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Marijuana Boom
Marijuana Boom
THE RISE AND FALL OF COLOMBIA’S FIRST
DRUG PARADISE

Lina Britto

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS

University of California Press
Oakland, California

© 2020 by Lina Britto

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Britto, Lina, author.

Title: Marijuana boom : the rise and fall of Colombia’s first
drug paradise / Lina Britto.
Description: Oakland, California : University of California
Press, [2020] | Includes bibliographical references and
index. Manufactured in the United States of America
Identifiers: LCCN 2019030166 (print) | LCCN 2019030167
(ebook) | ISBN 9780520325456 (cloth) | ISBN
9780520325470 (paperback) | ISBN 9780520974265
(ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Drug traffic—Colombia—History. | Drug
control—Colombia—History.
Classification: LCC HV5840.C7 B75 2020 (print) | LCC HV5840.C7
(ebook) | DDC 364.1/336509861—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019030166
LC ebook record available at
https://lccn.loc.gov/2019030167

27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

“Hurricane Winds: Vallenato Music and Marijuana Traffic in

Colombia’s First Illegal Drugs Boom” is abridged here from the
original, published in Hispanic American Historical Review 95, no. 1
(2015): 71–102. Copyright 2015, Duke University Press. All rights
reserved. Republished by permission of the copyright holder, Duke
University Press. www.dukeupress.edu.
Para mi abuela Nina
CONTENTS

List of Illustrations
Acknowledgments

Introduction: A Forgotten History

PA RT O N E AS C E N D A N C E

1• Wheels of Progress: Tropical Commodities and Regional

Formation
2• Coming from the Mountain: Coffee Contraband and Marijuana
Smuggling

PA RT T W O P E A K

3• Santa Marta Gold: Technological Adaptations and Boom

4• Party Animals: Vallenato Music and Cultural Negotiation
PA RT T H R E E D E C L I N E

5• Two Peninsulas: Narcotics Diplomacy and the War on Drugs

6• Reign of Terror: Criminalization and Violence
Conclusions: A Remembered History

Appendix. Comment on Oral Sources

Notes
Bibliography
Index
ILLUSTRATIONS

MAPS

1. Colombia today
2. The Greater Magdalena
3. Tropical Commodities
4. The Marijuana Belt

FIGURES

1. Riohacha’s old pier and divi-divi storage facility, circa 1950

2. Seasonal workers during cotton harvest, 1970
3. Liberal politicians Pedro Castro Monsalvo and Carlos Lleras
Restrepo, 1967
4. Supporter of Nacho Vives at a protest in Plaza de Bolívar,
Bogotá, December 1969
5. Cachaco coffee grower during harvest, Sierra Nevada de Santa
Marta, 1967
6. Entrance to San Juan del Cesar’s cemetery, 2018
7. Río Ancho, one of the entry points to Pénjamo, Sierra Nevada
de Santa Marta, 1965
8. Peace Corps volunteers at a meeting in Mingueo, Sierra
Nevada de Santa Marta, 1965
9. A family of marijuana farmers and their crop, Sierra Nevada de
Santa Marta, 1979
10. Governor Alfonso López Michelsen at a parranda during the
first Vallenato Legend Festival, Valledupar, 1968
11. Uncle Arique visits what was Chijo’s mansion in San Juan del
Cesar, 2018
12. Diomedes Díaz and accordionist Juancho Rois perform at
Barranquilla’s Carnival, circa 1994
13. Police detective with more than 30 kilos of confiscated
marijuana, 1972
14. General José Joaquín Matallana at a press conference, 1974
15. US congressional commission visits President Alfonso López
Michelsen, 1977
16. Ernesto Samper Pizano delivers a keynote speech at a
conference on marijuana legalization, 1979
17. US pilots arrested for marijuana trafficking walking to jail,
1979
18. Colombian military troops search civilians at a checkpoint,
1979
19. Wreck of a Douglas DC-3 on an improvised airstrip in the
Guajira desert plains, 1979
20. Colombian military troops burn tons of confiscated marijuana,
1978
21. A confiscated Douglas DC-6 adorns a playground at a park in
Valledupar, 2018
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This book has been a labor of love about the region where I found
my roots. I am grateful to all of my relatives and family friends who
talked to me about the past and helped me to construct my own
research landscape. I am especially in debt to my late grandmother
Celinda Molina de Britto, known in town as Nina. Her love and
intelligence were the forces that attracted me to the Guajira and
sparked my curiosity about its history. Thanks to my aunts Marujita,
Estela, and Juana Britto in San Juan del Cesar, and Elizabeth
Machuca in Bogotá, for their wisdom, care, and affection. Along with
my father, my aunts and uncles—Rodrigo, Arique, Rubén, and Jaime
—taught me how to approach regional culture with passion and
respect. Special thanks to Rubén, who assisted me in Riohacha
during the first stages of my research, and recently organized events
in San Juan and Riohacha for me to share my work with general
audiences; to Rafael Enrique, a renowned storyteller and civic leader
better known as Arique, who shared his knowledge and memories
and drove me around in his jalopy, introducing me to people who
provided me with valuable information and insights; and to my
father, Luis Carlos, simply Luchy, who passed along his love for
reading and writing and gave me a lifelong class on vallenato music
—many times against my will. Forrest Hylton was my family during
the years of research and dissertation writing and the person who
prompted me to dare. Our love inspired me to undertake this
project, and his generosity helped me to conduct preliminary
research and sharpen the arguments of the PhD dissertation that
serves as the foundation for this book. His son, Steele Miller, and
mother, Peggy Celano, filled my days with joy. I cannot thank all of
them enough for so many trips, laughs, and hugs.
At Universidad de la Cordillera, in La Paz, Bolivia, where I began
this project as an MA thesis in anthropology, I am grateful to my
classmates and professors, particularly Ramiro Molina Barrios,
Rossana Barragán Romano, and Silvia Rivera Cusicanqui for
introducing me to the depths of history. At New York University
(NYU), where I became a historian, I am in debt to all my peers and
mentors. Special recognition to Sinclair Thomson, my adviser during
the first years in the program, and a generous friend and valuable
interlocutor until today. I have benefited greatly from my adviser
Barbara Weinstein, whose knowledge, enthusiasm, and optimism
helped me navigate the rough waters of the profession; and from
the marvelous Marilyn Young, giant historian and fairy godmother,
who provided a model of how to be humane, brilliant, and fun. At
Harvard University, where I began to transform the dissertation into
this book, I received solid and steady support from Jorge Domínguez
and the staff, mentors, and colleagues of the Harvard Academy for
International and Area Studies. Thanks to all of them and especially
to my dear friends Cristina Florea, Malgorzata Kurjanska, and Noora
Lori, who along with Jen Fucelli helped sustain me through tectonic
changes. At Northwestern University, where I became an educator,
thanks to all my students for pushing me out of my comfort zone,
especially to the graduate students who worked as TAs for some of
the courses I taught while finishing the manuscript, Jayson Maurice
Porter, Elsa de la Rosa, and Sarah-Louise Dawtry; and to the
graduate students who took my seminar on modern Latin America
during spring 2019 and whose brilliant discussions helped me rethink
many of the central debates that I address in this book. My
colleagues in the Department of History have taught me how to be a
team player, while the staff have made possible every little (and big)
thing. My greatest debts are to Helen Tilley and Mike Sherry, wise
mentors and friends; Sarah Maza and Ed Muir, who read portions of
this book and gave me relevant ideas for revision; Ken Alder and
Laura Hein, lifesavers who provided me with unwavering support as
chairs; the graduate students and faculty who attended the Chabraja
Center’s work-in-progress workshop in which I presented; and the
staff and members of the Latin American and Caribbean Studies
program, who bring the sunny disposition of the tropics to the Windy
City.
The assistance of archivists and librarians was also indispensable.
I thank the personnel of the Gilberto Alzate Avendaño Library in
Political History, the library of the Universidad Nacional, the
Biblioteca Nacional’s Hemeroteca, the Luis Angel Arango Library, and
the Archivo General de la Nación, all located in Bogotá; the libraries
of the Universidad del Magdalena and Fundación ProSierra Nevada in
Santa Marta; the Centro Cultural and Fondo Mixto para la Promoción
de la Cultura y las Artes in Riohacha; and the Biblioteca
Departamental del Cesar, Archivo Histórico del Cesar, and Fundación
de la Leyenda Vallenata in Valledupar. The help of Jhon Jairo Ortiz
and Ofelia Muñoz in the photographic archive of El Espectador in
Bogotá was essential. Special thanks to William Renán, Alvaro
Mercado, and Antonio Navarro at the Universidad del Magdalena in
Santa Marta; Roberto Villanueva at the Defensoría del Pueblo in
Maicao; Juan Carlos Gamboa at the Universidad Popular del Cesar;
and Nelson Ramírez at the Biblioteca Departamental del Cesar in
Valledupar. In the United States, I am grateful to the personnel at
the National Archives in College Park, Maryland; the Fales Library
and Tamiment Library at the Elmer Holmes Bobst Library at NYU; the
Widener Library, Houghton Library, and Law School Library at
Harvard University; Albert Nason and his team at the Jimmy Carter
Presidential Library in Atlanta; Michael Evans and his collaborators at
the National Security Archive in Washington, D.C.; Leigh Grissom
and assistant registrars at the Center for Creative Photography at the
University of Arizona in Tucson; and to Paula Covington and the staff
of the Special Collection of Vanderbilt University’s library in Nashville.
The financial support of the institutions that granted me
fellowships for travel, research, publication, and living expenses was
crucial. These include the Tinker Foundation; the Center for Latin
American and Caribbean Studies and the Graduate School of Arts
and Science at NYU; the Social Science Research Council, the
Universidad de los Andes, the Open Society Foundation, and the
Other documents randomly have
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