19 Electrostatics Charge Charge is that property of an object by virtue of which it apply electrostatic force of interaction on other objects. Charges are of two types ( Positive charge (ii) Negative charge Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other. Conductors Conductors are those substances which can be used to carry or conduct electric charge from one point to other, e.g. silver, copper, aluminium etc. Insulators Insulators are those substances which cannot conduct electric charge, e.g. glass, rubber, plastic ete. Charging by Induction ‘The process of charging a neutral body by bringing a charged body nearby it without making contact between the two bodies is known as charging by induction. Basic Properties of Electric Charges Additivity of Charge Ifa system consists of n charges 41, qa, 4y «+n» then the total charge of the system will be q; + 92+ %y + Qytont Gye Quantisation of Charge Charge on any object can be an integer multiple of a smallest charge ().where, n = [7 the protons and neutrons are combination of other entities called quarks, which have charges =e. However, isolated quarks have not been observed, so, quantum Of charg Conservation of Charge Charge can neither be created nor be destroyed, but can be transferred from one object to another object. Coulomb’s Law of Electrostatics Coulomb’s law is a quantitative statement about the force between two point charges. It states that “the force of interaction between any two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them”. Suppose two point charges g, and q, are separated in vacuum by a distance r, then force between two charges is given by King: r ‘The constant K is usually put as K =——, where ¢q is called the ney permittivity of free space and has the value ¢y = 8.854 10°'C?/N-m?, = 9x 10°N-m?7/C?, For all practical purposes we will take Ane) If there is another medium between the point charges except air or vacuum, then £9 is replaced by eK or go, or Here K or ¢, is called dielectric constant or relative permittivity of the medium. K- where, ¢ = permittivity of the medium. For air or vacuum, K = For water, K For metals, KanCoulomb’s Law in Vector Form Let q; and g, both are positive. Force on q, due to qy, © dry 1 Arey MP 4néy [ry -4) ‘The above equations give the Coulomb's law in vector form. Also, force on q, due to gy is <.Force on q; due to gy =~ Force on qz due to q; or Fy=-Fy ‘The forces due to two point charges are parallel to the line joining the point charges; such forces are called central forces and so electrostatic forces are conservative forces. Forces between Multiple Charges : Superpo: ii According to the principle of superposition, “total force on a given charge due to number of charges is the vector sum of individual forces acting on that charge due to the presence of other charges”. Consider a system of n point charges g},49,d5 -----Gy distributed in space. Let the charges be qo,dy «dn» exert forces Fig, Fig y...-Fy On charge q;. The total force on charge q; is given by BBs. MEG, R= N42 UP) UrContiuous Charge Distribution ‘The region in which charges are closely spaced is said to have continuous distribution of charge. It is of three types; linear charge distribution, surface charge distribution and volume charge distribution, Linear Charge Density (2) It is defined as the charge per unit length of linear charge distribution. Its unit is coulomb/metre. 4-40 dL Surface Charge Density (o) It is defined as the charge per unit surface area of surface charge distribution. Its unit is coulomb/metre”. = 44 ds Volume Charge Density (p) It is defined as the charge per unit volume of volume charge distribution. Its unit is coulomb/metre*. oa av o Pp Electric Field ‘The space in the surrounding of any charge in which its influence can be experienced by other charges is called electric field. Electric Field Intensity (E) ‘The electrostatic force acting per unit positive charge at a point in electric field is called electric field intensity at that point. Electric field intensity E= lim © 9 Io where F= force experienced by the test charge qo. Its SI unit is NC or V/m and its dimensions are [MLT*A']. It is a vector quantity and its direction is in the direction of electrostatic force acting on positive charge. Electric Field due to a Point Charge Electric field intensity due to a point charge q at a distance r is given byElectric Field due to System of Charges Electric field E at point P due to the systems of charges is given by Hr)= : Ane, Electric Field Lines “An electric field line is an imaginary line or curve drawn through a region of space so that its tangent at any point is in the direction of the electric field vector at that point. ‘The relative closeness of the lines at some place give an idea about the intensity of electric field at that point.” Eo — Ep Q a |€a| > |€e! Properties of Electric Field Lines (i) Electric field lines (lines of force) start from positive charge and terminate on negative charge. (ii) Two electric lines of force never intersect each other. (iii) Electric field lines do not form any closed loops. (iv) In a charge-free region, electric field lines can be taken to be continuous curves without breaks. Elect Id Due to Continuous Charge Distribution (i) Electric field due to the line charge distribution at the location of charge qo is eee fale 4ney yr(ii) Electric field due to the surface charge distribution at the location of charge gy is 1 s Lj ase 8° Arey Iei2 ’ ii) Electric field due to the volume charge distribution at the location of charge qy is 1 jfave Ey VS dey? 7? Elect Id of a Ring of Charge Electric field at distance x from the centre of uniformly charged ring of total charge q on its axis is given by i ax (sa| (x? + R? Direction of this electric field is along the axis and away from the ring in case of positively charged ring and towards the ring in case of negatively charged ring. te a + a + + Special cases From the above expression, we can see that (i) E, =Oatx=Oi.e., field is zero at the centre of the ring. This would occur because charges on opposite sides of the ring would push in opposite directions on a test charge at the centre, and the forces would add to zero. Gi) B, =—L-. 4 for x » R, i.e., when the point P is much farther Ane, x” from the ring, its field is the same as that of a point charge. To an observer far from the ring, the ring would appear like a point, and the electric field reflects this.Gii) E, will be maximum where a =0. Differentiating E, w.r.t.x he and putting it equal to zero, we get ak and Ena, comes out to be, {1.1 V3\4ne, R® R Ae Electric Potential (V) Electric potential at any point is equal to the work done per unit positive charge in carrying it from infinity to that point in electric field. Blectrie potential, V =” q Its SI unit is J/C or volt and its dimensions are [ML?T-°A~ It is a scalar quantity. Electric Potential Difference The electric potential difference between two points A and Bis equal to the work done by the external force in moving a unit positive charge against the electrostatic force from point Bto Aalong any path between these two points. y oy eq ea If V4 and Vz be the electric potential at point A and B respectively, then AV =V, -Vp orThe SI unit of potential difference is volt (V). The dimensional formula for electric potential difference is given by (MT a}. Electric Potential due to a Point Charge Electric potential due to a point charge at a distance r is given by v-14 4negr Potential due to System of Charges Let there be n number of point charges +4259 4 +01 dn At distances 7,7, respectively from the point P, where electric potential is given by fyessee Tin v-1 yu Amey (7; ‘The rate of change of potential with distance in electric field is called potential gradient. Potential gradient & Its unit is V/m. 7 Relation between potential gradient and electric field intensity is given by z--(#) dr Equipotential Surface Equipotential surface is an imaginary surface joining the points of same potential in an electric field. So, we can say that the potential difference between any two points on an equipotential surface is zero. ‘The electric lines of force at each point of an equipotential surface are normal to the surface. cayProperties of equipotential surfaces are as follows (@) Equipotential surface may be planer, solid etc. But equipotential surface can never be point sizs (ii) Electric field is always perpendicular to equipotential surface. ii) Equipotential surface due to an isolated point charge is spherical. (iv) Equipotential surface are planer in an uniform electric field. (v) Equipotential suface due to a line charge is cylindrical. Motion of Charged Particle in Electric Field Consider a charged particle having charge q and mass m is initially at rest in an electric field of strength E. The particle will experience an electric force which causes its motion. ‘The force experienced by the charged particle is F, where F=qE 2. Acceleration produced by this force is F qk a=—=0 +) mm Suppose at point A particle is at rest and after some time, t it reaches the point Band attains velocity v. v=at If potential difference between A and B be AV and the distance between them is d, then Et V git _ |2aa Gi) p=m ( a) [from Eq. (ii)] mKin Energy of a Charged Particle Kinetic energy gained by the particle in time ¢ is 2 (=) [from Eq. Gi] Electric Flux (-) Electric flux over an area is equal to the total number of electric field lines crossing this area. Blectric flux through a small area element dS is given by ; = E «dS where, E= electric field intensity and dS = area vector. Tts SI unit is N-m?C1. Gauss’ Theorem 7 7 ‘The electric flux over any closed surface is — times the total charge & enclosed by that surface, ie. 6; =f B- dS=+ xq 7 Eo If a charge q is placed at the centre of a cube, then total electric flux linked with the whole cube = £0 q Eo, and electric flux linked with one face of the cube = Applications of Gauss’ Theorem (@ Electric Field Intensity due to an Infinite Line Charge 1h afi Bry 7 flee where, i is linear charge density andr is distance *.|/7 from the line charge. elle (ii) Electric Field Near an Infinite Plane Sheet - of Charge 2where, o = surface charge density. If there are two uniformly charged parallel sheets with surface charge densities o and -c, then E = £0 Gaussian surface So (iii) Electric Field and potential at Any Point on the Axis of a Uniformly Charged Ring A ring-shaped conductor with radius a carries a total charge @ uniformly distributed around it. Let us calculate the electric field at a point P that lies on the axis of the ring at a distance x from its centre. oe 7 © 4g (x? + a)? ‘The maximum value of electric field, E = ( Arey ae] 1 Q y-1._@ _ ®) Amey (x? + a)? (iv) Electric Field and Potential due to a Charged Spherical Shell At an extreme point (r > R) (a) Electric field intensity, E-L4 Arey r?(b) Electric potential, V=—1_ 2 Amey? At the surface of a shell (r = R) (a) Electric field intensity, E = i % (b) Electric potential, V = 1 £ 4nty R At an internal point (r < R) (a) Electric field intensity, E =0 (b) Electric potential, V = 1% Any R Therefore, potential inside a charged conducting spherical shell is equal to the potential at its surface. (v) Electric Field and Potential due to a Charged Non-Conducting Sphere ‘At an extreme point, (7 > R) (a) Blectric field intensity E=—1_ 4% Ane 7? : j le (b) Electric potential V =—*—4 Antg Pr On the surface, (* = R) (a) Electric field intensity E = ro & (b) Electric potential V =—1_ 4 dine, R Inside the sphere, (r < R) (a) Blectric field intensity E=—1_ 9° Ane, R® 1 g@R- (b) Electric potential V = aa oRAt the centre of the sphere, (r = 0) (a) Electric field intensity E=0 (b) Electric potential V =2x —1_ 4 2° dre R (vi) Potential due to a Spherical Shell % @)- (a) At point P, where OP =r vat Aner (b) At a point, where a , Ad , 24 Are | Tea Ta Ta 2 Tar TaElectric Dipole An electric dipole consists of two equal and opposite point charges separated by a very small distance. e.g. a molecule of HCl, a molecule of water ete. — a +9 Electric Dipole Moment, p= qx 2a Its SI unit is ‘coulomb-metre’ and its dimensions are [LTA] It is a vector quantity and its direction is from negative charge towards positive charge. Electric Field Intensity and Potential due to an Electric Dipole (@) On Axial Line Electric field intensity, E = Are 0 If r>>2a, then B=-—1_ 22 Any r? 1 Amey (r* — a") Electric potential, V = es Arey r* (i) On Equatorial Line Electric field intensity If r>>2a, then V = Ifr >> 2a, then Electric potential, V =0(ii) At any Point along a Line Making ¢ Angle with Dipole Axis 1 py +3cos" 0) Ane) r Electric field intensity E = Blectric potential V = 1 P08 0 __ ney (7? — a” cos” 0) 1 peosd Ifr>>2a, then V= 4ney or? Potential Energy of a Dipole in a Uniform Electric Field ‘The work done in rotating the dipole through small angle d0, then dW =:d0. IW =-pE sinodo Suppose initially dipole is kept in a uniform electric field at angle 0. Now, to turn it through an angle @, (with the field). Then, work done Te aw =f pE sin odo W =-pE [cos 6, - cos] If 0, = 0° and 0, =6, i.¢., Initially dipole is kept along the field then it turns through 0 so work done, W = pE(1 — cos 0) Potential energy of dipole is defined as work done in rotating a dipole from a direction perpendicular to the field to the given direction. If the dipole is rotated by an angle 0; given by 90° to 0, = 0, then energy is W =U = pE(cos 90° ~ cos) — pEcos0 -p-ETorque on Dipole in a Uniform External Field Torque acting on an electric dipole placed in uniform electric field is given by (q* 21)E sin 0 = Ep sin 0 =pxE When @=90% then ty, = Ep When electric dipole is parallel to electric field, it is in stable equilibrium and when it is anti-parallel to electric field, it is in unstable equilibrium. Work Done Work done is rotating an electric dipole in a uniform electric field from angle 0, to 0, is given by W = Ep (os 6, ~ cos 0) If initially it is in the direction of electric field, then work done in rotating through an angle 0 W = Ep(1~cos 0) or Potential Energy Potential energy of an electric dipole in a uniform electric field in rotating from an angle of @, to 0, is given byU =~ pE (cos ®, ~ cos 62). Dipole in Non-uniform Electric Field When an electric dipole is placed in a non-uniform electric field, then a resultant force as well as a torque act on it. Net force on electric dipole = (qE, - qE»), along the direction of greater electric field intensity. ‘Therefore, electric dipole undergoes rotational as well as linear motion.Behaviour of a Conductor in an Electrostatic Field (i) Electric field at any point inside the conductor is zero. (ii) Electric field at any point on the surface of charged conductor is directly proportional to the surface density of charge at that point, but electric potential does not depend upon the surface density of charge. (iii) Electric potential at any point inside the conductor is constant and equal to potential on its surface. Electrostatic Shielding ‘The process of protecting certain region from external electric field is called electrostatic shielding. Electrostatic shielding is achieved by enclosing that region in a closed hollow metallic chamber. Lightning Conductor When a charged cloud passes by a tall building, the charge on the cloud passes to the earth through the building. This causes huge damage to the building. Thus to protect the tall building from lightning, the lightning conductors, (which are pointed metal rods) are installed at the top of these buildings. They help in passing over the charge on the clouds to earth, thus protecting the building. Dielectric Dielectrics are insulating (non-conducting) materials that can produce electric effect without conduction. Dielectrics are of two types Non-polar Dielectric The non-polar dielectrics (like Ny, O,, benzene, methane etc.) are made up of non-polar atoms/molecules, in which the centre of positive charge coincides with the centre of negative charge of the atom/molecule. Polar Dielectric The polar dielectric (like HO, COs, NH, etc) are made up of polar atoms/molecules, in which the centre of positive charge does not coincide with the centre of negative charge of the atom.Dielectric Constant (K) ‘The ratio of the strength of the applied electric field to the strength of the reduced value of electric field on placing the dielectric between the plates of a capacitor is the dielectric constant. It is denoted by K (ore). K =o Polarisation (P) and Electric Susceptibility (y..) ‘The induced dipole moment developed per unit volume in a dielectric slab on placing it in an electric field is called polarisation. It is denoted by P. P=4,E where, y, is known as electric susceptibility of the dielectric medium. It is a dimensionless constant.It describes the electrical behaviour of a dielectric. It has different values for different dielectrics. For vacuum, x = 0. Relation between dielectric constant and electric susceptibility can be given as K-1+4 Capacitor A capacitor is a device which is used to store huge charge over it, without changing its dimensions. It is a pair of two conductors of any shape, close to each other and have equal and opposite charges. Capacitance of a conductor, C = 7 Its SI unit is coulomb/volt or farad. Its other units are 1pF=10°R 1uyF =1 pF =10" Its dimensional formula is [M"L? T*A?]. When an earthed conductor is placed near a charged conductor, then it decreases its potential and therefore more charge can be stored over it. Capacitance of an Isolated Spherical Conductor C=4neK R For air K =1 C=4negR = 9x1Capacity of a Spherical Conductor Enclosed by an Earthed Concentric Spherical Shell It consists of two concentric conducting spheres of radii a_and b(a< 8). Inner sphere is given charge q while outer sphere is earthed. Potential difference between the spheres is given by oi) [From Eq. @)] Parallel Plate Capacitor ‘The parallel plate capacitor consists of two metal plates parallel to each other and separated by a distance d. Capacitance C= Bate . As, F Gat ‘or air = When a dielectric slab is inserted between the plates partially, then its capacitanceIf a conducting (metal) slab is inserted between the plates, then Ato (d-t) When more than one dielectric slabs are placed fully between the plates, then tty tn Ks |e] Ko]! [a ‘The plates of a parallel plate capacitor attract each other with a force, r-& 2b, When a dielectric slab is placed between the plates of a capacitor than charge induced on its side due to polarization of dicleetrie is 1 y=q{1-+ g af x] Capacitors Combinations () In Series Resultant capacitance, a “4 + Co oe In series, charge is same on each capacitor, which is equal to the charge supplied by the source. Tf V,, Vp, Vj,... are potential differences across the plates of the capacitors then total voltage applied by the source VaV,{ +¥2+V5+(i) In Parallel Resultant capacitance C=Q+G4+Q+ In parallel, potential differences across the plates of each capacitor is same. If q1.42,45,-.. are charges on the plate of capacitors connected in parallel, then total charge given by the source T= +2 +95 + Potential Energy Stored in a Capacitor Electric potential energy of a charged conductor or a capacitor is given by a 21g u=1vq=hov 7 acc Energy density between the plates ‘The energy stored per unit volume of space in a capacitor is called energy density. Charge on either plate of capacitor is Q=0A=5 EA Energy stored in the capaitor is. Energy density , 1s Redistribution of Charge When two isolated charged conductors are connected to each other then charge is redistributed in the ratio of their capacitances. +q2 _GV,+OV, Common potential V = ae @Ga@ 16,0, (VY, -V2"° 2 (G+) This energy is lost in the form of heat in connecting wires. Energy loss =When n small drops, each of capacitance C, charged to potential V with charge q, surface charge density 6 and potential energy U coalesce to form a single drop. ‘Then for new drop, Total charge = ng ‘Total capacitance = nC Total potential =n? V Surface charge density =n" o Total potential energy =n™* U Van-de-Graff Generator It is a device used to build up very high potential difference of the order of few million volt. Vrarget Its working is based on two points (i) The action of sharp points (corona discharge) (ii) Total charge given to a spherical shell resides on its outer surface.