2 2
100-l
• The experiment is repeated for same values of R as before.
• The resistance of the given coil is found from the mean value of X1 and X2.
• The radius of the wire r is found using screw gauge.
• The length of the coil L is measured using meter scale.
• From the values of X, r and L, the specific resistance of the material of the wire is
determined.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM (L\S)

X
R
D
G G

A J B
l
+ –

OBSERVATION (L\S)
length of the coil, L = 100 cm.
Table 1 To find the resistance of the given coil

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Before interchanging After interchanging

Mean
Resistance Balancing Balancing
Rl X1+X2
S.No. length l length l X2 =
R (Ω) R(100-l) (Ω) X= (Ω)
(cm) X1 = (Ω) 100-l 2
l (cm)
1x62 1x62
1 1 38 =1.632 62 =1.632 1.632
38 38
2x46 2x45

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2 2 54 =1.704 45 =1.637 1.6705
54 54
3x36 3x35
3 3 64 =1.688 35 =1.688 1.652
64 64

et
4x30 4x30
4 4 70 = 1.714 30 = 1.714 1.714
70 70
5x26 5x25
5 5 74 = 1.757 25 = 1.667 1.712
74 74
6x23 6x22
6 6 77 = 1.792 22 = 1.692 1.742
77 77
Mean resistance, X =1.687 Ω

Table 2 To find the radius of the wire

Zero error = Nil
Zero correction = Nil

LC = 0.01 mm
Total Reading Corrected Reading
PSR HSC
Sl.No. = PSR + (HSC × LC) = TR ± ZC
(mm) (div.)
(mm) (mm)
1 0 54 0.54 0.54
2 0 54 0.54 0.54
3 0 54 0.54 0.54

Mean diameter ,2r = 0.54x10-1 cm

Radius of the wire, r = 0.27x10-1 cm
r = 0.27x10-3 m
r2 = 0.0729x10-6 m
CALCULATION
Xπr2 -6 -7
i) P = = 1.687 x π x 0.0729x10 = 3.863x10 Ωm
L
RESULT
The specific resistance of the material of the given coil = 3.86x10-7 Ωm
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2. HORIZONTAL COMPONENT OF EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD

USING TANGENT GALVANOMETER

AIM To determine the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field

using tangent galvanometer.

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APPARATUS REQUIRED Tangent galvanometer (TG), commutator, battery, rheostat,
ammeter, key and connecting wires.

µ0nk

et
BH =
FORMULA 2r (Tesla)
I
k= (A)
tan ϴ
where, BH → Horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic fi eld (T)

µ0 → Permeability of free space (4π × 10−7 H m−1)

n → Number of turns of TG in the circuit (No unit)
k → Reduction factor of TG (A)
r → Radius of the coil (m)
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM (L\S)

k
+ –
TG

+ –
A

PROCEDURE
• The preliminary adjustments are carried out as follows.
a. The leveling screws at the base of TG are adjusted so that the circular turn
table is horizontal and the plane of the circular coil is vertical.
b. The circular coil is rotated so that its plane is in the magnetic meridian i.e.,
along the northsouth direction.
c. The compass box alone is rotated till the aluminium pointer reads 0°−0°.
• The connections are made as shown in Figure.
• The number of turns n is selected and the circuit is switched on.
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• The range of current through TG is chosen in such a way that the deflection of the
aluminium pointer lies between 30°−60°.
• A suitable current is allowed to pass through the circuit, the deflections θ1 and θ2 are
noted from two ends of the aluminium pointer.
• Now the direction of current is reversed using commutator C, the deflections θ3 and
θ4 in the opposite directions are noted.
• The mean value θ of θ1, θ2, θ3 and θ4 is calculated and tabulated.
• The reduction factor k is calculated for each case and it is found that k is a constant.
• The experiment is repeated for various values of current and the readings are noted

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and tabulated.
• The radius of the circular coil is found by measuring the circumference of the coil
using a thread around the coil.
• From the values of r, n and k, the horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field is

et
determined.

OBSERVATION (L\S)
Number of turns of the coil n = 5
Circumference of the coil (2πr) = 48.7×10-2
48.7×10-2
Radius of the coil r = 2π m

S.No Current I Deflection in TG Mean θ

(A) (degree) (degree)
θ 1 θ2 θ3 θ 4
I
k = tanθ

1 1 47 47 45 45 46o 0.97
2 0.9 43 43 42 42 42.5o 0.98
3 0.8 40 40 40 40 40o 0.95
4 0.7 38 38 38 38 38o 0.89
Mean 0.948
CALCULATION (L\S)

-7 4π2×10-7×5×0.98
BH = µ0nk = 4π×10 ×5×0.98 =
2r 48.7 2×48.7×10-2
2× 2π ×10-2
[µo = 4π×10-7]

= 3.842 × 10-5 T

RESULT
The horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field is found to be 3.842×10-5 T

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3.COMPARISON OF EMF OF TWO CELLS

USING POTENTIOMETER
AIM To compare the emf of the given two cells using a potentiometer.
APPARATUS REQUIRED Battery eliminator, key, rheostat, DPDT switch, Lechlanche and
Daniel cells, galvanometer, high resistance box, pencil jockey and
connecting wires.
ε1 l1

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FORMULA =
ε2 l2
where, ε1 and ε2 are the emf of Lechlanche and Daniel cells respectively (V)
l1 and l2 are the balancing lengths for Lechlanche and Daniel cells

et
respectively (cm)
PROCEDURE
• The apparatus is arranged as shown in the circuit diagram.
• The primary circuit consisting of battery, key and rheostat is connected to the potentiometer in
series.
• The positive poles of the cells are connected to terminals M 1 & M2 and the negative poles to
terminals N1 & N2 of the DPDT switch. The potentiometer is connected to the common terminals
M and N as shown in the circuit.
• Using the two-way key, Lechlanche cell is included in the circuit. By sliding the jockey on the
potentiometer wire, the balancing point is found and the corresponding balancing length is
measured.
• Similarly, the balancing length is found by including Daniel cell in the circuit.
• The experiment is repeated for different sets of balancing lengths by adjusting the rheostat.
• From different values of l1 and l2, the ratio of emf of the two cells is calculated.

OBSERVATION (L\S)
Table: To find the ratio of emf of two cells
S.No Balancing length for Balancing length for ε1 l1
Lechlanche cell, l1 Daniel cell, l2 ε2 = l2
(cm) (cm)
1 570 410 1.390

2 520 381 1.364

3 462 341 1.354

4 512 380 1.347

5 456 342 1.333

6 563 418 1.346

ε1
Mean 1.355 (no unit)
ε2 =

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CALCULATION (L\S)
= 570 = 1.390
ε1
ε2 410

= 520 = 1.364
ε1
381

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ε2

= 462 = 1.354
ε1
ε2 341

et
= 512 = 1.347
ε1
ε2 380

= 456 = 1.333
ε1
ε2 542

= 563 = 1.346
ε1
ε2 418

RESULT
Ratio of emf of the given two cells = 1.355 (no unit)

4. REFRACTIVE INDEX OF THE MATERIAL OF THE PRISM

AIM To determine the refractive index of the material of a prism
using spectrometer.

APPARATUS REQUIRED Spectrometer, prism, prism clamp, sodium vapour lamp, spirit level.

 A+D 
sin
FORMULA  2
(No unit)


A
sin
 2 
Where, μ → Refractive index of the material of the prism (No unit)

A → Angle of the prism (degree)

D → Angle of minimum deviation (degree)

DIAGRAMS (L\S)

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2 D

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T T

PROCEDURE
et
1) Initial adjustments of the spectrometer
• Eye-piece: The eye-piece of the telescope is adjusted so that the cross-wires are seen
clearly.
• Slit: The slit of the collimator is adjusted such that it is very thin and vertical.
• Base of the spectrometer: The base of the spectrometer is adjusted to be horizontal
using leveling screws.
• Telescope: The telescope is turned towards a distant object and is adjusted till the
clear inverted image of the distant object is seen. Now the telescope is adjusted to
receive parallel rays.
• Collimator: The telescope is brought in line with the collimator. Collimator is
adjusted until a clear image of the slit is seen in the telescope. Now the collimator
gives parallel rays.
• Prism table: Using a spirit level, the prism table is adjusted to be horizontal with the
three leveling screws provided in the prism table.
2) Determination of angle of the prism (A)
• The slit is illuminated by yellow light from sodium vapour lamp.
• The given equilateral prism is placed on the prism table in such a way that refracting
edge of the prism is facing the collimator.
• The light emerging from the collimator is incident on both reflecting faces of the
prism and is reflected.
• The telescope is rotated towards left to obtain reflected image of the slit from face 1
of the prism and is fixed.
• Using tangential screws, the telescope is adjusted until the vertical cross-wire
coincides with the reflected image of the slit.
• The main scale reading and vernier coincidence are noted from both vernier scales.
• The telescope is now rotated towards right to obtain the reflected image from face 2
of the prism. As before, the readings are taken.
• The difference between the two readings gives 2A from which the angle of the prism
A is calculated.

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3) Determination of angle of minimum deviation (D)

• The prism table is rotated such that the light emerging from the collimator is incident on one of
the refracting faces of the prism, gets refracted and emerges out from the other refracting face.
• The telescope is turned to view the refracted image.
• Looking through the telescope, the prism table is rotated in such a direction that the image
moves towards the direct ray.
• At one particular position, the refracted ray begins to retrace its path. The position where the
refracted image returns is the position of minimum deviation.
• The telescope is fixed in this position and is adjusted until the vertical cross-wire coincides

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with the refracted image of the slit.
• The readings are taken from both vernier scales.
• The prism is now removed and the telescope is rotated to obtain the direct ray image and the
readings are taken.
• The readings are tabulated and the difference between these two readings gives the angle of

et
minimum deviation D.
• From the values of A and D, the refractive index of the material of the glass prism is determined.
Least count (L\S)
1 MSD = 30′
Number of vernier scale divisions = 30
For spectrometer, 30 vernier scale divisions will cover 29 main scale divisions.
∴ 30 VSD = 29 MS
Or 1 VSD =
29 30 MSD

Least count (LC) = 1 MSD – 1 VSD

1
= 30 MSD
= 1′
OBSERVATION (L\S)

Table 1, To find the angle of the prism (A)

Vernier A (Degree) Vernier B (Degree)

Image
MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR
127°30’ 10’ 127°40’ 307°30’ 10’ 307°40’
Reflected image
from face 1
Reflected image 249°30’ 10’ 249°40’ 69°30’ 10’ 69°40’
from face 2
122° 122°
Difference 2A
Mean 2A=122°
Mean A = 61°

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Table 2 To find the angle of minimum deviation (D)

Vernier A (Degree) Vernier B (Degree)

Image
MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR
155° 10’ 155°10’ 335° 10’ 335°10’
Refracted image
195° 10’ 195° 15° 10’ 15°10’
Direct image

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40° 40°
Difference D
Mean D = 40°

et
CALCULATION (L\S)

A+D  61°+40° 
sin  sin 
 2   2  sin(50° 30') 0.77162
µ= A  = 61°  = sin (30° 30°) = 0.5075 = 1.52
sin  sin 
2 2
   
RESULT
1. Angle of the Prism (A) = 61° (degree)
2. Angle of the minimum deviation of the prism (D) = 40° (degree)
3. Refractive index of the material of the Prism (μ) = 1.52 (No unit)

5. WAVELENGTH OF THE CONSTITUENT COLOURS OF A COMPOSITE

LIGHT USING DIFFRACTION GRATING AND SPECTROMETER
AIM To find the wavelength of the constituent colours of a composite
light using diffraction grating and spectrometer.

APPARATUS REQUIRED Spectrometer, mercury vapour lamp, diffraction

grating, grating table, and spirit level.
sinθ
FORMULA λ= Å
nN

where, λ → Wavelength of the constituent colours of a

composite light (Å)
N → Number of lines per metre length of the given grating
(No unit) (the value of N for the grating is given)
n → Order of the diffraction (No unit)
θ → Angle of diffraction (degree)

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PROCEDURE
1) Initial adjustments of the spectrometer
• Eye-piece: The eye-piece of the telescope is adjusted so that the cross-wires are seen
clearly.
• Slit: The slit of the collimator is adjusted such that it is very thin and vertical.
• Base of the spectrometer: The base of the spectrometer is adjusted to be horizontal
using leveling screws.
• Telescope: The telescope is turned towards a distant object and is adjusted till the
clear image of the distant object is seen. Now the telescope is adjusted to receive

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parallel rays.
• Collimator: The telescope is brought in line with the collimator. Collimator is
adjusted until a clear image of the slit is seen in the telescope. Now the collimator
gives parallel rays. Grating table: Using a spirit level, the grating table is adjusted to

et
be horizontal with the three leveling screws provided in the grating table.
2) Adjustment of the grating for normal incidence
• The slit is illuminated with a composite light (white light) from mercury vapour lamp.
• The telescope is brought in line with the collimator. The vertical cross-wire is made
to coincide with the image of the slit.
• The vernier disc alone is rotated till the vernier scale reads 00 - 1800 and is fixed.
This is the reading for the direct ray.
• The telescope is then rotated (anti-clockwise) through an angle of 900 and fixed.
• Now the plane transmission grating is mounted on the grating table.
• The grating table alone is rotated so that the light reflected from the grating
coincides with vertical cross-wire of the telescope. The reflected image is white in
colour.
• Now the vernier disc is released. The vernier disc along with grating table is rotated
through an angle of 450 in the appropriate direction such that the light from the
collimator is incident normally on the grating
• The telescope is then rotated (anti-clockwise) through an angle of 900 and fixed.
• Now the plane transmission grating is mounted on the grating table.
• The grating table alone is rotated so that the light reflected from the grating
coincides with vertical cross-wire of the telescope. The reflected image is white in
colour.
• Now the vernier disc is released. The vernier disc along with grating table is rotated
through an angle of 450 in the appropriate direction such that the light from the
collimator is incident normally on the grating
3) Determination of wave length of the constituent colours of the mercury spectrum
• The telescope is released and is brought in line with the collimator to receive central
direct image. This undispersed image is white in colour.
• The diffracted images of the slit are observed on either side of the direct image.
• The diffracted image consists of the prominent colours of mercury spectrum in
increasing order of wavelength.
• The telescope is turned to any one side (say left) of direct image to observe first
order diffracted image.
• The vertical cross-wire is made to coincide with the prominent spectral lines (violet,
blue, yellow and red) and the readings of both vernier scales for each case are noted.
• Now the telescope is rotated to the right side of the direct image and the first order
image is observed.
• The vertical cross-wire is made to coincide with the same prominent spectral lines
and the readings of both vernier scales for each case are again noted.
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• The readings are tabulated.

• The difference between these two readings gives the value of 2θ for the particular

spectral line.

• The number of lines per metre length of the given grating N is noted from the

grating.

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• From the values of N, n and θ, the wave length of the prominent colours of the

mercury light is determined using the given formula.

OBSERVATION (L\S)
et
To find the wave length of prominent colours of the mercury spectrum

Diffracted Ray Reading (Degree)

Colour of Light

Right Difference
Left θ
2θ
Vernier A Vernier B Vernier A Vernier B (Degree)
(Degree)
VER A

VER B
TR

TR

TR

TR
MSR

VSC

MSR

VSC

MSR

VSC

MSR

VSC

Blue 301°30’ 10’ 301°40’ 121°30’ 10’ 121°40’ 333°30’ 10’ 333°40’ 153°40’ 10’ 153°40’ 32° 32° MEAN
32° 16°

Green 299°30’ 10’ 299°40’ 119°40’ 10’ 119°40’ 335°40’ 10’ 335°40’ 155°30’ 10’ 155°40’ 36° 36° 36° 18°

Yellow 297° 10’ 297°40’ 117° 10’ 117°10’ 337° 10’ 337°10’ 157° 10’ 157°10’ 40° 40° 40° 20°

Red 294° 10’ 294°40’ 114° 10’ 114°10’ 340° 10’ 340°10’ 160° 10’ 160°10’ 46° 46° 46° 23°

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DIAGRAMS (L\S)
C C C
C

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et G

Y Y
G G

CALCULATION (L\S)

(i) sinθ sin16°

0.263589
For blue, λ = = = = 0.04671x10-5 = 4671 Å
5 5
nN 5.9x10 5.9x10

sinθ sin18° 0.308983

(ii) For green, λ = = = = 0.05237x10-5 = 5237 Å
nN 5.9x105 5.9x105

sinθ sin20° 0.341964

(iii) For yellow, λ = = = = 0.05796x10-5 = 5796 Å
5 5
nN 5.9x10 5.9x10

sinθ sin23° 0.390698

(iv) For red, λ = = = = 0.06622x10-5 = 6622 Å
nN 5.9x105 5.9x105

RESULT
1. The wavelength of blue line = 4671x10-10 m
2. The wavelength of green line = 5237x10-10 m
3. The wavelength of yellow line = 5796x10-10 m
4. The wavelength of red line = 6622x10-10 m

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6. VOLTAGE-CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS OF A PN JUNCTION

DIODE
AIM To draw the voltage-current (V- I) characteristics of the PN
junction diode and to determine its knee voltage and forward
resistance.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

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PN junction diode (IN4007), variable DC power supply,
milli-ammeter, micro-ammeter, voltmeter, resistance and
connecting wires.

et
∆VF
FORMULA RF = ∆I (Ω)
F

where, RF → Forward resistance of the diode (Ω)

∆VF → The change in forward voltage (volt)

∆IF → The change in forward current (mA)

PROCEDURE

i) Forward bias characteristics

• In the forward bias, the P- region of the diode is connected to the positive
terminal and N-region to the negative terminal of the DC power supply.
• The connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
• The voltage across the diode can be varied with the help of the variable
DC power supply.
• The forward voltage (VF) across the diode is increased from 0.1 V in
steps of 0.1 V up to 0.8 V and the forward current (IF) through the diode
is noted from the milli-ammeter. The readings are tabulated.
• The forward voltage VF and the forward current IF are taken as positive.
• A graph is drawn taking the forward voltage (VF) along the x-axis and the
forward current (IF) along the y-axis.
• The voltage corresponding to the dotted line in the forward characteristics
gives the knee voltage or threshold voltage or turn-on voltage of the
diode.
• The slope in the linear portion of the forward characteristics is calculated.
The reciprocal of the slope gives the forward resistance of the diode.
ii) Reverse bias characteristics
• In the reverse bias, the polarity of the DC power supply is reversed so
that the P- region of the diode is connected to the negative terminal and
N- region to the positive terminal of the DC power supply
• The connections are made as given in the circuit diagram.

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• The voltage across the diode can be varied with the help of the variable
DC power supply.

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• The reverse voltage (VR) across the diode is increased from 1 V in steps
of 1 V up to 5 V and the reverse current (IR) through the diode is noted
from the micro-ammeter. The readings are tabulated.
• The reverse voltage VR and reverse current IR are taken as negative.
• A graph is drawn taking the reverse bias voltage (VR) along negative x-
axis and the reverse bias current (IR) along negative y-axis.
MODEL GRAPH (L\S)

www.Padasalai. F
)

et
∆ F

Slope =
∆IF
∆VF
R
VF

∆V F 1
1
Forward resistance =
slop
slope e

–I

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM (L\S)

N P

PN junction diode and its symbol

mA– + –
+
– +
+ + V)
V) +
– – –

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OBSERVATION (L\S)

Table 1 Forward bias characteristic curve

Forward bias voltage VF Forward bias current IF
S.No. (mA)
(volt)
1 0.42 0.1

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2 0.45 0.1

3 0.48 0.2

et
4 0.5 0.3

5 0.55 0.9

6 0.6 2.8

7 0.65 7.3

8 0.7 21.2

9 0.75 68.5

Table 2 Reverse bias characteristic curve

Reverse bias voltage VR Reverse bias current IR
S.No.
(volt) (µA)
1 0.1 1

2 0.15 1

3 0.2 1

4 0.3 1

5 0.4 1

6 0.5 1

7 0.6 1

8 0.7 1

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RESULT
The V-I characteristics of the PN junction diode are studied.
i) Knee voltage of the PN junction diode = 0.5 V
ii) Forward resistance of the diode = 12.5 Ω

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7.
et
VOLTAGE-CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS OF A ZENER DIODE
AIM To draw the voltage-current (V-I) characteristic curves of a
Zener diode and to determine its knee voltage, forward resistance
and reverse breakdown voltage.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
Zener diode 1Z5.6V, variable dc power supply (0 – 15V),milli
ammeter, volt meter, 470 Ω resistance, and connecting wires.

FORMULA RF ∆VF
(Ω)
= ∆IF
where, RF → Forward resistance of the diode (Ω)
∆VF → The change in forward voltage (volt)

∆ IF → The change in forward current (mA)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM (L\S)

Zener diode and its symbol

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mA – mA –
+ +
+ + + – +
V) 1 +
– – – (0 ) 1
– + –

PROCEDURE
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i) Forward bias characteristics

et
• In the forward bias, the P- region of the diode is connected to the positive terminal
and N-region to the negative terminal of the DC power supply.
• The connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
• The voltage across the diode can be varied with the help of the variable DC power
supply.
• The forward voltage (VF) across the diode is increased from 0.1V in steps of 0.1V up
to 0.8V and the forward current (IF) through the diode is noted from the milli-
ammeter. The readings are tabulated.
• The forward voltage and the forward current are taken as positive.
• A graph is drawn taking the forward voltage along the x-axis and the forward
current along the y-axis.
• The voltage corresponding to the dotted line in the forward characteristics gives the
knee voltage or threshold voltage or turn-on voltage of the diode.
• The slope in the linear portion of the forward characteristics is calculated. The
reciprocal of the slope gives the forward resistance of the diode.
ii) Reverse bias characteristics
• In the reverse bias, the polarity of the DC power supply is reversed so that the P-
region of the diode is connected to the negative terminal and N-region to the
positive terminal of the DC power supply
• The connections are made as given in the circuit diagram.
• The voltage across the diode can be varied with the help of the variable DC power
supply.
• The reverse voltage (VR) across the diode is increased from 0.5V in steps of 0.5V
up to 6V and the reverse current (IR) through the diode is noted from the milli-
ammeter. The readings are tabulated.
• Initially, the voltage is increased in steps of 0.5V. When the breakdown region is
approximately reached, then the input voltage may be raised in steps of, say 0.1V
to find the breakdown voltage.
• The reverse voltage and reverse current are taken as negative.
• A graph is drawn taking the reverse bias voltage along negative x-axis and the
reverse bias current along negative y-axis.

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• In the reverse bias, Zener breakdown occurs at a particular voltage called Zener voltage VZ
(~5.6 to 5.8V) and a large amount of current flows through the diode which is the
characteristics of a Zener diode.
• The breakdown voltage of the Zener diode is determined from the graph as shown.
MODEL GRAPH (L\S)
IZ

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-
∆IF

V
Slope =
∆VF

et
Z
- R ∆IF

∆ F
1
Forward resistance =
slope

-IR
OBSERVATION (L\S)
Table 1 Forward bias characteristic curve

Forward bias voltage VF

S.No Forward bias current IF
(volt)
(mA)
0
1 0.1

0
2 0.6

0.1
3 0.65

0.6
4 0.7

1.5
5 0.75

3.1
6 0.8

4.5
7 0.85

6.5
8 0.9

8.4
9 0.95

10.8
10 1

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Table 2 Reverse bias characteristic curve

Reverse bias voltage VR Reverse bias current IR
S.No. (volt) (mA)
1 4.5 0.1

2 4.75 0.1

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3 5 0.2

4 5.25 0.4

et
5 5.5 1.4

6 5.75 7.3

7 6.0 17

8 6.25 26

9 6.5 36.2

RESULT
The V-I characteristics of the Zener diode are studied.
(i) Forward resistance RF = 25 Ω
(ii) knee voltage = 0.65 V
(iii) The breakdown voltage of the Zener diode VZ = -5.6 V

8. CHARACTERISTICS OF A NPN-JUNCTION TRANSISTOR IN COMMON

EMITTER CONFIGURATION
AIM To study the characteristics and to determine the current gain of a
NPN junction transistor in common emitter configuration.

APPARATUS REQUIRED Transistor - BC 548/BC107, bread board, micro ammeter,milli

ammeter, voltmeters, variable DC power supply and connecting
wires.

FORMULA ∆VBE  ∆IC

ri =  (Ω), ro =  ∆VCE (Ω), β =  (No unit)
  
 
 ∆IB VCE  ∆IC  IB  ∆IB VCE

Where, ri → Input impedance (Ω)

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∆VBE → The change in base-emitter voltage (volt)

∆IB → The change in base current (µA)
ro → Output impedance (Ω)
∆VCE → The change in collector-emitter voltage (volt)
∆ IC → The change in collector current (mA)

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et

supply.
(i) Input characteristic curve: VBE vs IB (VCE constant)
• The collector-emitter voltage VCE is kept constant.
• The base-emitter voltage VBE is varied in steps of 0.1V and the corresponding base
current (IB) is noted.
• The readings are taken till VCE reaches a constant value.
• The same procedure is repeated for different values of VCE. The readings are tabulated.
• A graph is plotted by taking VBE along x-axis and IB along y-axis for both the values of
VCE.
• The curves thus obtained are called the input characteristics of a transistor.
• The reciprocal of the slope of these curves gives the input impedance of the transistor.
(ii) Output characteristic curve: VCE vs IC (IB constant)
• The base current IB is kept constant.
• V CE is varied in steps of 1V and the corresponding collector current IC is noted.
The readings are taken till the collector current becomes almost constant.

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• Initially IB is kept at 0 mA and the corresponding collector current is noted. This

current is the reverse saturation current ICEO.
• The experiment is repeated for various values of IB. The readings are tabulated.
• A graph is drawn by taking VCE along x-axis and IC along y-axis for various values of
IB .
• The set of curves thus obtained is called the output characteristics of a transistor.
• The reciprocal of the slope of the curve gives output impedance of the transistor.

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(iii) Transfer characteristic curve: IB vs IC (VCE constant)

• The collector-emitter voltage VCE is kept constant.

•

et
The base current IB is varied in steps of 10 µA and the corresponding collector current IC is noted.
• This is repeated by changing the value of VCE. The readings are tabulated.
• The transfer characteristics is a plot between the input current IB along x-axis and the output
current IC along y-axis keeping VCE constant.
• The slope of the transfer characteristics plot gives the current gain β can be calculated.
(i) Input characteristic curve: VBE vs IB (VCE constant) (L\S)

VCE = 1V VCE = 2V
S. No IB IB
VBE VBE
(V) (μA) (V) (μA)

1 0.1 0 0.1 0

2 0.2 0 0.2 0

3 0.3 0 0.3 0

4 0.4 0.1 0.4 0.1

5 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.8

6 0.6 4.1 0.6 4.1

7 0.7 23.8 0.7 25.4

8 0.8 81.5 0.8 84.3

9 0.9 159.5 0.9 174

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et
(ii) Output characteristic curve: VCE vs IC (IB constant) (L\S)

IB = 20 μA IB = 40 μA
S. IC
VCE VCE IC
No (mA)
(V) (V)
(mA)
1 0.1 1.4 0.1 3.1

2 0.2 2.8 0.2 7

3 0.3 3.0 0.3 7.7

4 0.4 3.0 0.4 7.8

5 0.5 3.0 0.5 7.9

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6 0.6 3.0 0.6 7.9

7 0.7 3.0 0.7 8

8 0.8 3.0 0.8 8

www.Padasalai. 9 0.9 3.0 0.9 8

et IC (

∆IC
Slope =
∆VCE
∆IC
1
Output impedance =
slope
I

V (V)
0 ∆V

∆IC 1mA
Slope = =
∆VCE 0.5V

0.5V
Output Impedance = = 0.5x103 = 500 Ω
1x10-3

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iii) Transfer characteristic curve: IB vs IC (VCE constant) (L\S)

VCE =1V VCE =2V

S.No IC IC
IB IB
(μA) (mA) (μA) (mA)
1 10 2.4 10 2.4

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et
3 30 7.2 30 7.2

4 40 9.6 40 9.6

5 50 12 50 12

6 60 14.4 60 14.4

7 70 16.8 70 16.8

IC ( )

∆ IC
Slope = I
∆
∆IBB
∆IC
∆IC
Current gain = slope

I ( )
0 ∆IB

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∆IC 6mA 6000

Current gain β = Slope = = = = 240
25x10-6 A 25
∆IB
RESULT

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i) The input, output and transfer characteristics of the NPN junction
in common emitter mode are drawn.
ii) (a) Input impedance = 5555 Ω

et
(b) Output impedance = 500 Ω
(c) Current gain β = 240 (no unit)

9. VERIFICATION OF TRUTH TABLES OF LOGIC GATES

USING INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
AIM To verify the truth tables of AND, OR, NOT, EX-OR, NAND and
NOR gates using integrated circuits

COMPONENTS REQUIRED AND gate (IC 7408), NOT gate (IC 7404), OR gate (IC
7432), NAND gate (IC 7400), NOR gate (IC 7402), E-
OR gate (IC 7486), Power supply, Digital IC trainer kit,
connecting wires.

BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS
(i) AND gate Y = A.B (iv) Ex OR gate Y = A̅ B + AB̅
(ii) OR gate Y = A+B (v) NAND gate Y = 𝐴. 𝐵
(iii) NOT gate Y = A̅ (vi) NOR gate Y=𝐴+𝐵

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DIAGRAM (L\S)
AND GATE : OR GATE :

1
A
B 3 3
V 2

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1
0

0
A

0
B

1
0

et
0 0
1 0 0 1 0 1

1 1 1 1 1 1

NOT GATE :
X-OR GATE
:

A
1 14

2 13

3 12

4 11

5 10

6 9

7 8

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NAND Gate: NOR Gate:

A A
1
1 14
B 14

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13
2 13

12
3 12
B

4 11
11
0
1
10 0

et
5 10
1
1 0
6 9 1
1
0
7 8

PROCEDURE
• To verify the truth table of a logic gate, the suitable IC is taken and the connections are given
using the circuit diagram.
• For all the ICs, 5V is applied to the pin 14 while the pin 7 is connected to the ground.
• The logical inputs of the truth table are applied and the corresponding output is noted.
• Similarly, the output is noted for all other combinations of inputs.
• In this way, the truth table of a logic gate is verified.
RESULT
The truth table of logic gates AND, OR, NOT, Ex-OR, NAND and NOR using integrated
circuits is verified.

10. VERIFICATION OF DE MORGAN’S THEOREMS

AIM: To verify De Morgan’s first and second theorems.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED: Power Supply (0 – 5V), IC 7400, 7408, 7432, 7404, and
7402, Digital IC trainer kit, connecting wires.

FORMULA De Morgan’s first theorem 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐴. 𝐵

De Morgan’s second theorem 𝐴. 𝐵 = 𝐴+𝐵

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: (L\S)

De Morgan’s first theorem

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et
De Morgan’s second theorem

PROCEDURE:

i) Verification of De Morgan’s first theorem

• The connections are made for LHS [ 𝐴 + 𝐵 ] of the theorem as shown in

the circuit diagram using appropriate ICs.

• The output is noted and tabulated for all combinations of logical inputs of the
truth table.

• The same procedure is repeated for RHS [ 𝐴. 𝐵 ] of the theorem.

• From the truth table, it can be shown that 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐴. 𝐵.

ii) Verification of De Morgan’s second theorem

• The connections are made for LHS [ 𝐴. 𝐵 ]of the theorem as shown in
the circuit diagram using appropriate ICs.

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• The output is noted and tabulated for all combinations of logical inputs
of the truth table.
• The same procedure is repeated for RHS [ 𝐴 + 𝐵 ] of the theorem.
• From the truth table, it can be shown that 𝐴. 𝐵 = 𝐴+𝐵

OBSERVATION (L\S)
De-Morgan’s first theorem
Truth Table
𝐴 +𝐵 𝐴 .𝐵
A B

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0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0

et
1 1 0 0
De-Morgan’s second theorem
Truth Table
𝐴. 𝐴+𝐵
A B
𝐵
0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
RESULT
De Morgan’s first and second theorems are verified.

GRAPH (B\S)
6. voltage-current (V-I) characteristics of PN junction diode.

∆VF 2mA
Slope = =
∆IF 0.025V
1 0.025
Forward resistance = = Ω
Slope 2x10-3
0.025x103
= Ω
2

25
= 2
= 12.5 Ω

Knee Voltage = 0.5 V

30
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7. characteristics of a NPN Junction transistor in common emitter

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et
8. The voltage-current characteristics of Zener diode.
i) Input characteristic curve: VBE vs IB (VCE constant)

∆IB
Slope =
∆VBE

9µA
= 0.05V

0.05
Input impedance = Ω
9 x10-6

0.05x106
= Ω
9

50000
= 9 Ω

= 5555.556 Ω

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ii) Output characteristic curve: VCE vs IC (IB constant)

∆IC
Slope =
∆VCE

mA
=
0.5V

Output Impedance = 0.5V-3

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1x10

= 0.5x103

et = 500 Ω

iii) Transfer characteristic curve: IB vs IC (VCE constant)

Current gain β = Slope

IC
=∆
∆IB
6 ‘
6mA-6
= 25x10 A

6000
= 25
= 240

“DON’T WATSE TIME,

IT WILL WASTE YOURS AIM”
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